FM Global

Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets 1-55

September 2004
Page 1 of 18

WEAK CONSTRUCTION AND DESIGN

Table of Contents
Page

1.0 SCOPE ................................................................................................................................................... 3

1.1 Changes ............................................................................................................................................ 3
2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................................... 3
2.1 Construction and Location ............................................................................................................... 3
2.1.1 Buckling of Columns ............................................................................................................. 3
2.1.2 Improper Splicing of Columns and Beams ........................................................................... 3
2.1.3 Unstable Beam Connections ................................................................................................. 3
2.1.4 Fatigue and Loose Connectors ............................................................................................. 3
2.1.5 Missing Structural Members and Connectors ....................................................................... 3
2.1.6 Timber Construction .............................................................................................................. 3
2.1.7 Reinforced Concrete and Masonry Construction .................................................................. 4
2.1.8 Foundations ........................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Occupancy ....................................................................................................................................... 4
2.2.1 Floor Overloading .................................................................................................................. 4
2.3 Operational and Maintenance ......................................................................................................... 4
2.3.1 Loose Connections ................................................................................................................ 4
2.3.2 Corrosion ............................................................................................................................... 4
2.3.3 Timber Construction .............................................................................................................. 4
2.3.4 Reinforced Concrete and Masonry Construction .................................................................. 5
2.3.5 Foundations ........................................................................................................................... 5
3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................... 5
3.1 Design and Construction Weaknesses ........................................................................................... 5
3.1.1 Inadequate Roof Design ....................................................................................................... 5
3.1.2 Buckling of Columns ............................................................................................................. 5
3.1.3 Improper Splicing of Columns ............................................................................................... 6
3.1.4 Improper Splicing of Beams .................................................................................................. 7
3.1.5 Unstable Beam Connections ................................................................................................. 8
3.1.6 Fatigue and Loose Connections ............................................................................................ 9
3.1.7 Missing Structural Members ................................................................................................ 11
3.1.8 Missing Connectors ............................................................................................................. 11
3.1.9 Corrosion .............................................................................................................................. 12
3.1.10 Timber Construction ........................................................................................................... 13
3.1.11 Reinforced Concrete and Masonry Construction ............................................................... 14
3.1.12 Thin Walls ........................................................................................................................... 15
3.1.13 Additions and Occupancy Changes ................................................................................... 16
3.1.14 Foundations ........................................................................................................................ 17
4.0 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................... 17
APPENDIX A — GLOSSARY OF TERMS ................................................................................................. 18
APPENDIX B — DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY ................................................................................. 18
APPENDIX C — BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................. 18

List of Figures
Fig. 1. Buckled columns. ................................................................................................................................ 6
Fig. 2. Column splice (welded connection) (smaller column bearing on larger one). ................................... 7
Fig. 3. Beam splice (welded connection). ...................................................................................................... 7
Fig. 4. Typical bolted column splices. ............................................................................................................ 8

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Fig. 5. Bolted beam splice. ............................................................................................................................. 9

Fig. 6. Beam-column connections. ............................................................................................................... 10
Fig. 7. Load indicating bolt. ........................................................................................................................... 11
Fig. 8. Trusses. ............................................................................................................................................. 12

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Weak Construction and Design 1-55
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 3

1.0 SCOPE
Collapses, both partial and complete, occur each year from excessive loading and various other causes.
Rarely is the collapse of a structure instantaneous, without any indication of a weakness. This data sheet
discusses criteria by which types of weak or deteriorated construction can be recognized.
This data sheet does not discuss analysis of rain and snow load (see Data Sheet 1-54, Roof Loads For New
Construction) or seismic considerations see (Data Sheet 1-2, Earthquakes), nor does it outline specific
recommendations to resolve problems of weak construction or design. For locations within FM Global 50-year
through 500-year earthquake zones, refer to Data Sheet 1-2, Earthquakes.
This data sheet is designed to aid in recognizing weak construction. This data sheet can be used during a
regular building inspection, when weak construction is suspected and as an aid to determining the cause of
a loss.

1.1 Changes
September 2004. References to FM Global earthquake zones have been modified for consistency with Data
Sheet 1-2, Earthquakes.

2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS

2.1 Construction and Location

2.1.1 Buckling of Columns

2.1.1.1 If columns are believed to have buckled from excessive loading, consult a structural engineer to
determine the extent of probable overloading and to recommend proper reinforcement of the structure.
2.1.1.2 Determine the cause of the overloading and the situation should be remedied. This may be done
by either reducing the loading (e.g., relocating equipment, machinery, storage) or reinforcing the structure.
2.1.1.3 If columns are damaged from collisions, repair or replace the members. Repair or replace sheared
anchor bolts at column base plates. Temporary supports may be needed until repairs can be made.

2.1.2 Improper Splicing of Columns and Beams

2.1.2.1 If splices appear to be improperly done, a structural engineer should determine their adequacy.

2.1.3 Unstable Beam Connections

2.1.3.1 When there are design or maintenance weaknesses in the structure and the beams are framed across
column tops, correct weaknesses.

2.1.4 Fatigue and Loose Connectors

2.1.4.1 When signs of fatigue (see Section 3.1.6) are evident, consult a structural engineer to determine
the need for replacement or repair of members.

2.1.5 Missing Structural Members and Connectors

2.1.5.1 If it is necessary to remove, relocate or alter a structural member, or if there is evidence that this
has already been done without proper reinforcement, consult a structural engineer to determine if and how
additional reinforcement should be provided.
2.1.5.2 Insert and tighten bolts in all bolt holes.
2.1.5.3 Use continuous or intermittent welds (as appropriate according to plans) instead of tack welds.

2.1.6 Timber Construction

2.1.6.1 Replace tension members instead of spliced.
2.1.6.2 Splice compression and members subject to bending using splice plates on all sides of the mem-
ber. Use through bolts to secure the splice plates. The cross-sectional area of the splice plates should be great

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enough to carry at least 25% of the stresses involved. This can be roughly estimated by comparing the
cross-sectional area of the splice plates with that of the member, provided they are the same material.

2.1.7 Reinforced Concrete and Masonry Construction

2.1.7.1 When walls appear to be too thin according to the guidelines listed in this data sheet (see Section
3.1.12), consult a structural engineer to determine their adequacy.

2.1.8 Foundations
2.1.8.1 When new construction is to be located in close proximity to existing foundations upon soils subject
to heave or dragdown, construction practices and foundation design should be investigated by a geotechnical
engineer to minimize potential damage to the existing structure.
2.1.8.2 Consider lateral movement for its effect on existing foundations whenever excavation, demolition or
saturation is to be conducted in the vicinity of existing buildings. The analysis should be conducted by a
geotechnical engineer.
2.1.8.3 Prior to construction in areas suspected or known to be prone to sinkholes, consult a geologist or geo-
technical engineer to investigate the subsurface earth layers and assist the structural engineer if necessary
(See Section 3.1.14.1).

2.2 Occupancy

2.2.1 Floor Overloading

2.2.1.1 If possible, determine the cause of overloading and relocate the material causing the overloading
relocated to a safe area. It may be necessary to provide temporary reinforcement and relocate building
contents beneath the overloaded area.
2.2.1.2 When the overloading material cannot be permanently relocated, consult a structural engineer to
recommend permanent reinforcement for the structure.

2.3 Operational and Maintenance

2.3.1 Loose Connections

2.3.1.1 Loose connectors should be retorqued. When high strength bolts are used, the torque required will
be specified by the designer.
2.3.1.2 Connections between timber members should be tightened after the first heating season and when-
ever inspection reveals that they are loose. This is particularly critical with bow-string truss roofs. Make annual
inspections of all connections.

2.3.2 Corrosion
2.3.2.1 When rusting involves only the surface of the member, and has not proceeded to substantially diminish
the cross sectional area of the member, remove the corrosion and paint the member with a protective coat-
ing.
2.3.2.2 When rusting is severe and has diminished the cross sectional area of the member, consult a struc-
tural engineer to determine the advisability of replacing the member.
2.3.2.3 When reinforcing steel in reinforced concrete construction is discovered to be corroding or exposed,
clean the reinforcing steel and patch the concrete surface to prevent further damage. If corrosion appears
severe, consult a structural engineer.

2.3.3 Timber Construction

2.3.3.1 When wood members have been subjected to high heat (>150°F [66°C]) and/or high humidity over
an extended period, consult a structural engineer to determine the adequacy of the members due to the poten-
tial loss of strength.
2.3.3.2 If rotting occurs only in a few isolated members, they should be replaced or when acceptable spliced
with sound, new timber members of equal or higher stress grade. Do not splice tension members.

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FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 5

2.3.3.3 If rotting is extensive, consult a structural engineer to determine the extent of repairs. Consult quali-
fied personnel to determine the cause of the rotting and recommend corrective action.
2.3.3.4 Repair or replace members with excessive splitting and those with splits through bolt holes.

2.3.4 Reinforced Concrete and Masonry Construction

2.3.4.1 If cracking appears to be serious, a structural engineer should recommend any necessary repairs.
2.3.4.2 When spalling or cracking results in exposure of reinforcing steel, repair the concrete work.

2.3.5 Foundations
2.3.5.1 When signs of settlement such as cracks in foundations and walls, columns out of plumb and tilted
floors are present, consult a structural engineer.
2.3.5.2 If continuous pumping from deep wells or other means of possibly lowering groundwater elevations
are present, an investigation by a geotechnical engineer into the effects on foundations may be warranted.

3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1 Design and Construction Weaknesses

There are many ways to design and build a structure. Certain design features and construction methods
are more susceptible to failure than others. The following sections address failure modes associated with
building design elements and construction methods. The purpose of this section is to support the recommen-
dations and assist the reader in identifying certain weaknesses.

3.1.1 Inadequate Roof Design

Roof live load design strength may range from less than 20 psf (958 N/m2) to over 60 psf (2870 N/m2)
depending upon local codes and the purpose for which it is constructed. Lightweight, flat roofs that are
designed for less than a 20 psf (958 N/m2) are of great concern. These roofs often sag under very light load-
ing and are, therefore, very susceptible to ponding. Even when there is an adequate number of roof drains,
the roof can be expected to deflect since a certain amount of static buildup of rainwater at the drains is
required to promote adequate flow. If the drains are located near columns or at the perimeter, which is often
the case, they will be at areas of minimal deflection. This contributes to ponding and the rapid deflection
of other areas of the roof. This, in turn, prevents water from reaching the drains, increasing the ponding effect.
Ponding of this type has led to the collapse of many inadequately designed roof systems (Data Sheet 1-54,
Roof Loads for New Construction). This deflection can also loosen fasteners or break adhesive bonds secur-
ing above roof deck components.
Recognition. The exact roof strength can only be determined through a structural analysis or from the design
live load that usually appears on the roof framing plans. The given design live load may have been reduced
by live load reduction factors when some of the members were selected (See Data Sheet 1-54, Roof Loads
for New Construction). Roofs that are designed for live loads of less than 20 psf (958 N/m2) can often be rec-
ognized simply by walking on them. These roofs may not deflect noticeably under a person’s weight, but
they will provide a very noticeable bounce and they will deflect if several people stand together.
The potential for ponding is greatly increased if a minimum roof slope of 1⁄4 in. per ft (20.8 mm per m) is
not provided or if drains are provided only at one side of the roof. Both of these conditions are readily
observable.

3.1.2 Buckling of Columns

Steel columns can show signs of buckling from either physical damage (i.e., ramming the column by lift truck
or other vehicle) or overloading. While both forms of damage are serious, overloading is a far more danger-
ous and complicated problem since it is certain the member is being overstressed and quite possible that oth-
ers will be similarly affected.
If overloading is suspected, possible causes include new construction or heavy machinery on the floor or
roof above. These items are readily observable.

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Recognition. Buckling of steel columns from ramming and overloading may appear as a slight bowing. A
4-ft (1.2 m) level or straight edge may be helpful to determine if a column is bowed and what the deflec-
tion is. Since both forms of damage may look the same, it is often difficult in determining the exact cause. In
extreme cases, overloading will cause the member to form two opposite arcs displaced on either side of
the original vertical line similar to an elongated ‘‘S’’, while ramming will result in a sharper angle or even a
crimp (See Figure 1). In less extreme cases there may be localized web or flange buckling. If neither of these
extreme cases are present, it may be necessary to take into account the loadings involved, the type of mobile
equipment used and testimony from plant personnel in order to draw a logical conclusion.

Fig. 1. Buckled columns.

Reinforced concrete columns also show signs of buckling from either overloading or physical damage. An
overloaded reinforced concrete column will crack outward along inclined planes and horizontally. The cracks
will incline at an angle near 45° in compression zones and there may be horizontal cracks in tension zones.
The effects of physical damage such as ramming are fairly obvious. The concrete will appear chipped or
spalled and the reinforcing steel may be visible.

3.1.3 Improper Splicing of Columns

It is sometimes necessary to splice columns in multi-story buildings. Such splices usually involve two members
of the same size, but may also be a connection of a smaller section resting on a larger one. If these splices
are not properly done, bending stresses caused by wind or other lateral forces may cause the column to
move out of correct alignment and eventually to fail.
Recognition. If both members to be spliced are of the same size, they should bear directly upon each other
and be perfectly aligned. If the connection is a welded connection, then a butt plate may be used or the mem-
bers may be directly welded to each other. Often this connection does not require the use of flange plates
or web plates except for shaft alignment during erection. In the absence of flange or web plates, lugs are
sometimes used for field alignment. The lugs are often removed after the connection has been made due
to architectural requirements. In bolted connections, the members are attached using either flange plates, web
plates or both. The splice plates (flange or web) may be attached using bolts on both ends or the splice
plate may be shop welded to one column and bolted to the other in the field. It is, of course, important that
all bolts are provided for each hole and that high strength bolts or rivets are used as called for by the
specifications.
When a column of a smaller nominal size is to be supported on a larger one, a horizontal bearing plate (butt
plate) or fill plates are used to transfer the stresses to the lower member. Splice plates are then added as
needed. A fill plate is used to build up the flange of the smaller section before the splice plate is welded or
bolted in place (See Figs. 2 and 4).

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FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 7

Fig. 2. Column splice (welded connection) (smaller column bearing on larger one).

Fig. 3. Beam splice (welded connection).

3.1.4 Improper Splicing of Beams

Splicing of beams is more difficult than column splicing. The most conservative and usual method requires
that the splice be made at the portion of the beam that has the least stress. Unfortunately, these loca-
tions migrate with various loadings and a section where the stresses were low when the building was new
may later be subject to higher stresses. Therefore, the preferred method is to maintain continuity by design-
ing splices for 100 percent of the moment and shear capacity of the members spliced.
Beam splices are done much in the same manner as column splices, in that splice plates are often used.
(See Figs. 3 and 5) Flange plates are assumed to carry axial stresses from the flanges, and web plates are
assumed to carry the web stresses. This can be interpreted to mean that flange plates transfer the moment
stress and web plates transfer the shear stress.

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Fig. 4. Typical bolted column splices.

Recognition. If the splices in a particular bay appear to be at a random, nonuniform spacing, bending stresses
in the beam may not have been considered. If splice plates are cracked, deformed or show other obvious
signs of distress, the splice may have been considerably weakened.

3.1.5 Unstable Beam Connections

Methods of attaching steel beams to their supporting columns vary. The usual method is to connect the end
of the beam to the side of the column using angles at the top and bottom of the beam’s flanges or on both
sides of the web to provide the mutual connection between the two members. In contrast to this method,
the beams may rest on the tops of the columns and are either welded to them or fastened to a plate that is
attached to the column top. This arrangement sometimes leads to an unstable support. Should any of the col-
umns tilt, they would transmit a lateral force to the other columns and cause them to react similarly. A

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FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 9

Fig. 5. Bolted beam splice.

domino-type failure could then result. This framing method is not a cause of collapse in itself, but it results
in much more damage should a partial collapse occur. When beams are continuous over the top of col-
umns, the beam web often needs reinforcement to prevent web buckling (see Fig. 6).
Recognition. Beams running across column tops are readily apparent during a visual inspection. A visual
inspection of the beam web should be made to determine the extent, if any, of web buckling and for the pres-
ence of web stiffeners.

3.1.6 Fatigue and Loose Connections

Fatigue is a general term used to describe the initiation and propagation of cracks that are the result of the
application of fluctuating loads or deformations over a period of time. The loads or deformations that typi-
cally result in fatigue cracking are less than the design loads or yield stress.
To list all the possible loadings that meet this criteria would be impossible; however, some examples are:
• Wind loading
• Vehicle traffic
• Crane loads
• Vibrating equipment
• Large mechanical presses
The cyclic loading associated with fatigue may also loosen connections. Loose connectors, such as bolts
or screws, can weaken a structure. Connections that are loose and subject to movement in one or more direc-
tions, as well as radially, but were designed for very limited translation or rotation, will be weaker than

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Fig. 6. Beam-column connections.

designed. The load that the connection cannot carry, if it does not cause sudden collapse, will be distrib-
uted to other members and thus other connections. This will add additional stress to these members and
connections.
The installation of high strength bolts American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) A325 and A49 call
for the bolts to be tightened to a certain percentage of their specified minimum tensile stress in slipcritical con-
nections, connections subject to direct tension, and fully pre-tensioned bearing connections. This high initial
tension increases joint rigidity, improves fatigue life, increases slip resistance and reduces the probability
of nut loosening. In connections not within the slip-critical category nor subject to direct tension nor required
to be fully pretensioned bearing connections; the bolts need only to be tightened to the snug tight condition.
Recognition. Fatigue manifests itself as a series of small cracks perpendicular to the line of stress. Holes
drilled at the crack front are an attempt to arrest the crack propagation.
Loose connections may feel tight when tried by hand, but spot checking a few bolts with a wrench will pro-
vide more reliable information. There are bolts called ‘‘load indicating bolts’’ (see Fig. 7) that are installed
with a special tool that twists off the splined end when the proper tension is achieved. Any connection made

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FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 11

with this type of bolt where the splined end remains may be loose. The snug-tight condition is defined as
the tightness that exists when all plies of a connection are in firm contact. This can be obtained by the full
effort of a person using an ordinary spud wrench.

Fig. 7. Load indicating bolt.

3.1.7 Missing Structural Members

When additions are made by plant personnel or others not familiar with the structural design of the original
building, important structural members may be inadvertently removed, relocated or have their structural
integrity compromised.
Recognition. The presence of excessive splicing of wood joists, sagging floors, obvious breaks in symmetri-
cal placing of columns or abrupt changes in size of structural members may be indications of improper
alternations.
Steel joists and trusses are designed in such a manner that all of the structural members are needed to
ensure that stresses are distributed properly. In some cases, several members originate at one point in the
truss in a way that might lead the layman to believe that some of them are not needed. As a result, mem-
bers have sometimes been removed to allow space for ducts and other apparatus to pass through. This prac-
tice can greatly reduce the strength of the truss and result in future collapse.
Recognition. Trusses in any given area of a building are usually similarly constructed. They can, there-
fore, be compared for similarity; missing members will be apparent. Also, most trusses are symmetrical, so
a missing member will break the symmetry. Particular attention should be paid to points where newer duct-
work or conveyors pass through trusses. (See Fig. 8)

3.1.8 Missing Connectors

The fabrication and erection of steel frame buildings are very competitive businesses, and as a result, the
building members are often designed to provide very little strength in excess of that specified. An obviously
important part of the design of a structure is the selection of properly sized members for the loads speci-
fied. Equally important is the design of the connections of these members; however, it is often much less
emphasized and in some instances left up to detailers and fabricators. For these two reasons it is essen-
tial that every fastener called for in the specifications, whether bolts or welds, be provided in order for the struc-
ture to achieve the design strength.
Recognition. Tack welds (welds <11⁄2 in. [38 mm] long) that are either used as a temporary connection that
becomes permanent or as a cheaper, faster substitute for the specified connection may be considerably
weaker than properly bolted, continuously or intermittently welded connections. Investigation may be war-
ranted when there are empty bolt holes, tack welds where continuous welds appear to be needed or tack
welds where bolt holes are also present.

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Fig. 8. Trusses.

3.1.9 Corrosion
Corrosion can be defined as the deterioration of a material by chemical or electrochemical interaction with
the environment. This data sheet is limited to the corrosion of structural steel and reinforcing steel in con-
crete members. Steel (and other structural metals) exposed to oxygen and moisture will rust and be con-
tinuously reduced in cross-section. A reduction in area directly relates to a reduction in the load-carrying
capability of a member.
Corrosion is accelerated in environments containing acids, chlorides, hydrogen and organic matter in con-
tact with the steel.

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There are certain high-strength, low-alloy steels called ‘‘weathering steel,’’ that are less susceptible to con-
tinuous corrosion. ASTM A588 steel is generally used for weathering steel in buildings and ASTM A709 for
weathering steel in bridges. These steels do not pit as severely as carbon steel. The weathering steel cor-
rodes to a certain depth after which the rust acts as a protective coating to prevent further deterioration.
These steels can be identified as having a uniformly dense corroded surface that is a deep reddish brown
color (sometimes looking almost purple).
Reinforcing steel embedded in concrete is also subject to corrosion. Cracking or spalling of the concrete
can allow moisture to reach the steel. The oxidation reactions cause an expansion of the steel and these
expansive forces will create more cracking or spalling. Corrosive liquids in contact with the concrete sur-
face can permeate the concrete and reach the reinforcing steel.
Recognition. Clean steel surfaces do not readily retain moisture. When the member is allowed to collect
dirt, the dirt will trap moisture and accelerate corrosion. Pockets in channels or box beams and contact sur-
faces between members are most susceptible.
When portions of steel are imbedded in concrete and exposed to the atmosphere, moisture can enter at
the junction and lead to corrosion in the covered steel. Corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete is evident
when rust weeps from cracks. Corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete can be easily recognized as red-
dish brown pits or scales on the surface of members.
Particular attention should be paid to possible corrosion of structural members in the following locations or
occupancies:
• Lumber mills (particularly drying kilns and pressure treatment)
• Pulp and paper mills
• Coastal areas
• Processes involving acids
• Processes involving chlorine or chlorides
• Processes involving sulfur, sulfides, sulfates
• Rayon spinning plants
• Parking garages

3.1.10 Timber Construction

Wooden roof decks and other types of timber construction are generally quite strong when they are new,
but they may become weakened with age. This weakening may be the result of rotting, termites, shrink-
age, humidity or improper maintenance.

3.1.10.1 Rotting
Where humidity is high or when wooden members have been exposed to roof leakage (water), rotting may
occur. Where the faces of the wood member are exposed to air, signs of rotting may not be evident. Rotting
generally begins where the faces of two or more members come in contact. The moisture is retained in these
areas and may cause large portions of the entire timber to be rotted away internally while the exterior appears
to be sound.
Recognition. Close examination of the faces of timbers as near as possible to abutting members will often
reveal signs of rotting.
If rotting is suspected, such as in extremely humid areas or areas subjected to roof leakage, but examina-
tion of the faces does not reveal it, the timbers may be sounded with a hammer. If rotting is fairly exten-
sive, a hollow sound will be evident. Often a pocket knife can be used to check for rot. If the knife enters
easily, rot is present. In advanced stages, softening, discoloration and even a cotton-like appearance becomes
readily apparent.

3.1.10.2 Shrinkage and Splitting

During the first few years after erection, timber members continue to season and, therefore, to shrink. While
the shrinkage itself does not result in a lessening of the strength of the member, it may result in splitting

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and a loosening of connections. When connections are loosened, deflection of the members may result,
thereby redistributing forces throughout the members in a manner for which they may not have been designed.
Some degree of splitting or checking (extending mainly in the axial direction of the member) is expected
and is taken into account in the design specifications for wood. The degree of allowable splitting is depen-
dent upon the type and grade of lumber. If splitting appears to be excessive, the manufacturer’s specifica-
tions should be consulted. Splits that occur at bolt holes in line with the line of bearing greatly reduce the
strength of the connection.
Recognition. Unless bolts were tightened after the first heating season and a few times thereafter, their tight-
ness may be suspect. To determine the tightness by visual inspection, check to see if the bolts have been
torqued to a point where the washers have begun to embed themselves in the wood.
If the bolts were originally tightened, but the members have since seasoned and shrunk, the washer will
still be embedded, but there will be a space between the washer and bolt head or the bolt may be loose
enough to back off by hand.

3.1.10.3 Splicing
Proper maintenance of timber structures often necessitates the repair of columns and beams by splicing. If
this is done in an acceptable manner, the structure will not be weakened. There have been many cases, how-
ever, where this was done by plant personnel or others who were not aware of the proper technique and the
structures were weakened instead of strengthened.
Recognition. In order to splice a member, it is necessary to drill holes in it, thereby reducing its strength.
Since the bolts will fill these holes, the member is not affected very much in compression, but it may become
overstressed in tension. Therefore, spliced tension members will not develop the strength in the range of
the original member.
For a compression member to be properly spliced, splice plates should be provided on all four sides with
throughbolts connecting them. The cross-sectional area of the plates should be large enough to allow them
to carry 25% of the axial load themselves. This can be roughly determined by comparing the cross-
sectional area of the four plates with that of the member (provided the splice plates are roughly the same mate-
rial as the member to be spliced).
Wooden beams should be spliced only over supports. In addition, splices in adjacent members should be stag-
gered over different supports.

3.1.10.4 Heat and Humidity

Wood that has been exposed to high heat and humidity for extended periods can be expected to lose 5%
of its strength for every 10° over 70°F (5° above 20°C). This may eventually lead to collapse of a structure
under a very light live load or under its own weight.
Wood subjected to temperatures in excess of 150°F (66°C) for extended periods of time is permanently weak-
ened even though the temperature may be subsequently reduced. This loss of strength is immediate. If the
humidity is above 12%, the loss can be permanent even when the exposure to high temperatures is fairly
short.

3.1.11 Reinforced Concrete and Masonry Construction

Reinforced concrete structures are usually quite strong, but they may be weakened by deterioration. In order
to properly support the building, the foundation and building walls must be of adequate size and the soil (sub-
grade) must be of adequate bearing capacity. Loss of structural integrity of any of these components may
result in collapse of the entire structure.

3.1.11.1 Spalling
Spalling of concrete structural members reduces the cross-sectional area of the member and thereby reduces
its load carrying capability. It may also cause reinforcing steel to become exposed. This will result in corro-
sion of the steel. As it rusts, the steel increases in volume; the increased volume causes more spalling.
Spalling will also result in the reduction of bond strength between the concrete and the reinforcing steel.
Recognition. Spalling and exposed reinforcing bars are easily recognized by visual inspection. When
reinforcing bars have corroded, a series of parallel cracks or spalled areas will be evident.

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3.1.11.2 Cracking
Cracking appears to some degree in most concrete structures. Often, these cracks are dormant and do not
require repair, but there are times when active cracks may affect the strength of the member. Diagonal cracks
in shallow beams (span depth ratio of eight or more) can be very serious and result in sudden collapse of
the beam.
Recognition. While cracking is easily recognized it may be difficult to determine if it is active and if struc-
tural integrity is affected. Generally, cracks that occur as a pattern are dormant.
If the crack is isolated, and especially if it involves a tension member or results in exposure of reinforcing
steel, it may require further analysis. (Reminder: generally the bottom half of beams are in tension.)

3.1.11.3 Inferior Concrete Mixes and Concrete Degradation

Concrete, unlike steel or other building materials, is not homogeneous and does not have static, consistent
properties after it has left the batch plant. There are many factors that play an important role in whether or
not the mix will reach the design strength. Aggregate, cement and water are the primary ingredients to con-
crete and, therefore, they are the primary source of problems with inferior mixes leaving a batch plant. Water
and the environment are the primary factors affecting the mix after it has left the plant.
The cement used at batch plants is generally under careful control by both the supplier and the batch plant.
Relatively few problems occur from inferior or improper use of the cement. The aggregate used in a con-
crete mix must be compatible with the other ingredients. Chemical reactions between the cement and aggre-
gate can have adverse effects on the performance of the concrete. Experience has shown that concrete
mixes in which siliceous aggregates were used with cement having a high alkali content (percent of alkali
as equivalent to Na20 of more than 0.6) resulted in excessive cracking in structures at least five years old.
The ‘‘Alkali-Silica’’ reaction rarely starts at less than five years old.
Aggregate or water contaminated with chlorides (salt) can cause deterioration of the concrete as well as
corrosion of the reinforcing steel. Generally, the water should be potable with no pronounced taste or odor
(a notable taste or odor usually indicates more than a trace amount of acids, alkalis, salts or organic material).
The water-cement ratio is yet another important factor in the concrete mix. There is a minimum water-
cement ratio of approximately 35-40% by weight. This is the amount of water needed for the chemical reaction
(hydration). The water-cement ratios in concrete are generally considerably larger than this minimum to pro-
vide the necessary workability of the concrete. As the amount of water increases above the minimum, the
workability improves, but the strength decreases because of the larger volume of voids created by the free
water.
As previously mentioned, the environment can substantially affect the concrete during curing and long after
the concrete has been in place. Pouring concrete in cold weather is possible. The mixing water and occa-
sionally the aggregate are heated to protect the concrete from freezing. Special admixtures of calcium chlo-
ride or calcium nitrate are used to accelerate curing thereby reducing the effect of cold temperatures (below
40°F). When necessary, enclosures are built over the placed concrete and external heat from kerosene heat-
ers is provided. Freezing of fresh concrete may reduce its strength by as much as 50 percent.
Another environmental effect is deterioration caused by external sources of chlorides. Road salt, de-icers
and seawater attack the surface of the concrete structure. Since excess water (more than necessary for hydra-
tion) creates voids, concrete is a porous material. Parking garages are particularly susceptible to deteriora-
tion of the concrete from road salt dripping from parked cars or from de-icing the garage itself. The concrete
is softened and the corrosion of reinforcing steel is accelerated.

3.1.12 Thin Walls

Experience has shown that slender members will fail at a lower loading than deeper members of the same
cross-sectional area. This is explained by the differing methods of failure of each member. The deeper mem-
ber will fail when the material, or materials, reach their yielding or crushing stress. The slender member will
fail from buckling. Buckling is a failure from lateral bending of the member which overstresses the materi-
als in the compression zone and the tension zone. The stresses from bending are superimposed on the axial
compression and buckling then occurs as a result of the combined stresses.

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3.1.12.1 Reinforced Concrete Walls

As a rule of thumb, the thickness of nonbearing walls should not be less than 1/30 of the distance between
lateral supports (i.e., between the floor and roof or between columns) or 4 inches (102 mm), whichever is
larger. Bearing walls should be at least as thick as 1⁄25 of the distance between lateral support or 4 inches
(102 mm), whichever is greater.
Foundation walls of reinforced concrete should be at least 71⁄2 in. (191 mm) thick.
Walls can be adequately designed to thicknesses less than above and therefore exceeding these mini-
mums does not create a collapse potential in and of itself. The design is more complicated than the empiri-
cal design method outlined in Reference 1. The minimum thickness should be used as a guide indicating
when additional investigation may be required.

3.1.12.2 Masonry Unit Walls

Generally, load bearing and non-loadbearing walls should be at least as thick as 1/18 of the distance between
lateral supports. (When a non-load bearing wall is used as an interior wall the thickness may be decreased
to 1/36 of the span between lateral supports.) When bearing walls use solid block or are fully grouted, the
thickness may be decreased to 1⁄20 of the span.
The minimum thickness of foundation walls should generally be 12 in. (305 mm) unless the depth below
finish grade is shallow (less than 6 ft [1.8 m]) or the wall is properly reinforced with grout and/or reinforcing
steel.
Masonry walls can be adequately designed for thicknesses less than those noted above. The design is more
complicated than the empirical design method outlined in Reference 2. The minimum thicknesses indi-
cated should be used as a guide to indicate when additional investigation may be required.

3.1.13 Additions and Occupancy Changes

Buildings are not always used for their originally intended purposes. Changes made in the occupancy or
the structure itself subject the structural system to loadings that were not contemplated in the original design.

3.1.13.1 Additions
Additions are sometimes made to buildings without giving proper attention to roof drainage. In some instances,
the additions have been placed adjacent to the lower side of an essentially flat roof and the roof drains have
been eliminated because they would be draining to the interior of the building. As a result, pockets that
greatly encourage ponding are formed and the roof is exposed to the possibility of collapse.
Recognition. This can be found by inspecting the roof area near the common wall. The slope of the roofs
and the water marks from previous ponding should provide adequate proof. Specific details on roof drain-
age are discussed further in Data Sheet 1-54, Roof Loads for New Construction.

3.1.13.2 Occupancy Changes

As the occupancy of a building changes, excessive loads may be placed on the floors. This is particularly
true of mezzanines.
This loading may be in the form of heavy machinery or high-piled storage. Particular attention should be
paid to the installation of overhead cranes and hoists in existing buildings. Reinforcement of supporting mem-
bers may be needed.
Recognition. If overloading is suspected, check the floor for signs of sagging. The vertical alignment of col-
umns supporting the floor may also be affected. The presence of shoring, bracing or intermediate placing
of columns is also an indication of overloading. If the building’s structural drawings or specifications are avail-
able, a comparison can be made between an estimate of the new live load and the live load design indi-
cated on the drawings.

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3.1.14 Foundations
To the layperson the importance of a proper foundation to support the structure is so strikingly obvious it
almost becomes an afterthought. All loads on a structure are transferred to the foundation and eventually to
the underlying soils. The transfer of these loads needs to be done in such a manner that the resulting settle-
ments can be tolerated by the structure. The objective of foundation design is to provide stability over the
life of the structure.
Most buildings are expected to settle to some extent, but when settling becomes excessive or uneven, the
structural integrity of the building may be affected. Excessive settling is usually the result of shrinkage or con-
solidation of soil beneath the structure. Soils composed primarily of clay have the ability to absorb and retain
great quantities of water. When the weight of a structure is placed on clay, the water is slowly forced out
of it and the soil ‘‘shrinks.’’ This process may continue for an extended time. If it is allowed to continue indefi-
nitely, columns and load bearing walls may begin to tilt and large cracks may develop in the foundation walls.
The structure may eventually collapse.
Clays are not the only soil type affected by the amount of water saturation. Most soils will undergo a change
in dimensions with changes in water content. Fluctuation in the ground water elevation can seriously affect
the supporting soil. Pumping from deep wells either on site or from adjacent properties can affect the sta-
bility of foundations. When the groundwater elevation is lowered, the soil above the new elevation begins to
shrink and consolidate. As the soil volume decreases, settlement of foundations can occur over a fairly large
area.
Heave can also cause substantial damage to foundations. Clays, plastic soils and liquid soils are subject
to settlement and heave. Plastic and liquid soils are nearly incompressible; therefore, every settlement must
be accompanied by an equal volume of heave. If a new structure is not separated from an existing one with
enough space to allow for heave, the new load can affect the stability of the existing structure. Similarly,
since the foundation is not supported solely by the soil directly beneath it but also by fringe areas, a new
load can, by internal shear strength, cause the existing structure to have additional settlement called
‘‘dragdown.’’
Excavations adjacent to existing structures can induce yet another factor that can cause damage to founda-
tions. Lateral movement of soil, and thus foundations, occurs when an excavation results in unbalanced hori-
zontal pressures. Lateral movement can be alleviated by providing temporary or permanent corresponding
added resistance.
Recognition. Wide diagonal cracks in foundation walls, columns that are out of plumb and tilted floors are
sometimes signs of settlement. If the building is on soil composed primarily of clay and the above-
mentioned signs are present, the possibility of settlement should be considered.

3.1.14.1 Sinkholes
Sinkhole is a general term for a depression in the land’s surface caused by the sagging or complete col-
lapse of subsurface layers. Sinkholes generally occur in areas with one or more of the following criteria:
1. Thick layers of subsurface limestone.
2. History of underground mining.
3. History of large fluctuations in the water table.
Water (ground water or surface water) percolating into the limestone dissolves the calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
along the joints and bedding layers of the limestone. Over time, the joints and cracks become larger and
may become interconnected caves. As the caverns get larger the pressure from the layers of earth above
may overcome the strength of the supporting material and the sinkhole is formed. The surcharge on the soil
provided by any aboveground structures can accelerate the process.

4.0 REFERENCES
For more information, please refer to the following data sheets as cited in the text.
Data Sheet 1-2, Earthquakes
Data Sheet 1-9, Roof Anchorage
Data Sheet 1-14, Construction Systems

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Data Sheet 1-28, Design Wind Loads

Data Sheet 1-30, Repair of Wind Damaged Roof Systems
Data Sheet 1-44, Damage-Limiting Construction
Data Sheet 1-54, Roof Loads for New Construction
Data Sheet 1-55, Weak Construction and Design

APPENDIX A — GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Sinkhole. General term for a depression in the land’s surface caused by the sagging or complete collapse
of surface layers.

APPENDIX B — DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY

June 1999. This document has been reorganized to provide a consistent format.
May 1991. This data sheet was revised. The major changes are as follows:
• The recommendations regarding roof loads and roof collapse were deleted as this is covered in Data Sheet
1-54, Roof Loads for New Construction.
Figures were added to improve identification by the reader.
April 1999, Reformatted
May 1998, Reformatted and published
June 1991, Minor technical changes made (as noted in Section 1.1, Changes)
April 1973, Minor revisions
February 1972, First published as Data Sheet 1-3, Weak Construction and Design

APPENDIX C — BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318-89) and Commentary (ACI 318R-89),
Chapter 14, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1989.
2. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures and Specifications for Masonry Structures, Chapter
9, ASCE Masonry Structures Standards Committee and ACI Committee 530, American Society of Civil
Engineers, New York, NY, 1988.
3. Construction Failure, Feld, Jacob, New York: Wiley, 1968.
4. Manual of Steel Construction, 9th ed., American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc., Chicago, 1989.

©2004 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved.