We are IntechOpen,

the world’s leading publisher of

Open Access books
Built by scientists, for scientists

4,500
Open access books available
118,000
International authors and editors
130M Downloads

Our authors are among the

154
Countries delivered to
TOP 1%
most cited scientists
12.2%
Contributors from top 500 universities

Selection of our books indexed in the Book Citation Index

in Web of Science™ Core Collection (BKCI)

Interested in publishing with us?

Contact book.department@intechopen.com
Numbers displayed above are based on latest data collected.
For more information visit www.intechopen.com
Chapter

Child Trafficking: The

Construction of a Social Problem
Paula Cristina Martins

Abstract

Child trafficking is a public health problem and a serious violation of human

rights. However, it is not a product of modern times; rather, it is a phenomenon
observed across history. Nevertheless, it is not viewed as a social problem because it
only affects a limited number of individuals, and these individuals are children. In
fact, the social status of children and the importance attached to their difficulties,
the social exclusion of problem children (the children of others), and the double
negativity attributed to child victims might explain why this crime is not generally
recognized as a problem that must be addressed. As a topic of high consensus and low
intensity, its increasing presence in the political discourse and in child protection
practices is not accompanied by the active involvement of the general population
in its prevention or combat. In this chapter, we discuss the ambivalent presence of
child trafficking in Portugal and within Europe, considering the official data on the
phenomenon with regard to the aspects of crime and victimization.

Keywords: child trafficking, social problem, victims, child protection,

trafficking in human beings

1. Is child trafficking perceived as a social problem in Portugal?

We live in a time in which claims proliferate about a multitude of issues regard-

ing social reality and people’s lives. Because some of these issues are understood
as adversely affecting a significant part of the population, they create a collective
discourse and demands for action. When important societal groups (e.g. politicians,
social change groups, the news media and numerous citizens) recognize these
claims as legitimate and valid, they become social problems. As such, from a social
constructionist perspective, the emergence and recognition of social problems are
based on both the empirical evidence of their existence and impact as well as on the
perceptions of their implications and need to be solved [1].
As Best [2] mentioned, social progress paradoxically creates social problems for
different reasons. On the one hand, it generates a general expectation of perfectibil-
ity, which fosters a growing intolerance towards social difficulties and shortcomings.
On the other hand, as the biggest challenges of humanity are within our reach (e.g.
increased life expectancy, control of diseases), those that once were considered small
now seem bigger and more serious (e.g. quality of life, lifelong learning). Moreover,
the growing exigence of societies, together with the multiplication of relationships
and communication networks, lowers the tolerance threshold of the population.
Finally, because social progress improves life expectancy and standards of living, it
fosters fears of loss as well as inflates perceived risks and defensive postures [2].

1
Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking

At given times and in relation to certain phenomena, a discrepancy exists not

only between social perceptions and the available data on the issues but also among
the perceptions of different social groups. For instance, policymakers might be
attentive to a certain subject based on their knowledge, and this view might not be
shared or valued in the same way by society as a whole. We believe that child traf-
ficking meets this standard worldwide and, specifically, in Portugal.
Regarding Portugal, the following reasons (some general, others country-
specific) are put forward to contend that child trafficking is not perceived as a
social problem as previously defined: (i) it is relatively unknown among most of
the population, (ii) it involves children as victims, (iii) it involves children who are
often from disadvantaged backgrounds and/or foreign origins, (iv) it is a police
matter and (v) it involves a small group of the population.
Let us discuss each aspect briefly.

2. A strange social phenomenon: the role of media and research

Research on the public awareness of trafficking in human beings (THB) is

scarce. However, as Sharapov [3] asserts, it is a distant subject for most of the
population. Various European countries (e.g. Scotland, Belgium, Czech Republic,
Finland and Romania) generally view it as having little relevance to their daily
lives. This sense of detachment is not so much due to the lack of information on the
subject, as to how this information is framed (i.e. primarily as a legal and criminal
issue on the margins of normal everyday life) [4]. Portuguese reports on people’s
awareness of human trafficking are in line with this general tendency. In a study
conducted by Sani, Nunes and Caridade [5], the authors used a convenience sample
to find that most respondents showed a poor understanding of THB and recognized
the lack of information concerning this phenomenon in Portugal. Most participants
viewed THB as the exploitation of immigrants and socially disadvantaged people in
search of work. More than half (58.5%) had not heard any information about it over
the last 2 years. Among those who had heard information, social media stood out as
the privileged method of communication regarding this phenomenon.
Although the relationships among public opinion, the media and public poli-
cies are complex and controversial, the available evidence shows that political and
media discourses on human trafficking significantly influence public opinion, and
(conversely) public opinion affects media and policymaking [3, 4].
With regard to Portugal, the role the media plays in framing the public discourse
on human trafficking has received specific attention. Research examining the
written press between 2001 and 2004 [6] substantiated the media representation
of human trafficking as infrequent, superficial and stereotyped. News on this
topic was poor, barely visible and associated with criminal activity and deviant
people from other countries and minorities. In a second study focusing on the news
published in a tabloid newspaper in 2008, despite the increased visibility of the phe-
nomenon, Couto, Machado, Martins, and Gonçalves [7] identified similar trends
in the coverage: it was framed as a criminal problem, essentially involving deviant
groups, and is generally related to illegal immigration. This representation facili-
tates the adoption of a passive and moralizing attitude of devaluation regarding the
phenomena and depreciates the people involved. As has been indicated with regard
to child trafficking in other European countries [8], a cross-border problem that
affects almost only asylum seekers and immigrants or particular cases is unlikely to
affect the general community. This assumption leads to the underestimation of the
risks of child trafficking and to the weakening of the social relevance of prevention
and protection strategies.

2
Child Trafficking: The Construction of a Social Problem
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90118

Research on human trafficking and, in particular, child trafficking, is criti-

cal. Producing and disseminating knowledge helps sensitize people in general.
Moreover, it substantiates more effective processes of identification, prevention,
and protection, as well as helps support victims and prosecute criminals [9].
As Clemente [10] stated, the Portuguese investigation concerning human traf-
ficking has developed more slowly and inconsistently than that in other countries
(the first publications date back to 2000) [11]. Driven by the increasing attention of
the national authorities to the phenomenon, within the framework of international
agreements, the academic research made its greatest development beginning in
2007 onwards. As in other European countries, where the empirical literature on
child trafficking is scarce [12], the scientific approach to this problem in Portugal
since the beginning consisted primarily of secondary research articles on the
sexual exploitation of women based on official statistics. For various reasons, this
research appears to report only one-third of the referrals per year [11]. Reports on
the prevalence of the phenomenon to monitor and evaluate prevention, protec-
tion and rehabilitation programmes have been more systematic and frequent than
that regarding trafficked victims, the circumstances of their victimization or the
trafficking process, its rationale, dynamics and other people involved. Nevertheless,
the study of the social representations of human trafficking, in particular those of
specific groups including practitioners, has been a significant part of the investiga-
tion undertaken in Portugal in this field, yet with sampling limitations. In these
types of scholarly papers, child trafficking is often referred to in connection with
the characterization of the age of the victims. However, research specifically focus-
ing on child trafficking is scarcer. In this regard, the RCAAP1 portal is a privileged
source of access to Portuguese academic production. From 2006 to 2016, 12 papers
on human trafficking were registered from Portuguese repositories [13]. However,
only eight titles include the keywords “child trafficking” as of 2019: a working paper
and seven master’s theses.
In short, the still incipient scientific production and media coverage focusing on
criminal cases reinforce the lack of information associated with public opinion and,
to that extent, create a distance with regard to this phenomenon.

3. The status of victims: children

As has been elaborated elsewhere [14], a widespread social consensus exists

regarding child welfare matters. Although these matters are frequently used by poli-
ticians and the media as rhetorical devices and emotional assets [15], this discursive
intensity is not always consistently translated into policies or practices. On the
other hand, this unanimity, even if it arouses ethical shock and emotional indigna-
tion, does not induce social pressure or collectively persistent action in relation to
children’s issues.
If children whose parents fail to protect their best interest are socially vulner-
able, relatively invisible and voiceless, child victims are viewed even as more
helpless. This issue is especially relevant because, as Gearon [16] argued, child traf-
ficking narratives are pervaded by the notion of victimhood, conveying representa-
tions of helplessness, vulnerability and lack of agency. This convergent negativity
(those of children and victims) [14] easily evokes empathic social responses but
does not necessarily make the victim a priority.

1
RCAAP is a Portuguese digital platform that aggregates the open access scientific production registered
in the national institutional repositories and, since 2010, also the scientific production of Brazil available
from the Brazilian Institute of Information Science and Technology (IBICT).

3
Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking

Furthermore, the formal requirements for eligibility to the protection system,

which are understood in light of the social representations of victimhood, create a
paradox. On the one hand, the confirmation of the status of a victim is a manda-
tory requirement for accessing assistance. On the other hand, when victims do not
comply with the social expectations of powerlessness and passivity, the question of
their responsibility often arises regarding the situation in which they find them-
selves. Although they are children, if their participation in trafficking is understood
as active and voluntary, then their status as child victims gives way to that of the
criminal children: those who should be blamed, convicted and punished, rather
than protected [16]. Although the victim is viewed as an object of behaviors and
situations beyond their control or ability to self-determine, the circumstances of
children allegedly involved in criminal activities are dimmed, and their behaviors
and condition tend to be abstracted and decontextualized [14]. In short, whether
they match the stereotype of a victim or not, children who are victims of trafficking
have no voice or do not deserve to be heard. Either case applies to what Clemente
[10] called “the deafening silence of trafficked people” (p. 663).

4. The status of victims: poor, deviant and from abroad

Public opinion is an indication of societal attitudes towards certain phenom-

ena. With regard to human trafficking, if public opinion expresses the culture
of society, then it might reflect the social discrimination of women and children
as well as a social tolerance towards violence and exploitation [8], which would
enable an understanding of the symbolic construction of this phenomenon. On the
other hand, because public opinion influences policymaking, if well-formed and
informed, it can also help reduce the structural factors that underlie trafficking [3].
Victims of child trafficking and exploitation often come from abroad and the
margins of society. According to the final report of the study of groups at high risk
for human trafficking in the European Union [8], the risk of child trafficking is
significantly higher for children with disabilities or who engage in risky behaviors,
from dysfunctional, disadvantaged and/or social excluded families, communities
or neighborhoods in areas of conflict or crisis. Generally, they might be viewed as
problem children. This label reinforces their inherent negativity [14], social invisibil-
ity and exclusion [17]; they are the children of others. As such, instead of a positive
approach to the phenomenon based on a human rights perspective, they might
evoke attitudes of socially organized denial [18], rejection, disinterest or criticism.

5. Framing the phenomenon: a justice system problem

Thus, the genesis of trafficking is essentially sociopolitical, culminating in a

legal phenomenon. Experts [16] have criticized the criminal perspective that has
dominated child trafficking “as immigration-led and prosecution-focused” (p. 497)
and as a threat to human and state security [19]. This simplistic view overshadows
the broader dimension of the phenomenon, which as Gearon [16] asserted is not
limited to international movements (legal or illegal) or migrant children. In fact, as
Palmer [20] claimed, child trafficking is a complex, multidimensional and dynamic
process; it is a shape-shifting phenomenon characterized by different patterns
across countries. It involves national citizens, migrants (i.e. other EU citizens),
immigrants from third world countries, children with their families and unaccom-
panied asylum-seeking children. It might begin long before it is detected, with or
without family involvement, for a variety of purposes, and as part of more or less

4
Child Trafficking: The Construction of a Social Problem
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90118

sophisticated networks. However, according to Crawley’s research in the UK [21],

even the intervention of health and welfare professionals is permeated by the logic
of immigration control [22], where the concern with the protection of the terri-
tory overrides that of children. In the same vein, Clemente [10] characterized the
Portuguese support system for victims of trafficking as victim-oriented in theory
but as focused on internal security objectives in practice. This feature corresponds
to the current trend of protection systems, which are increasingly focused on
control rather than care [23].
This partial viewpoint hinders interventions focused on the rights and needs of
children and their protection [16]. As experts have argued, the majority of children
who eventually become victims of exploitation and/or trafficking have previously
been deprived of their rights [24]. In this sense, they contend that the criminal
matrix of the definition of child trafficking frequently overshadows its true nature
and origin: child trafficking is primarily a matter of rights and protection, and,
as such, it reveals the shortcomings of protection and welfare systems [24, 25].
Therefore, the priority or almost exclusive emphasis on legal and procedural aspects
and the subsequent production of penal legislation, national action plans and sup-
port measures for victims at the expense of action towards the structural conditions
that underlie trafficking are criticized. Enforcing the United Nations Convention
on the Rights of the Child is the most effective way to prevent the exploitation and
trafficking of children and youth as well as safeguard their rights and respond to
their needs.

6. The extent of the problem: statistics and relevance

Data available on human trafficking and, specifically, child trafficking provide

only an approximation of the reality. In addition to being a hidden phenomenon
[19], illegal and clandestine [26], concepts of trafficking differ across countries
as various reports have highlighted. Because trafficking is usually closely con-
nected to crimes such as illegal immigration, aid to illegal immigration, forgery
and criminal association, the distinction among these phenomena is not clear [24].
Consequently, defining these terms involves a wide range of legislation [27] and a
variety of mechanisms to identify phenomena. Furthermore, even at the national
level, experts have identified many discrepancies in the data reported across
different sources, as in the case of Portugal [11]. These findings support the idea
of numerous unreported cases (the dark figures of trafficking). Therefore the low
numbers of child trafficking represent the tip of the iceberg [19, 28].
Additionally, the eligibility criteria for acquiring the status of trafficking
victim and receiving assistance significantly modify the available data on this
phenomenon.
Especially with regard to child trafficking, the criterion used to set the age
of the victim, whether at the time of referral or at the beginning of trafficking,
remains a sensitive issue. Neves and Pedra [11] drew attention to the fact that many
victims have been subjected to exploitation for several years, even though their
identification in the system occurred during adulthood. This consideration provides
a different basis for calculating the number of child trafficking victims as well as
targets and adjusts the interventions made available to people in these conditions
within the legal and protection systems. In fact, according to Catch and Sustain
[29], trafficked children (especially those with a long history of being exploited)
tend to be treated by the legal and the protection systems according to their immi-
gration status or the crimes in which they might have been involved, rather than the
crimes that they have suffered along the way. This procedure is contrary to Directive

5
Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking

2011/36/EU, which recommends the development of comprehensive child-sensitive

protection systems and the mobilization of recovery processes as soon as children
are identified as victims of trafficking.
Another eligibility criterion concerns the distinction between the child traf-
ficking statistics and the risk of child trafficking (i.e. trafficked children and those
vulnerable to exploitation and trafficking). In line with this view, researchers have
claimed that the groups of children targeted to prevent and combat trafficking
(currently unaccompanied asylum-seeking children, child victims of trafficking
and child victims of sexual exploitation) should be revised to include accompanied
child migrants, undocumented children and homeless children [24]. According to
scholars and practitioners, within the logic of prevention and effective interven-
tions, authorities should expand their focus to include children at risk of being
trafficked, favoring more comprehensive interventions in addition to focused
responses. This option would imply overcoming a segmented view of the interven-
tion, based on children’s status, to adopt an ecological, systemic, multidimensional
and dynamic perspective of children’s vulnerability [24].
For the reasons outlined above and given the absence of reliable and disaggre-
gated data [29], comparisons of national data are far from linear [24].
Nevertheless, despite the scarcity of consistent data, according to the United
Nations Office on Drugs and Crime [30], human trafficking could likely reach up
to 4 million victims. Most are female (72%) and trafficked for sexual exploita-
tion, although significant regional variations are observed [30]. The Organization
for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) estimates that children account
for over 30% of the world’s human trafficking [31]. According to the 2018 Global
Report on Trafficking in Persons, in 2016, 23% of these children were girls, which
is more than double than that identified in 2004 [32]. As the International Labour
Organization (ILO) specified, 26% of the 20.9 million people who were victims of
forced labour between 2002 and 2011 were children [33].
As noted in the report of Catch and Sustain [29], child trafficking occurs in all
European countries, without a clear division among countries of origin, destination
or transit. In the European Union (EU) in 2015–2016, approximately 56% of the vic-
tims identified were from non-EU countries. The majority were female (68%), and
the dominant forms of exploitation were for sexual and labour purposes (56 and
26%, respectively); relevant geographical variations were also observed. Children
accounted for 23% of the victims detected and for 23% of all victims of trafficking
for sexual exploitation [34]. However, considering the cases reported to/by NGOs
and official agencies, experts in this field estimate that the dark figures might be
five times higher than official statistics report [35].
The “official data on human trafficking (TSH) in Portugal indicate a residual
phenomenon, with approximately 80 cases reported each year on average, with
a total of 250 victims in 2009, 2010 and 2011. Of these cases, less than 25% were
confirmed (58)” ([11], p. 23). Regarding child trafficking, prior to 2010, national
data were subsumed under the general data of human trafficking. Nonetheless,
since national data on human trafficking began being collected, reports indicate
that few children were victims of this type of crime (e.g. in 2008, the minimum age
of the reported cases was 1 year old; in 2009, the minimum age was 12 years old). In
accordance with the Report of the Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking
in Human Beings [35], between 2008 and 2011, 17 children met this condition, the
majority of whom were female (median age = 14 years old). Sexual exploitation,
labour exploitation (n = 3) and attempted adoption (n = 3) were the identified
purposes of trafficking.
Table 1 details the number of child trafficking referrals considering the total
number of human trafficking referrals in Portugal from 2010 to 2017. Data,

6
Child Trafficking: The Construction of a Social Problem
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90118

Year 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

1 2 3 4
No. of child 7 10 39 49 27 18 26 455
trafficking
referrals

Total no. of 866 717 1258 308 197 1939 261 175
human trafficking
referrals
% of child 8.1% 14.1% 31.2% 15.9% 13.7% 9.3% 9.9% 25.7%
trafficking
referrals
1
Ref. [36] ( first report with disaggregated statistics for children).
2
Ref. [37].
3
Ref. [38].
4
Ref. [39].
5
Ref. [40].
6
Ref. [36].
7
Ref. [41].
8
Ref. [38].
9
Ref. [39].

Table 1.
Child trafficking referrals in Portugal (2010–2017).

compiled from different sources, represent cases reported before investigation and
substantiation. Absolute figures are relatively low, both in relation to human traf-
ficking in general and to child trafficking specifically; however, notable variations
have been found over time. The percentage of child trafficking referrals varied from
8.1% in 2010 to 31.2% in 2012.
According to Neves and Pedra [11], 82.4% of the trafficked children in Portugal
are 15 years or older. In addition, those who began to be trafficked in childhood
tend to be exploited for longer periods than those who start the process in adult-
hood. In fact, 44% of trafficked children have been exploited longer than 4 years.
According to these authors, if the criterion used to set the age of the victim is the
beginning of trafficking, then this number would be approximately 30% of all cases
of trafficking.

7. An outline of the problem

As Clemente [10] asserted, the introduction of the issue of human trafficking in

Portugal was prompted by the need to transpose the international directives issued
by the United Nations and the European Commission into national law. When
Portugal adopted the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized
Crime and the additional Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Human
Trafficking (especially with regard to women and children) in 2004, all legislative
changes that followed have given rise to the definition and development of specific
policies and procedures. National Plans against Human Trafficking have played
a decisive role in the adoption of an integrated intervention strategy, combining
interventions at different levels and multiple actors.
In 2007, the Portuguese authorities developed the first National Plan against
Human Trafficking (2007–2010) (I PNCTSH) [31], which had four strategic
domains: (1) to understand the phenomenon and disseminate information; (2) to
prevent, elucidate and train; (3) to protect, support and integrate; and (4) to con-
duct criminal investigation and prosecute traffickers [31]. With regard to children,
(i) they are recognized as being among the most vulnerable populations to human

7
Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking

trafficking (along with women), particularly those living in poverty; (ii) trafficking
is considered as a violation of their right to be free and protected; and (iii) victims
trafficked for reasons of sexual and/or labour exploitation require special assistance
and protection. Considering children’s and youths’ vulnerability, the I PNCTSH
considers the following specific areas of intervention: (i) to educate children by
promoting creative debates and activities in schools about human rights, children’s
rights and human trafficking and (ii) to support trafficked children by provid-
ing special measures to promote their rights and protection aiming at their global
development.
This Plan led to the creation of the Observatory on Human Trafficking (OTSH)
in 2008, which was established by Decree-law no. 229 on November 27, 2008. It is
responsible for collecting, producing, processing and analyzing data on human
trafficking, including child trafficking.
In 2009, two initiatives stood out in this domain [27]: (a) the certification of
documents for foreign children attending Portuguese schools (Immigration and
Borders Service [SEF] goes to school) and (b) the creation of the first temporary
shelter for 6- to 18-year-old refugee children and (CACR). This centre is expected
to provide specialized assistance to children and youth in the asylum process (i.e.
legal, social and psychological support).
The second National Plan against Human Trafficking (2011–2013) (II PNCTSH)
[42] defined the same areas of intervention as the I PNCTSH. Nonetheless, the
special situation of children was not differentiated in this Plan, neither conceptu-
ally nor in terms of specific measures.
In 2013, Portugal joined (a) the “European Cross-Actors Exchange Platform
for Trafficked Children on Methodology Building for Prevention and Sustainable
Inclusion”, which aimed to develop an evidence-based intervention model targeting
children who are vulnerable to trafficking and promote knowledge about criminal
procedures concerning THB in the EU, and (b) the “Improving and Monitoring
Protection Systems against Child Trafficking and Exploitation” (IMPACT) Project,
which aimed to improve child protection and welfare policies to prevent and protect
children, particularly those vulnerable to trafficking and exploitation [24].
The third National Plan (2014–2017) (III PNCTSH) [43] had five strategic areas:
(1) prevent, inform, understand and investigate; (2) educate, train and capacitate;
(3) protect, intervene and empower; (4) investigate criminality; and (5) cooperate.
Regarding children, it included actions such as the development of education for chil-
dren, adolescents and adults, as well as the development of protocols for the preven-
tion, detection and protection of child victims of trafficking. The implementation of
standardized care protocols for the identification, referral and intervention of victims
of trafficking, among others, and for child victims of trafficking, in particular, by the
National Health Service (NHS), was particularly important.
The fourth National Plan (2018–2021) (IV PNCTSH) [40] defined three strate-
gic objectives: (i) to develop knowledge and raise awareness on THB, (ii) to improve
the quality of interventions for trafficking victims, and (iii) to strengthen the fight
against organized crime networks. With regard to children, an emphasis was put on
the development of guidelines and protocols for intervening with children across
different services as well as on reinforcing networking within different services,
including the NHS and the National Network for the Support and Protection of
Trafficking Victims.
As the four national plans against human trafficking show, children are included
as victims of trafficking and are occasionally specifically targeted. However, none
of the plans address the specificity of child trafficking.

8
Child Trafficking: The Construction of a Social Problem
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90118

8. The specificities of child trafficking

The Portuguese Penal Code (Law no. 59/2007) defines child trafficking as entic-
ing, transporting, harboring or housing a child or transferring, offering or accept-
ing the child for the purpose of sexual exploitation, labour exploitation, begging,
slavery, the removal of organs or adoption, among other criminal activities (Article
160) [24]. In fact, research shows that, most of the time, children are trafficked
for labour exploitation (e.g. domestic servitude, agricultural labour, car washing,
factory labour), sexual exploitation (e.g. prostitution, pornography and forced
marriage), illegal adoption and criminal exploitation (e.g. cannabis cultivation,
robbery, begging) [44].
As detailed, this definition entails the intentional action of the offender to
exploit a vulnerable person. In the case of children, the critical elements of the
definition of human trafficking do not apply [34]: the means (coercion, fraud or
deception, abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability) and the victim’s con-
sent. However, the issue of consent is not exempted from controversy because of the
debate concerning the age of consent [19], an issue related to the criterion used to
set the age of the victim, as previously discussed.
Associated with age and the corresponding development level are, among oth-
ers, the issues of: a) capacity to consent to their involvement in certain activities
or relationships, especially those that are deviant or criminal; b) the responsibility
inherent to this (in)capacity; c) the different developmental needs that children
might exhibit depending on their age; d) their plasticity and vulnerability to the
external world and the consequent and serious implications of their involvement
in harmful relationships and activities; e) longer periods of exploitation than
those of trafficked adults; and f ) more support needed, given the higher likeli-
hood to develop trauma.
As Greenbaum, Yun and Todres ([45], p. 161) argued, “Given the often multiple
vulnerabilities leading to trafficking, the complex trauma experienced during
(and sometimes before) the trafficking period, and the myriad adverse effects of
exploitation, the needs of the child victim may be extensive and multi-faceted”. In
fact, the exploitation and trafficking of children are often associated with adverse
experiences of abuse, neglect and other forms of violence that harm their physical
and mental health. Empirical evidence indicates that between approximately one-
fourth and one-half of all trafficked children are victims of physical or sexual abuse
[26, 46]. These forms of maltreatment are associated with psychological disorders
such as posttraumatic stress disorder, substance abuse, self-harming behaviour,
suicide ideation/attempts, depression and various affective disorders and behav-
ioral difficulties [26].
Thus, interventions must be multidimensional and address different groups
and levels of victims’ needs, not only those that result from trafficking but also
those that are at its origin. Child trafficking shares with the other forms of human
trafficking multiple, complex and systemic causes, especially specific structural
features of the life contexts. Family dynamics are especially relevant for children:
dysfunctional families, family abuse/neglect and violence are key variables [24].
Social and political factors such as poverty, social and economic exclusion, limited
opportunities to pursue education, scarce and precarious employment, gender-
based violence and social inequalities between countries and regions are also
important enabling factors. Likewise, more distal elements, such as exploitative
relationships, organized crime, illegal migration, corruption and armed conflict
play key roles in this phenomenon [43].

9
Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking

9. Child trafficking as a matter of child protection

Child protection systems are the fundamental framework for providing assis-
tance to child victims or those vulnerable to trafficking [20]. In Portugal, a victim
of child trafficking is considered as at risk, falling under Protection Law no. 23/2017
and subject to the same assistance as any national child, regardless of nationality
or type of risk. Any person identified as a victim of child trafficking should be
reported to a public prosecutor who activates a protection measure.
Based on a review of 20 multinational projects funded by the European
Commission on child victims of trafficking, including Portugal, Palmer [20]
concluded that “trafficked children across Europe are not receiving the state care
and protection that they, as children, are entitled to” (p. 7). This study showed
the structural flaws in child protection services at three levels: victim detection,
support and service coordination. In short, services fail to adjust their level and
type of support to the specific needs of these children and youth, either initially,
when detecting and referring cases, or in the provision of appropriate assistance.
If in some cases a dominant concern exists with the child’s immigration status that
overrides the response to their needs, in others the response to these children’s needs
is subsumed within the generic provision available to all children at risk. Solutions
range from those that compromise children’s freedom to those that do not guarantee
their protection or meet their needs, providing overly bureaucratic services. In
these circumstances, child protection systems are more harmful than protective and
can even facilitate the exploitation and trafficking of these children [47], actively
compromising their rights.
Additionally, combating and preventing child trafficking requires a systemic
approach in which communication among the health, education, welfare and justice
systems is critical [20]. Regarding Portugal, international reports have mentioned
the lack of standardized procedures and referral mechanisms [24].
Despite the recognition of the inclusive nature of health, education, welfare and
justice sectoral policies, the status of children continues to determine the type of
services and rights to which they have access. In accordance with experts, legislation
is inclusive, but procedures are not, and the strategic planning and coordination of
actions have flaws. However, others argue for the need for comprehensive laws to
integrate the different policy domains, procedures and services [24].
Despite the centrality of the child protection system regarding child victims or
those at risk of being trafficked, referrals in Portugal are made through two types
of entities: criminal agencies (OPC) and NGOs and the Authority for Working
Conditions (ACT). Regarding the OPC, the Immigration and Borders Service
(SEF) is responsible for detecting unaccompanied asylum-seeking children and
for referring them to the Portuguese Refugee Council (CPR) [24] because it is
assumed that they are vulnerable to trafficking [19]. The identification of a case
triggers its referral for criminal investigation and court proceedings [24]. After
referral, the cases proceed through an assessment process during which they can
be classified as confirmed, not confirmed or under investigation. This assessment
is complex. Usually a panoply of related offenses exist whose legal distinction is
challenging, such as aid to illegal immigration, recruitment of illegal labour, kid-
napping, slavery, sham marriages/marriages of convenience, counterfeit and false
documents, criminal association, domestic violence or violation [36] and smug-
gling [12]. This procedure confirms, once again, the police and security framing of
an essentially sociopolitical phenomenon.
A common reference in the literature on this topic is the need for the specific
training of practitioners who, at different levels, work with and for children, espe-
cially those with child victims or children at risk of being trafficked to identify and

10
Child Trafficking: The Construction of a Social Problem
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90118

provide the necessary and appropriate assistance. Immigration officers and other
police forces are the frontline staff in most of the national referral mechanisms in
Europe. Experts contend that the adequate training of these professionals is critical
to ensure that victims are correctly identified and receive appropriate support [19],
including cooperation with relevant agencies. In addition to these officials [24],
from a comprehensive perspective, teachers [32] and healthcare professionals [48]
would benefit from training to identify the signs of exploitation and effectively
intervene.

10. Conclusion: what to do with a problem of human beings that is not

perceived as a social problem?

Following Pinto et al. [13], child trafficking is not merely a “distant history”
taught in school, but it is also geographically and sociologically distant, as portrayed
by the media, and a distant interest for research. Law, politics/public administra-
tion, research and education are key instruments for fostering the social apprecia-
tion of this problem.
The law is a fundamental constituent of society; it is based on justice and is
a driver of awareness. Retrospectively, it reflects social and cultural historicity.
Looking forward, however, the law sets the standards for behaviour within a culture
and promotes psychosocial adjustment. In this sense, legal changes, under interna-
tional agreements, build an ethical mindset based on human rights that is progres-
sively shared by populations. Education, training and social pedagogy for the
community, their organizations and the media must be an ongoing and relentless
social task to create a relational culture that is inclusive, rights-based and culturally
sensitive.
Child trafficking results from the failure to protect children and safeguard their
rights. It is thus a failure towards all children. Protection should be a systemic and
ecological feature of the contexts of children’s lives. Additionally, the response
to the various needs of each and every child should be the primary concern of
children’s services and programmes. For this purpose, instead of a policymaking
approach based on a patchwork of scattered and partial measures, we need effective
and integrated public policies, particularly child and family policies, informed by
rigorous and systematic research. Moreover, the proliferation of plans with goals
insufficiently developed and evaluated should give way to a cohesive national anti-
child trafficking approach.
The identification of the child victims of trafficking is a critical condition
for the provision of the appropriate support. The gaps observed in most EU
countries, including Portugal [20], led the experts to recommend the revision
of the criteria and thresholds to be eligible for the child protection system. With
respect to Portugal, the Protection Law, based on the distinction between risk
and danger, excludes from the threshold for referral children in low-risk situa-
tions. In these conditions, the probability of not detecting potential victims of
trafficking is not negligible [20]. Therefore, within a broader perspective of the
concept of child protection, we endorse the revision of these thresholds and the
consideration of different levels of intervention according to the level of risk
identified.
Another crucial aspect of the intervention is the first service with which
the child victims come into contact for the first time because it determines the
subsequent provision made available to them. Regarding children at risk, the
interaction among the services involved (e.g. health, education, Immigration and
Borders Service, criminal justice, labour), should occur, in any situation, under the

11
Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking

coordination of the Child Protection System, regardless of the specific status of the
child (e.g. immigration status).
These changes will lead to the cultural shift [16] necessary to assign importance
to the big and small issues of our time, regardless of the condition of the people
affected, their age or number, so that a problem that affects other people is, by
definition, a social problem.

Acknowledgements

This study had the financial support of Research Centre on Child Studies
(CIEC), by the Strategic Project UID/CED/00317/2013, through the National Funds
through the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) and co-financed by
European Regional Development Funds (FEDER) through the Competitiveness
and Internationalization Operational Program (POCI) with the reference
POCI-01-0145-FEDER-007562.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Author details

Paula Cristina Martins
Research Centre on Child Studies (CIEC), University of Minho (UM), Braga,
Portugal

*Address all correspondence to: pcmartins@psi.uminho.pt

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.

12
Child Trafficking: The Construction of a Social Problem
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90118

References

[1] Rubington E, Weinberg MS. The [8] European Commission (EC). Study

Study of Social Problems: Seven on High-Risk Groups for Trafficking
Perspectives. 7th ed. New York, NY: in Human Beings. Final Report.
Oxford University Press; 2010 Luxembourg: Publications Office of the
European Union; 2015. Retrieved from:
[2] Best J. Social progress and social https://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/
problems: Toward a sociology of gloom. sites/antitrafficking/files/study_on_
Sociological Quarterly. 2001;42(1):1-12 children_as_high_risk_groups_of_
trafficking_in_human_beings_0.pdf
[3] Sharapov K. Understanding Public
Knowledge and Attitudes towards [9] Kangaspunta K, Clark M, Dixon J,
Trafficking in Human Beings Research Dottridge M. An Introduction to Human
Paper. Part 1. Budapest: Center for Trafficking: Vulnerability, Impact and
Policy Studies, Central European Action. New York: UN Office on Drugs
University; 2014. Retrieved from: and Crime; 2008
http://webcache.googleusercontent.
com/search?q=cache:IfbjTh- [10] Clemente M. Human trafficking
K2OIJ:lastradainternational.org/ in Portugal: An ethnography of
lsidocs/3119-Public-knowledge- research and data. Studi emigrazione.
and-attitudes-towards-thb-2014. International Journal of Migration
pdf+&cd=1&hl=pt-PT&ct=clnk&gl=pt Studies. 2017;208:663-686

[4] Sharapov K. Sharapov 2014. [11] Neves M, Pedra C. A Proteção dos
Understanding Public Knowledge and Direitos Humanos e as Vítimas do
Attitudes towards Trafficking in Human Tráfico de Pessoas – Rotas, Métodos,
Beings Research Paper. Part 2. Budapest: Tipos de Tráfico e Setores de Atividade
Center for Policy Studies, Central em Portugal. Lisboa: IEEI; 2012
European University; 2015. Retrieved
from: https://cps.ceu.edu/sites/cps.ceu. [12] Derluyn I, Broekaert E. On the way
edu/files/cps-working-paper-upkat- to a better future: Belgium as a transit
public-knowledge-and-attitudes- country for trafficking and smuggling
towards-thb-2015.pdf of unaccompanied minors. International
Migration. 2005;43(4):31-53
[5] Sani A, Nunes L, Caridade S.
Relatório Tráfico de Seres Humanos. [13] Pinto R, Valente I, Guia M. The
Porto: Fundação Fernando Pessoa; frequency of the subject “trafficking of
2016 people” in master’s dissertations and
doctoral thesis available in the “estudo
[6] Peixoto J, Soares A, Costa P, geral da uc” (2006-2016). Debater a
Murteira S, Pereira S, Sabino C. O Europa. 2017;17:75-96
tráfico de migrantes em Portugal:
1
Perspectivas sociológicas, jurídicas [14] Martins P. Children as victims
e políticas. 2005. Retrieved from: and as perpetrators: From symbolic
http://www.oi.acidi.gov.pt/docs/ incongruence to ineffective practice. In:
Estudos%20OI/Estudo_OI_12.pdf Sharma V, Brink A, editors. Childhood
through the Looking Glass. Oxford:
[7] Couto D, Machado C, Martins C, Interdisciplinary Press; 2016. pp. 49-60
Gonçalves R. A construção mediática do
tráfico de seres humanos na imprensa [15] Stryker R. Violent children and
escrita portuguesa. Análise Psicológica. structural violence: Re-signaling
2012;30(1-2):231-246 ‘RAD kids’ to inform the social work

13
Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking

professions. Children and Youth [24] IMPACT. IMPACT - Melhorar e

Services Review. 2013;35(8):1182-1188 Monitorizar os Sistemas de Proteção
Contra o Tráfico e a Exploração de
[16] Gearon A. Child trafficking: Young Crianças. 2014. Relatório Transnacional.
people’s experiences of front-line Retrieved from: https://www.
Services in England. The British Journal cesis.org/admin/modulo_news/
of Criminology. 2019;59(2):481-500. ficheiros_noticias/20140401101021-
DOI: 10.1093/bjc/azy042 1impactrelatoriotransnacional.pdf

[17] UNICEF. The State of the World’s [25] Perista P, Brázia A. (s/d). Sistemas
Children. Excluded and Invisible. de proteção e bem-estar das crianças:
Unicef House: New York; 2006 que impactos no assegurar de direitos
e na proteção contra o tráfico e a
[18] Norgaard K. We don't really want exploração? Retrieved from: https://
to know: Environmental justice and www.cesis.org/site/upload/Artigo_Siste
socially organized denial of global maProte%C3%A7%C3%A3oBemEstard
warming in Norway. Organization and asCrian%C3%A7as.pdf [Accessed: April
Environment. 2006;19:347-370. DOI: 17, 2019]
1086026606292571
[26] Ottisova L, Smith P, Shetty H,
[19] Westwood J. The social construction Stahl D, Downs J, Oram S. Psychological
of risk in child trafficking discourses: A consequences of child trafficking: An
study of melodramatic tactics in child historical cohort study of trafficked
trafficking narratives [doctoral thesis]. children in contact with secondary
2010. Retrieved from: http://clok.uclan. mental health services. PLoS One.
ac.uk/3717/3/Westwood%20Joanne%20 2018;13(3):e0192321. DOI: 10.1371/
Final%20e-Thesis%20(Master%20 journal.pone.0192321
Copy).pdf
[27] RASI. Relatório Anual de
Segurança Interna 2009. Ministério
[20] Palmer E. Trafficked children
da Administração Interna. 2009.
and child protection systems in the
Retrieved from: http://www.ansr.pt/
European Union. European Journal of
InstrumentosDeGestao/Documents/
Social Work. 2019;22(4):551-562. DOI:
Relat%C3%B3rio%20Anual%20de%20
10.1080/13691457.2018.1441134
Seguran%C3%A7a%20Interna%20
(RASI)/RASI%202009.pdf
[21] Crawley H. Child first, migrant
second: ensuring that every child [28] ECPAT. Joint East West Research
matters. Immigration Law Practitioners on Trafficking In Children for Sexual
Association. 2006. Available from: Purposes in Europe: The Sending
http://www.ilpa.org.uk/ [Accessed: Countries. 2004. Retrieved from:
April 20, 2007] http://lastradainternational.org/
lsidocs/223%20Joint%20east%20
[22] Cunningham S, Tomlinson J. Starve west%20research%20(ECPAT.pdf
them out: Does every child really [Accessed: April 25, 2019]
matter? A commentary on section 9 of
the asylum and immigration (treatment [29] Catch and Sustain. Anti-Trafficking
of claimants, etc.) act, 2004. Critical Intervention Programme Targeted to
Social Policy. 2005;25(2):253-275 Vulnerable Children. Luxembourg:
European Federation for Street
[23] Lorenz W. European policy Children; 2015
developments and their impact on social
work. European Journal of Social Work. [30] UNODC. The Evolution of the
2017;20(1):17-28 UNODC Global Report on Trafficking in

14
Child Trafficking: The Construction of a Social Problem
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90118

Persons. 2019. Retrieved from: https:// Report on THB 2010. 2011. Retrieved
delta87.org/2019/02/evolution-unodc- from: https://www.otsh.mai.gov.pt/
global-report-trafficking-in-persons/ wp-content/uploads/REC-OTSH_
[Accessed: April 25, 2019] Relatorio_Anual_TSH_2010.pdf

[31] I National Plan for Preventing [38] RASI. Relatório Anual de

and Combating Trafficking in Human Segurança Interna 2012. Ministério
Beings (I PNCTSH) (2007-2010). da Administração Interna. 2012.
Resolução do Conselho de Ministros Retrieved from: http://www.ansr.pt/
no. 81/2007. Diário da República, 1.ª InstrumentosDeGestao/Documents/
série — No. 119 — 22 de Junho de Relat%C3%B3rio%20Anual%20de%20
2007. Retrieved from: https://www. Seguran%C3%A7a%20Interna%20
otsh.mai.gov.pt/wp-content/uploads/ (RASI)/RASI%202012.pdf
TSH-I_Plano_Nacional.pdf
[39] RASI. Relatório Anual de
[32] UNODC. 2018 Global Report on Segurança Interna 2015. Ministério
Trafficking in Persons. New York: da Administração Interna. 2015.
United Nations; 2018. Retrieved from: Retrieved from: http://www.ansr.pt/
https://www.unodc.org/documents/ InstrumentosDeGestao/Documents/
data-and-analysis/glotip/2018/ Relat%C3%B3rio%20Anual%20de%20
GLOTiP_2018_BOOK_web_small.pdf Seguran%C3%A7a%20Interna%20
(RASI)/RASI%202015.pdf
[33] ILO. ILO Global Estimate of Forced
Labour: Results and Methodology. [40] IV National Plan for Preventing
Geneva: ILO; 2012 and Combating Trafficking in Human
Beings (IV PNCTSH) (2018-2021).
[34] European Commission (EC). Data Resolução do Conselho de Ministros
Collection on Trafficking in Human no. 80/2018. Diário da República, 1.ª
Beings in the EU. Final Report – 2018. série — No. 116 — 19 de junho de 2018.
Brussels. 2018. DOI: 10.2837/193237. Retrieved from: https://www.otsh.mai.
Retrieved from: https://ec.europa.eu/ gov.pt/wp-content/uploads/TSH-IV_
home-affairs/sites/homeaffairs/files/ Plano_Nacional.pdf
what-we-do/policies/european-agenda-
security/20181204_data-collection- [41] RASI. Relatório Anual de
study.pdf Segurança Interna 2011. Ministério
da Administração Interna. 2011.
[35] GRETA. Report Concerning the Retrieved from: https://www.dn.pt/
Implementation of the Council of DNMultimedia/DOCS+PDFS/relatorio.
Europe Convention on Action against pdf
Trafficking in Human. 2013. Retrieved
from: https://www.legislationline.org/ [42] II National Plan for Preventing
documents/id/18620 [Accessed: April and Combating Trafficking in Human
18, 2019] Beings (II PNCTSH) (2011-2013).
Resolução do Conselho de Ministros
[36] Observatório do Tráfico de Seres no. 94/2010. Diário da República, 1.ª
Humanos (OTSH). Annual Statistical série — No. 231 — 29 de Novembro de
Report on THB 2009. 2010. Retrieved 2010. Retrieved from: https://www.
from: https://www.otsh.mai.gov.pt/ otsh.mai.gov.pt/wp-content/uploads/
wp-content/uploads/REC-OTSH_ TSH-II_Plano_Nacional.pdf
Relatorio_Anual_TSH_2009.pdf
[43] III National Plan for Preventing
[37] Observatório do Tráfico de Seres and Combating Trafficking in Human
Humanos (OTSH). Annual Statistical Beings (III PNCTSH) (2014-2017).

15
Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking

Resolução da Assembleia da República

no. 156/2013. Diário da República, 1.ª
série — No. 253 — 31 de dezembro de
2013. Retrieved from: https://www.otsh.
mai.gov.pt/wp-content/uploads/TSH-
III_Plano_Nacional.pdf

[44] Stanley N, Oram S, Jakobowitz S,

Westwood J, Borschmann R,
Zimmerman C, et al. The health needs
and healthcare experiences of young
people trafficked into the UK. Child
Abuse and Neglect. 2016;59:100-110

[45] Greenbaum V, Yun K, Todres J. Child

trafficking: Issues for policy and
practice. The Journal of Law, Medicine
and Ethics. 2018;46:159-163. DOI:
10.1177/1073110518766029

[46] Kiss L, Yun K, Pocock N,

Zimmerman C. Exploitation, violence,
and suicide risk among child and
adolescent survivors of human
trafficking in the Greater Mekong
Subregion. JAMA Pediatrics.
2015;169(9):1-8. DOI: 10.1001/
jamapediatrics

[47] GATE. Guardians Against Child

Trafficking and Exploitation—
European Report. Italy: KMOP and
Defence for Children International; 2013

[48] Greenbaum J, Bodrick N.

Global human trafficking and
child victimization. Pediatrics.
2017;140(6):e20173138

16