WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

TECHNOLOGY

By-
Dr. Pinku Ranjan
Assistant Professor
ABV-IIITM GWALIOR, INDIA
 Channel Assignment Strategies (CAS)
• Frequency reuse scheme
– increases capacity
– minimize interference

• Fixed channel assignment

– each cell is allocated a predetermined set of voice channel
– any new call attempt can only be served by the unused channels
– the call will be blocked if all channels in that cell are occupied
• Dynamic channel assignment
– channels are not allocated to cells permanently.
– allocate channels based on request.
– reduce the likelihood of blocking, increase capacity. 2
 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY Dr. Pinku
Ranjan
Fixed Channel Assignment Strategy
(FCAS)
• In FCAS each cell is assigned a predetermined set of voice channels
• Any call attempt within the cell can only be served by the unused
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channel in that particular cell

• If all the channels in the cell are occupied, the call is blocked. The
user does not get service.
• In variation of FCA, a cell can borrow channels from its neighboring
cell if its own channels are full.

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 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY Dr. Pinku
Ranjan Dynamic Channel Assignment (DCA)
• Voice channels are not allocated to different cells
permanently.
• Each time a call request is made, the BS request a
channel from the MSC.
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• MSC allocates a channel to the requesting cell using

an algorithm that takes into account
– likelihood of future blocking
– The reuse distance of the channel ( should not
cause interference)
– Other parameters like cost
• DCA reduce the likelihood of blocking and increases
capacity
• Requires the MSC to collect realtime data on
channel occupancy and traffic distribution on
continous basis. 4
 Handoff
▪ When a mobile moves into a different cell while conversation is in progress,
the MSC automatically transfers the call to a new channel belonging to new
base station is known as Handoff.
▪ Handoff operation not only involves identifying a new base station, but also
requires that the voice & control signals be allocated to channels with the new
base station.
▪ Handoff must be performed successfully & as infrequently as possible.
▪ For this system designer must specify an optimum signal level at which to
initiate a handoff.
▪ Once a particular signal level is specified as the minimum usable signal for
acceptable voice quality at the base station receiver, a slightly stronger signal
level is used as a threshold at which a handoff is made.
▪ This margin (Threshold) is given by:
Δ = Pr(HANDOFF) - Pr (MIN. USABLE)
 Handoff .

Source : Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, Theodore S. Rappaport, pp 63.

 Handoff
▪ Δ can’t be too large or too small.
Case 1: if Δ is too large, unnecessary handoffs are there, which burden the MSC.
Case 2: if Δ is too small, there may be insufficient time to complete a handoff
before a call is lost due to weak signal conditions.
▪ Call Drop event can happen:
Case 1: When there is an excessive delay by the MSC in assigning a handoff.
Excessive delay may occur during:
1) High traffic density, due to computational loading at the MSC
2) Due to the fact that no channels are available on any of the
nearby base stations.
Case 2: When the threshold Δ is set too small for the handoff time in the
system.
▪ Dwell Time : The time over which a call be maintained within a cell without
handoff is called “Dwell Time”. (after the handoff threshold)
 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY Dr. Pinku
Ranjan
Types of Handoff
1) Intra-cell-Intra BSC Handover
2) Inter-cell-Intra BSC Handover
3) Inter-cell-Inter BSC Handover
4) Inter MSC Handover
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1) Intra-cell-Intra BSC Handover : Smallest of the Handover is the intra-cell

handover where the subscriber is handed over to another traffic channel
(generally in another frequency) with in same cell.

▪ In this case, BSC controlling the cell makes the decision to perform
handover.
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 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY Dr. Pinku
Ranjan
Types of Handoff
2) Inter-cell-Intra BSC Handover :
▪ The subscriber moves from cell1 to cell 2 but within BSC.
▪ In this case, the handover process is carried out by the BSC.
▪ Traffic connection with cell 1 is released when the connection with cell 2 is
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setup successfully.

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 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY Dr. Pinku
Ranjan Types of Handoff
3) Inter-cell-Inter BSC Handover :
▪ The subscriber moves from cell1 to cell 2 which is served by another BSC.
▪ In this case, handover
process is carried out by
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the MSC, but the decision

to make the handover is
still done by the first BSC.
▪ Traffic connection
with the first BSC & BTS
is released when the
connection with the new
BSC & BTS is setup
successfully.

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 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY Dr. Pinku
Ranjan
Types of Handoff
4) Inter MSC Handover :
▪ The subscriber moves from cell1 to cell 2 which is served by another MSC.
▪ In this case, handover
process is carried out by
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the GMSC.
▪ Traffic connection
with the first BTS-BSC-MSC
is released when the
connection with the new
BTS-BSC-MSC is setup
successfully.

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 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY Dr. Pinku
Ranjan Classification of Handoff
▪ Handoff can be classified as:
1) Hard Handoff
2) Soft Handoff
1) Hard Handoff :
▪ Also known as Break Before Make.
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▪ It is one in which the channel in the source cell is released & only then the
channel in the target cell is engaged.
▪ Thus the connection to the source is broken before the connection to the
target is made.
▪ Hard handoffs are intended to be
instantaneous in order to minimize
the disruption to the call.
▪ It is not necessary that there is
always a connection b/w base station
& mobile station.

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 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY Dr. Pinku
Ranjan Classification of Handoff
2) Soft Handoff :
▪ Also known as Make Before Break.
It is one in which the channel in the source cell is retained & used for a
while in parallel with the channel in target cell.
▪ Thus the connection to the target is established before the connection to
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the source is broken.

▪ In this kind of handoff, there is
always a connection b/w base station
& mobile station.

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 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY Dr. Pinku
Ranjan Strategies of Handoff
1) Network Assisted Handoff
2) Mobile Assisted Handoff
1) Network Assisted Handoff :
▪ Used by 1G Analog cellular system.
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▪ In this Handoff, Base station constantly monitors the signal strength of

each mobile user & report to MSC, which makes the decision to handoff.
▪ In addition to measuring the RSSI (Radio Signal Strength Measurement) of
the calls in progress with in the cell, a spare receiver in each base station
called Locator Receiver, is used to scan & determine signal strength of the
mobile user which are in neighboring cells.
▪ The Locator receiver is controlled by the MSC & is used to monitor the
signal strength of user in neighboring cells which appear to be in need of
handoff & records all RSSI values to the MSC.

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 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY Dr. Pinku
Ranjan Strategies of Handoff
2) Mobile Assisted Handoff : (MAHO)
▪ In this Handoff, every Mobile station measures the received power from
surrounding base stations & continuously reports the result to serving base
station.
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▪ A handoff is initiated when the power received from a base station of the
neighboring cell begin to exceed the power received from current base
station by the certain level or for a certain period of time.
▪ MAHO method enables the calls to be handed over b/w the base station at a
much faster rate than 1G system.
▪ Since handoff measurements are made by each mobile & the MSC no longer
constantly monitors signal strength, therefore burden on the MSC is reduced.

▪ MAHO is particularly suited for micro-cellular environment where handoffs

are more frequently.

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 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY Dr. Pinku
Ranjan
Prioritizing Handoff / Guard Channel Concept

▪ Here some of the channels of total available channels is reserved for handoff
request from on-going calls which may be handed-off into the cell.
▪ Guard channels however offer efficient spectrum utilization when dynamic
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channel assignment strategies, which minimize the number of required guard

channels by efficient demand-based allocation are used.
Queuing of handoff request :
▪ It is another method to decrease the probability of forced termination of
calls due to lack of available channels.
▪ Queuing of handoffs is possible due to the fact there is a finite time interval b/
w the time the received signal level drops below the handoff threshold & the
time the call is terminated due to insufficient signal level.

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 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY Dr. Pinku
Ranjan
Practical Handoff Considerations
• Problems occur because of a large range of mobile velocities
– pedestrian vs. vehicle user
– A pedestrian never requires handoff during the call, but if high speed user
passes constantly b/w very small cells, MSC gets burdened quickly.
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• Small cell sizes and/or micro-cells → larger # handoffs

• MSC load is heavy when high speed users are passed between very small
cells
• Umbrella Cells
– use different antenna heights and Tx power levels to provide large and small
cell coverage
– multiple antennas & Tx can be co-located at single location if necessary
(saves on obtaining new tower licenses)
– large cell → high speed traffic → fewer handoffs
– small cell → low speed traffic
– example areas: interstate highway passing through urban center, office park,
or nearby shopping mall

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 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY Dr. Pinku
Ranjan
Umbrella Cells
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Source : Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, Theodore S. Rappaport, pp 67.

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 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY Dr. Pinku
Ranjan
Typical handoff parameters

– Analog cellular (1st generation)

• threshold margin △ ≈ 6 to 12 dB
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• total time to complete handoff ≈ 8 to 10 sec

– Digital cellular (2nd generation)

• total time to complete handoff ≈ 1 to 2 sec
• lower necessary threshold margin △ ≈ 0 to 6 dB
• enabled by mobile assisted handoff

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 Interference & System Capacity
▪ Source of interference :
▪ Another mobile in the same cell.
▪ A call in progress in a neighboring cell.
▪ Other base stations operating in the same frequency band.
▪ Any non-cellular system which inadvertently leaks energy into cellular
frequency band.
 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY Dr. Pinku
Ranjan
Effects of Interference
• Interference in voice channels causes
– Crosstalk
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– Noise in background
• Interference in control channels causes
– Error in digital signaling, which causes
• Missed calls
• Blocked calls
• Dropped calls

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 Interference & System Capacity
Co-Channel Interference & System Capacity :
▪ Frequency reuse implies that in a given coverage area there are several cells
that use the same set of frequencies. These cells are called Co-Channel cells &
interference b/w signals from these cells is called Co-Channel Interference.
▪ Unlike, thermal noise which can be overcome by increasing the SNR (signal-to-
noise ratio), Co-Channel interference can not be combated by simply
increasing the carrier power of a transmitter, because an increase in carrier
transmit power increases the interference to neighboring co-channel cells.
▪ To reduce co-channel interference, co-channel cells must be physically
separated by a minimum distance to provide sufficient isolation due to
propagation.
R Radius of a cell
D distance b/w centers of the nearest
co-channel cells.
Therefore by increasing the ratio D/R, separation
b/w co-channel cells relative to the coverage distance of a cell is increased.
Thus interference is reduced.
 Interference & System Capacity
▪ Q Co-Channel Reuse ratio, is related to cluster size shown in table. For
Hexagonal geometry

Table Source : Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, Theodore S. Rappaport, pp 69.

▪ A small value of Q provides larger capacity, Since the cluster size N is small.
▪ A large value of Q improves the Transmission Quality, Due to smaller level
of co-channel interference.
Therefore a Trade-off must be made b/w these two objectives in actual
cellular design.
 Interference & System Capacity
▪ Let i o be the number of co-channel interfering cells.
Then, the signal-to-interference ratio (S/I or SIR) for a mobile receiver which
monitors a forward channel can be expressed as:

where S is the desired signal power from the desired base station & I is the
th
interference power caused by the i interfering co-channel cell base station.
▪ Average Power Received Pr at a distance d from the transmitting antenna is
approximated by:

where Po is the power received at a close-in reference point in the far field
region of the antenna at a small distance do from the transmitting antenna &
n is the path loss exponent.
 Interference & System Capacity
▪ Now consider the forward link where the desired signal is the serving base
station & where the interference is due to co-channel base station.
▪ If Di is the distance of the
th
iinterfere from the mobile,
the received power at a given
mobile due to the ith interfering
cell will be proportional to
(Di) -n .
▪ When transmit power of each
base station is equal & the path
Loss exponent is the same
throughout the coverage area,
S/I for a mobile can be approximated as:

---------(A)

Source : Wireless Communications: Principles and

Practice, Theodore S. Rappaport, pp 71.
 Interference & System Capacity
▪ If the interfering base stations are equidistant from the desired base station & if
this distance is equal to the distance D b/w cell centers, then

S/I relates to the cluster size N, which in turns determine the capacity of the
system. From equation C= M.K.N.
▪ For US, AMPS cellular system which uses FM & 30 kHz channels, subjective tests
indicate that sufficient voice quality is provided when S/I is greater than or equal
to 18dB.
▪ In order to meet this requirement, the cluster size N should be at least 6.49 (=7),
assuming path loss exponent n=4.
▪ For a seven cell cluster, with the mobile unit at the cell boundary, the mobile is
a distance D-R from the two nearest co-channel interfering cell & is exactly
D+R/2, D, D-R/2 and D+R from the other interfering cells in the first tier.
▪ S/I ratio for the worst case can be closely approximated as (n=4)
 Interference & System Capacity

▪ This equation can be rewritten in terms of the co-channel reuse ratio Q, as

-------(B)
▪ For N=7, the co-channel reuse ratio Q is 4.6 and the worst case S/I is
approximated as 49.56 (17dB) using equation (B), where as an exact solution
using equation (A) yields 17.8dB. Hence for a seven-cell cluster, the S/I ratio is
slightly less than 18dB for the worst case. To design the cellular system,
 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY Dr. Pinku
Ranjan Problem
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Source : Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, Theodore S. Rappaport, pp 72.

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 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY Dr. Pinku
Ranjan
Adjacent Channel Interference
• Results from imperfect receiver filters, allowing nearby frequencies to
leak into pass-band.
• Can be minimized by careful filtering and channel assignments.
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• Channels are assigned such that frequency separations between

channels are maximized.
• For example, by sequentially assigning adjacent bands to different
cells
• Total 832 channels, divided into two groups with 416 channels each.
• Out of 416, 395 are voice and 21 are control channels.
• 395 channels are divided into 21 subsets, each containing almost 19
channels, with closet channel 21 channels away
• If N=7 is used, each cell uses 3 subsets, assigned in such a way that each
channel in a cell is 7 channels away.

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 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY Dr. Pinku
Ranjan 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 1 1 1
0 1 2 3 4 fre
q

2
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B9
4 5
G1 C
1
1 12
A8
6 7
F1 D1
3 3 4
E1
0
Frequency Planning/Channel
Assignment
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 Improving Coverage & Capacity in Cellular system
▪ As number of users increases, number of channel assigned to a cell become insufficient to
support large number of users. Therefore Cellular design techniques are required.
▪ The cellular design techniques which are required to provide more channels per unit
coverage area are:
1) Cell Splitting
2) Sectoring
3) Microcell Zone Concept
1) Cell Splitting :
▪ The process of subdividing a congested cell into smaller
cells, each with its own base station & a corresponding
reduction in antenna height & transmitted power.
▪ Cell splitting Reduces the transmitted power.
▪ The original base station A is surrounded by 6 new microcell.
▪ The smallest cells are added as to preserve the frequency reuse plan. Now G is placed
halfway b/w the 2 larger stations utilizing same channel set G.
▪ Cell splitting increases the capacity of a cellular system:
• It increases the number of times that channel are reused. By defining new cells which
have a smaller radius than original cells & by installing smaller cell.
• Due to additional number of channels per unit area.
Figure Source : Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, Theodore S. Rappaport, pp 87.
 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY Dr. Pinku
Ranjan Improving Coverage & Capacity in Cellular system
▪ Area of bigger cell = A o = πR2
▪ Area of smaller cell = A N = π (R/2) 2 = πR2 /4
▪ 4 A N = A o or AN = A o /4
▪ Therefore New Area is ¼ of the older area.
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Source : Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, Theodore S. Rappaport, pp 89.
 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY Dr. Pinku
Ranjan Improving Coverage & Capacity in Cellular system
▪ As New Area is ¼ of the older area (now one bigger cell include
approximately 4 smaller cell), therefore the capacity of system is increased
by 4 times.
▪ Before Cell splitting :
Total BW available = 25MHz
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Each user Required = 25kHz

Therefore
1 Antenna can serve = 25MHz / 25kHz = 1000 user.
▪ After Cell Splitting :
As older area is 4 times the newer area. i.e. we have now
4 new area = 1 older area
For one new area,
Total BW available = 25MHz
Each user Required = 25kHz
Therefore 1 Area can serve = 25MHz / 25kHz = 1000 user.
Therefore 4 Area can serve = 1000 * 4 = 4000 user.
i.e. Capacity is increased by 4 times, due to cell splitting.

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 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY Dr. Pinku
Ranjan Improving Coverage & Capacity in Cellular system
▪ let P t1 ( Transmit Power at old cell boundaries)
▪ let P t2 ( Transmit Power at new cell boundaries)
▪ let Pr1 (Required Power at old cell boundaries)
▪ let P r2 (Required Power at new cell boundaries)
▪ n is the path loss exponent.
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Pr1 = P t1 (R) -n
Pr2 = P t2 (R/2) -n
As frequency reuse plan for new microcells behave exactly as the
original cells.
Therefore Pr1 = P r2
Therefore Pt1 (R) –n = Pt2 (R/2) -n
Pt1 / Pt2 = (1/2) -n
Taking log both side
10 log 10 (P t1 / Pt2) = n10 log10(2) = 3n
For n = 4, Pt1 / Pt2 = 12 dB
i.e. Transmitted Power is reduced by 12 dB with newer cell.
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 Improving Coverage & Capacity in Cellular system
2) Sectoring :
▪ The technique for decreasing the co-channel interference & thus increasing
the system performance by using directional antenna is known as Sectoring .
▪ Sectoring Can be done at 60o & 120 0 .

Sectoring- 60 o Sectoring- 120o

Source : Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, Theodore S. Rappaport, pp 90.
▪ Co-channel Interference in a cellular system may be decreased by replacing
a single Omni directional antenna at the base station by several directional
antenna, each radiating with in a specific sector.
 Improving Coverage & Capacity in Cellular system
▪ Antenna changed from Omni directional to Directional.
▪ Antenna are not placed near to each other, otherwise adjacent channel
interference get increased.
▪ By cell splitting,:
it increase the number of channels & this
is achieved by decreasing the cell radius
R & keeping Co-channel reuse ratio D/R
constant.
▪ it increase the number of channels & this
is achieved by keeping R constant & D/R decreased.
▪ Sectoring increases the S/I (signal to interference) ratio by using direction
antenna so that cluster size may be reduced.
▪ Capacity improvement is achieved by reducing the number of cells in a
cluster, thus increase the frequency reuse.
▪ To do all this, we have to reduce interference without decreasing the
transmit power.
 Improving Coverage & Capacity in Cellular system
▪ When sectoring is employed,
the channels used in a particular
Cell are broken down into sectored
groups & are used only with in a
Particular sector.
▪ Assuming N=7 for the case 120o
Sector. The number of interference
In the first tier is reduced from 6 to 2.
This is because only 2 of 6 co-channel
Cells receive interference with a
Particular sectored group as shown.
▪ Out of 6 co-channel cells, 3 are on
Right & 3 are on Left of middle cell. Source : Wireless Communications: Principles
▪ With Omni directional antenna due to and Practice, Theodore S. Rappaport, pp 91.
Presence of 6 cells, they can interfere (in tier) with middle 5 th block.
Now, only 2 antenna will interfere with the middle one, so the number is reduced to
2 from 6.
 Improving Coverage & Capacity in Cellular system
3) Microcell Zone Concept :
Problem with sectoring
▪ Even inside a cell, handoff is required.
▪ Load on the MSC increased.
▪ To overcome
this problem,
we divide the
cell into further
2-3 zones. This
technique is
known as Micro-
cell Zone Concept.
This concept is
introduced by
LEE.

Source : Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, Theodore S. Rappaport, pp 95.

 Improving Coverage & Capacity in Cellular system
Construction : Each of 3 or more zone sites are connected to a single base
station & share the same radio equipment (Base Station)as shown in figure.
▪ Zones are connected by coaxial cable, fiber optic cable or microwave link to
the base station.
▪ Multiple zones & a single base station Make up a cell.
▪ Operation : A mobile with in a cell, is served by
the zone with the strongest signal.
▪ This approach is superior to sectoring
since antennas are placed on the edges of
the cell & any BS channel may be assigned
to any zone by the base station.
▪ As mobile travels from one zone to another
within the cell, it retains the same channel.
▪ Unlike in sectoring, handoff is not required
at the MSC when the mobile travels b/w zones
within the cell.
 Improving Coverage & Capacity in Cellular system

▪ The base station simply switches the channel to a different zone site.
▪ Advantages:
1)Interference is reduced, as a given channel is active only in the particular
zone in which mobile is travelling.
2) Increase in capacity, without degradation in trunking efficiency caused by
sectoring.
3) While the cell maintains a particular coverage radius, the co-channel
interference in the cellular system is reduced since a large central base
station is replaced by several low powered transmitters on the edges of the
cell.
4)Decreased co-channel interference improves the signal quality.