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LAB SESSION No. 13: Study of pipes, valves and flow meters .
PIPE SPECIFICATION:
Pipes and pipe fittings are classified by nominal size and schedule
number. The schedules provided are 40, 80 and 160, which are the ones
most commonly used for hydraulic syste m. Note that for each nominal size
the outside diameter does not change. To increase wall thickness the next
larger schedule number is used. Also observe that the nominal size is
neither the outside nor the inside diameter. Instead, the nominal pipe size
indicates the thread size for the mating connection. The pipe sizes given
in figure 10-2 are in units of inches. Figure shows the relative size of the
cross sections for schedules 40, 80 and 160 pipes. As shown for a given
nominal pipe size, the wall thickn ess increases as the schedule number
increases.
TUBE SPECIFICATION:
Seamless steel tubing is the most widely used type of conductor for
hydraulic systems as it provides significant advantages over pipes. The
tubing can be bent into almost any shape, thereb y reducing the number of
required fittings. Tubing is easier to handle and can be reused without any
sealing problems. For low -volume systems, tubing can handle the pressure
and flow requirements with less bulk and weight. However, tubing and its
fittings are more expensive. A tubing size designation always refers to the
outside diameter and gauge (which gives thickness).
PIPE FITTINGS:
Pipe fittings are made from cast iron, alloy cast iron, bronze, malleable
iron, cast steel, alloy cast steel and forged steel. Chromium, nickel and
molybdenum are the usual alloying metals and they are added to increase
strength and resistance to corrosion. Fittings are made from all these
materials in a variety of weights to suit different purposes, but in general,
cast iron and bronze are used for low and medium pressures and
temperatures, alloy cast iron and malleable iron for medium pressures and
temperatures, alloy cast iron and malleable iron for medium pressures and
temperatures. Note than when choosing fittings for a ny particular
purpose, the temperature to which the fittings will be exposed must be
taken into account, as well as pressure. Some of the commonly used types
of screwed pipe fittings are shown in figure.
PIPE JOINTS:
Pipes are manufactured in lengths of pe rhaps 5 to 40 feets. The system of
joining together these individual sections into a continuous line has an
important bearing not only on the cost of manufacturing, laying and
maintaining the pipe, but also on fluid resistance and leakage prevention.
There are different types of pipe joints , welded, screwed and flanged
joints being the most common. Flange is a circular metal plate threaded,
fastened, welded or casted integrally to an end of a pipe for connection
with a companion flange on adjoining pipe. A sectional view of three
typical flanged joints is shown in figure. In the screwed flange joint the
pipe is threaded in the usual way, and the flanges are bored out and
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threaded with a taper so that they will be a tight fit on the pipe thread.
The flanges are screwed on until the ends of the pipe are flush with the
face of the flange or projecting slightly. The projecting en ds are smoothed
off by grindingor chipping and filing and sometimes the ends are
expanded a little in the flange by peening that is, ham mering the inside of
the pipe lightly with a ball -peen hammer. Peening should be necessary if
the threads are good and fit properly. The slip on welded flange is a plain
flange, slipped over the end of the pipe and welded inside and outside as
shown. The van stone joint is made by boring the flange out to slip easily
over the end of the pipe, then flanging the end of the pipe and facing off
the flanged end thus providing a smooth surface for the gasket. Being
loose the flanges can be turned to any position to match bold holes. In a
modification of this joint the edges of the flanged ends of the pipes are
seal welded after the bolts are tightened, thus preventing any possibility
of leakage. The screwed and slip on welded flanges are suitable for low
and moderate pressures and the Van Stone and welding neck flanges (not
shown) are preferable for very high pressure.

Flanged joints are made steam, gas, or watertight by placing a gasket or

ring between the joint faces and tightening the flange bolts, taking car e to
pull them up evenly all around so that there is an equal pressure on the
ring or gasket at all points. Gaskets may be made from sheet rubber,
rubber with wire insertion, sheet asbestos, corrugated soft -metal rings, or
various other materials, dependin g upon the purpose of the pipeline and
the pressure to be carried. Metal rings of oval or octagonal cross section
that fit into grooves in the faces of the flanges are often used on high -
pressure lines and sometimes flanges are made with a projecting ring on
one flange which fits into a similar recess in the companion flange, a
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gasket being placed in the recess to make the joint tight. No gasket is
needed when the flanges are seal -welded.
BENDS AND SUPPORTS:
Small-diameter pipe can often be bent cold by a roller-bending machine,
or slight bends may be made by bending the pipe over some curved object,
but large diameter pipe must be heated before it can bend properly. It
apparatus for heating and bending the pipe in one operation is not
available, the usual practice is to heat a small portion of the pipe at a time
and bend it a little at the hearted part, continuing the process until the
desired bend in secured. Care must be taken not to bend the pipe too
much at one time when using this method, or the walls may be squeezed
out of shape. Filling the pipe with dry and plugging the ends helps to keep
it in its proper shape while it is being bent, but all important large sized
bends should be ordered from a pipe manufacturer or engineering works
equipped to do this work.
Pipelines are supported by steel or timber trestles, concrete pillars, cast
iron or wrought steel wall brackets, or steel hangers of various designs.
They are anchored that is, held rigidly at one or more points by clamps
attached to supporting c olumns or brackets.
Figure shows adjustable and nonadjustable hangers, single and double
roller bracket supports and constant support type. The first hanger shown
has no adjustment for length but the second hanger is provided with a
turnbuckle. This turnb uckle has right and left -hand threads so that is can
be lengthened or shortened for proper length adjustment and even
distribution of weight. The rollers on the bracket supports permit the pipe
to move freely as it expands and contracts. The upper roller o n the double
roller support.

Many hanger support designs are available for unrestricted movements, as

all piping expands and contracts with temperature and pressure. Hold the
pipe down on the lower roller while still allowing free lengthwise
movement. In the last type of pipe hanger, the load it carried by a heavy
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coil spring. Means are provided for adjusting the compression of the
springs and an indicator on the side of the case enclosing the spring the
spring shows the load that is being supported by t he hanger, in pounds
and the extension of the spring in inches.
EXPANSION JOINTS:
Provision must be made for taking care of expansion of pipelines,
especially those carrying high -temperature fluids and gases .
Expansion is taken care of by expansion bends and joints. The pipeline is
anchored at certain points where excessive movement due to expansion is
undesirable and bends or expansion joints are placed in the line between
these anchored points. As a rule, pipelines are anchored close to points
where they connect to boilers or engines and the devices for the
absorption of expansion are inserted in the long runs. Supports at points
other than anchors are designed to permit free movement of the pipes. If
adequate provision is not made for expansion, there is danger of rupture
of pipes, valves, or fittings, with disastrous consequences.
A good form of expansion bend is shown in figure.If the bends are made to
a large enough radius, this form of expansion pipe bend will take care of
considerable expansion in a pipeline, without throwing an excessive stress
on the flanges or other fittings.
The expansion joint shown in figure consists of a smooth sleeve which
slides in or out through a packing box as the pipeline expands or contracts
in length. The packing box i s packed with soft packing, held in place by a
gland and studs. Tie rods guard against the possibility of the two halves of
joint pulling apart, and flanges are provided for connecting the joint into
pipeline.
Corrugated pipes and expansion bellows are also used in the construction
of expansion joint. Expansion bellow (shown in the figure) is one of the
most widely used expansion joint.

Figure:Loop made in pipe to accommodate thermal expansion

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Figure of Expansion joint: A Metal lic expansion bellow

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What is a Valve?
A valve is a mechanical device that controls the flow of fluid

What functions do valves perform?

 Control fluid flow
 Stop and start fluid flow
 Control the amount of fluid flow (throttling)
 Control the direction of fluid flow
 Prevent backflow
 Protect piping and equipment from over pressure

Valve Classification based on function

 Flow  Backflow  Pressure
Controlling Preventing Controlling
Valves Valves Valves
 Gate Valve  Check Valve  Relief Valve
 Globe Valve  Safety Valve
 Needle Valve
 Ball Valve
 Plug Valve
 Butterfly Valve
 Diaphragm Valve
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Gate Valve
A linear motion valve
used to start or stop
fluid flow

 Advantages
 Good choice for ON-OFF service
 Full flow-low pressure drop
 Bidirectional
 No dam or pocket is offered to trap sediments or
pieces of scale.

Gate Valve
A linear motion valve
used to start or stop
fluid flow.

 Disadvantages
 Not for throttling; use fully opened or fully closed
 Metal-to-metal seating means not best choice for
frequent operation. Bubble-tight seating should not
be expected with metal-to-metal design
 Are not quick opening or closing valves
 Require large space for installation, operation, and
maintenance
 Difficult to repair & automate
 Large torque required to open bcz of large pressure
difference across seat
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Globe Valve or Stop

valve
A linear motion valve using
round disk and seat
principle,used to stop, start,
and regulate fluid flow

 Advantages
 Good shutoff capability (positive tightness against
leakage
 Moderate to good throttling capability
 Good for frequent operation
 Shorter stroke (compared to a gate valve)
 Available in Z, Y, and angle patterns, each offering
unique capabilities
 Easy to machine or resurface the seats

Globe Valve
A linear motion valve
used to stop, start, and
regulate fluid flow

 Disadvantages
 Higher pressure drop even in fully open condition
(compared to a gate valve)
 Requires greater force or a larger actuator to seat the
valve (with pressure under the seat)
 More costly than alternate valves
 Not suitable for relatively dirty fluids bcz sediments or
scale will collect beneath the disk where there s cavity
thus interrupting flow
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Globe Valve Configurations

 Globe Valve Body Designs
Z-Body Design Y-Body Design Angle Valve Design

Needle Valve
 Used to make relatively fine
adjustments in the amount of fluid
flow
 Advantages
 Very accurate throttling is possible
 Typical Applications
 Used for instrument, gauge, and
meter line service
 Used in some components of
automatic combustion control
systems where very precise flow
regulation is necessary
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Ball Valve
A rotational motion valve that
uses a ball-shaped element to
stop or start fluid flow

 Advantages
 Provides bubble-tight service
 Quick to open and close( quarter turn or 90°
operation), not torque-dependent for seating
 Offers high cycle life
 Especially useful for low flow situations
 Easier to automate than multi-turn valves
 Low p drop and less turbulence in fully open
position

Ball Valve
A rotational motion valve that
uses a ball-shaped element to
stop or start fluid flow

Disadvantages
 They are not suitable for
sustained throttling applications
 In slurry or other applications, the suspended
particles can settle and become trapped in body
cavities causing wear, leakage, or valve failure
 Temperature range limited by seat material
 Not suitable for high p, high flow rate applications
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Plug Valve
A rotational motion valve used
for the same full-flow service
as gate valves, where quick
shutoff is required

 Advantages
 Simple design with few parts
 Quick to open or close
 Can be serviced in place
 Offers minimal resistance to flow
 Provides reliable leak tight service
 Can be used with large flow rates, high p

Plug Valve
A rotational motion valve used
for the same full-flow service
as gate valves, where quick
shutoff is required

 Disadvantages
 Requires greater force to actuate, due to high friction
 Typically, plug valves may cost more than ball valves
 Not suitable for throttling applications
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Plug Valve Configurations

 Multiport Plug Valves
 A single multiport valve may be installed in lieu of three
or four gate valves or other types of shutoff valve

Butterfly Valve
A rotary motion valve that
is used to stop, regulate,
and start fluid flow

 Advantages
 Require considerably less space, compared to gate,
globe, or other valves
 Light in weight
 Quick 90° open/close
 Available in large sizes, ranging from NPS 1-1⁄2 to
over NPS 200
 Have low-pressure drop
 Easier to automate than multi-turn valves
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Butterfly Valve
A rotary motion valve that
is used to stop, regulate,
and start fluid flow

 Disadvantages
 Throttling service is limited to low differential
pressure
 Do not normally create a tight seal

Diaphragm Valve
A linear motion valve that is
used to start, regulate, and
stop fluid flow
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Diaphragm Valve

 Advantages
 Offer good chemical resistance due to variety of linings available
 Stem leakage is eliminated
 Provides bubble-tight service
 Does not have pockets to trap solids, slurries, and other impurities
 Particularly suitable for hazardous chemicals and radioactive fluids
 Do not permit contamination of flow medium, thus they are used extensively in food
processing, pharmaceutical, brewing,petroleum & gas, chemical industries
 Can handle sludges,slurries,pulps,fluids containing solids in
suspension and corrosive fluids etc

Diaphragm Valve

 Disadvantages
 The weir may prevent full drainage of piping
 Working temperatures and pressures are limited by the
diaphragm material.
 The diaphragm may experience erosion when used
extensively in severe throttling service containing
impurities
 Available in limited sizes, usually NPS 1⁄2 to 12
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Check Valve
A valve designed to
automatically prevent the
reversal of flow in a pipeline
system

 Advantages
 Self-actuated and require no external means to
actuate the valve either to open or close
 Fast acting
 Disadvantages
 Difficult to determine whether the valve is open or
closed
 Valve disc can stick in open position

Check Valve Configurations

 Check Valve Designs
Swing Check Lift Check Stop Check
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Relief and Safety Valves

Prevent equipment damage by relieving
accidental over-pressurization of fluid systems
Relief Valve Safety Valve

Relief and Safety Valves

 Differences
Relief Valve Safety Valve
 Opens only as necessary  Rapidly pops fully open as
to relieve the over- soon as the pressure
pressure condition setting is reached and will
 Typically used for stay fully open until the
incompressible fluids such pressure drops below a
as water or oil reset pressure
 Can often be distinguished
by the presence of an
external lever
 Typically used for
compressible fluids such
as steam or other gases
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Valve Actuators
A device that utilizes a source of power to operate a valve

 Actuator Classification
 Manual (Hand Wheel, Lever, Gears, Chains etc)
 Automatic (Pneumatic, Motorized, Hydraulic, Solenoid etc)
 Manual Actuators
Hand Wheel Lever Gears

Valve Actuators
A mechanism that causes a valve to perform its function.
 Automatic Actuators
Pneumatic Motorized Solenoid
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Summary
 Gate valves are generally used in systems where low
flow resistance for a fully open valve is desired and there
is no need to throttle the flow.
 Globe valves are used in systems where good throttling
characteristics and low seat leakage are desired and a
relatively high head loss in an open valve is acceptable.
 Ball valves allow quick, quarter turn on-off operation and
have poor throttling characteristics.
 Plug valves are often used to direct flow between several
different ports through use of a single valve.
 Diaphragm valves are used in systems where it is
desirable for the entire operating mechanism to be
completely isolated from the fluid.

PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE

Pressure-reducing valves, sometimes known as "pressure
regulators", are used to supply steam at a desired constan t pressure lower
than that of the supply. Their applications include supply for
manufacturing processes, low -pressure feed water or fuel -oil heaters and
other auxiliaries.
Often the equipment that is supplied steam at reduced pressure is
not constructed for any higher pressure. In the event of reducing valve
failure, full supply pressure would be imposed on the low -pressure
equipment. For this reason, a pop safety valve of adequate size and set at
a pressure not higher than that allowed on the low -pressure equipment
should always be installed on the system following the reducing valv e. A
typical pressure regulator uses a diaphragm upon which the reduced
pressure is imposed through a small pipe between the diaphragm chamber
and the steam exit line. The total pressure on this diaphragm is opposed
and balanced by either a spring or a weight and lever arm. The valve
position is controlled by a spindle moving with change of diaphragm
position. Thus, a change in exit pressure due to change of flow or to other
causes destroys the diaphragm -spring or weight equilibrium and the valve
position changes to maintain the correct exit pressure. The exit pressure
may be set to maintain any desired pressure up to the capacity of the
regulator. One recent development in the reg ulator field makes use of a
compressed air chamber instead of a spring or weight for opposing the
exit-pressure load.
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Valves of various types have been mentioned. As a rule, the globe

valve is used where positive tightness against leakage is desi red and where
the fluid controlled is practically free from suspended solids. It should be
noted in the figure that both the valve disk and the seat are renewable. If
they become worn, all that is necessary is to remove pressure from the
pipe line, unscrew the valve bonnet and renew these parts. The valve body
does not have to be disturbed from its piping connections. When a globe
valve is used in the feed -water piping to a boiler, it is important for the
flow to enter under the valve disk. If it entered fr om above and the disk
became detached from the stem, the valve would automatically close, feed
to the boiler being thus prevented.
The gate valve may be one of two types the non -rising-stem inside-
screw and the rising -stem outside –screw and yoke types. The gate valve
operates on the wedge principle, with considerable seat contact. Also,
since there is "straight -through" flow, no dam is offered to trap sediment
or pieces of scale. Hence, the gate valve should be used for water -column
drains and for similar services. The rising -stem type gate valve is used
where it is urgent that there should be visible indication that the valve is
in open position. This type is required when shutoff valves are used in the
connecting pipes between a water column and a boiler .
Many other modifications of the globe and gate valves are available
for special services with various fluids. Check valves are used where
unidirectional flow is essential, as when feed water flows into a boiler.
The swinging disk in the valve closes aga inst its seat if the flow tends to
reverse. By bleeding pressure from the piping and removing the bonnet
and side plug, the valve and seat may be ground to a new face when worn.
Also, all of theses parts are renewable. Check valves for very high
pressures are usually of forged steel and of the piston type. A globe valve
and check valve may be combined in one unit for feed -water attachment to
a boiler drum head. A non-return valve is used sometimes as a stop valve
on the main steam line next to a steam boile r. The function of such a valve
is to close automatically if any pressure part fails in the boiler to which it
is attached and to prevent backflow from the steam header to the point of
failure. Thus the defective boiler is isolated automatically from any o ther
boiler supplying the same header.
FLOW RATE AND VELOCITY MEASUREMENT
A major application area of fluid mechanics is the determination of
the flow rate of fluids and numerous devices have been developed over the
years for the purpose of flow metering. Flowmeters range widely in their
level of sophistication, size, cost, accuracy, versatility, capacity, pressure
drop and the operating principle. We give and overview of the meters
commonly used to measure the flow rate of liquids and gases flowing
through pipes or ducts. We limit our consideration to incompressible flow.
Some flowmeters measure the flow rate directly by discharging and
recharging a measuring chamber of known volume continuously and
keeping track of the number of discharges per unit time Bu t most
flowmeters measure the flow rate indirectly - they measure the average
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velocity V or a quantity that is related to average velocity such as pressure

and drag and determine the volume flow rate Q from
Q=VA c
Where A c is the cross-sectional area of flow. Therefore, measuring
the flow rate is usually done by measuring flow velocity and most
flowmeters are simply velocimeters used for the purpose of metering flow.

Pitot and Pitot-static probes:

Pitot probe is just a tube with a press ure tap at the stagnation point
that measures stagnation pressure, while a Pitot -static probe has both a
stagnation pressure tap and several circumferential static pressure taps
and it measures both stagnation and static pressures. The Pito t-static
probe measures local velocity by measuring the pressure difference in
conjunction with the Bernoulli equation. It consists of a slender double-
tube aligned with the flow and connected to a differential pressure meter.
The inner tube is fully open to flow at the n ose and thus it measures the
stagnation pressure at that location (point 1). The outer tube is sealed at
the nose, but it has holes on the side of the outer wall (point 2) and thus it
measures the static pressure. For incompressible flow with sufficiently
high velocities (so that the frictional effects between points 1 and 2 are
negligible), the Bernoulli equation is applicable and can be expressed as
p 1 /ρg + V 1 2 /2g + z 1 = p 2 / ρg + V 2 2 /2g + z 2
Noting that z 1 =z 2 since the static pressure holes of the poin t-static
probe are arranged circumferentially around the tube and V 1 =0 because of
the stagnation conditions, the flow velocity V = V 2 becomes
Pitot formula: V= (8-67)
Which is known as the Pitot formula. If the velocity is measure at a
location where the local velocity is equal to the average flow velocity, the
volume flow rat can be determined from Q=VA c .
The Pitot-static probe is a simple, inexpensive and highly reliable
device since it has no moving parts It also causes very small pressu re drop
and usually does not disturb the flow appreciably. However, it is
important that it be properly aligned with the flow to avoid significant
errors that ay be caused by misalignment. It can be used to measure
velocity in both liquids and gases. Nothi ng that gases have low densities,
the flow velocity should be sufficiently high when the Pitot -static probe is
used for gas flow such that a measurable dynamic pressure develops.
OBSTRUCTION FLOWMETERS: ORIFICE,
VENTURI AND NOZZLE METERS
Consider incompressible steady flow of a fluid in a horizontal pipe
of diameter D that is constricted to a flow area of diameter d, as shown in
Fig. 8-55. The mass balance and the Bernoulli equations between a
location before the constriction (point 1) and the location wher e
constriction occurs (point 2) can be written as
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Mass balance: - V=A 1 V 1 =A 2 V 2  V 1 =(A 2 /A 1 ) V 2 =(d/D) 2 V 2

Bernoulli equation (z 1 =z 2 ): p 1 /ρg + V 1 2 /2g = p 2 / ρg + V 2 2 /2g
Combining Eqs. and solving for velocity V2 gives.
Obstruction (with no loss): V2=
Where  =d/D is he diameter ratio. Once V 2 is known, the flow rate can be
determined from V=A 2 V 2 =(d 2 /4)V 2 .
This simply analysis shows that the flow rate through a pipe can be
determined by constricting the flow and measuring the decrease in
pressure due to the increase in velocity at the constriction site. Nothing
that the pressure drop between two points along the flow can be mea sured
easily by a differential pressure transducer or manometer, it appears that
a simple flow rate measurement device can be built by obstructing the
flow. Flowmeters based on this principle re called obstruction flowmeters
and are widely used to measure flow rates of gases and liquids.
The velocity is obtained by assuming no loss and thus is the
maximum velocity that can occur at the constriction site. In reality, some
pressure losses due to frictional effects are inevitable and thus the
velocity will be less. Also, the fluid stream will continue to contract past
the obstruction and the vena contracta area is less than the flow area of
the obstruction. Both losses can be accounted for by incorporating a
correction factor called the discharge coefficient C d whose value (which is
less than 1) is determined experimentally. Then the flow rate for
obstruction flowmeters can be expressed as
Obstruction flowmeters: Q =A o C d
Where A o =A 2 =d 2 /4 is the cross sectional area of the hole and 
=d/D is the ratio of hole diameter to pipe diameter. The value of C d
depends on both  and the Reynolds number Re=V 1 D/v and charts and
curve-fit correlations for C d are available for various types of obstruction
meters of the numerous types of obstruction meters av ailable, those most
widely used are orfice meters, flow nozzles and venture meter.
Owing to its streamlined design, the discharge coefficients of
Venturi meters are very high, ranging between 0.96 and 0.99 (the higher
values are for the higher Reynolds num bers) for most flows. The orifice
meter has the simplest design and it occupies minimal space as it consist
of a plate with a hole in the middle, but there are considerable variations
in design. Some orifice meters are sharp -edged, while others are beveled
or rounded. The sudden change in the flow area in orifice meters causes
considerable swirl and thus significant head loss or permanent pressure
loss. In nozzle meters the plate is replaced by a nozzle and thus the flow
in the nozzle is streamlined. As a r esult, the vena contracta is practically
eliminated and the head loss is small. However, flow nozzle meters are
more expensive and orfice meters.
Venturi meters cause very low head losses and thus they should be
preferred for applications that cannot allow large pressure drops. The
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irreversible head loss for venture meters due to friction is only about 10
percent.
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POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT FLOWMETERS

When we buy gasoline for the car, we are interested in the total
amount of gasoline that flows through the nozzle during the period we fill
the tank rather than the flow rate of gasoline. Likewise, we care about the
total amount of water natural gas we use in out homes during a billing
period. In these and many other applications, the quantity of interest i s
the total amount of mass of volume of a fluid that passes through a cross
section of a pipe over a certain period of time rather than the
instantaneous value of flow rate and positive displacement flowmeters are
well suited for such applications. There a re numerous types of
displacement meter and they are based on continuous filling and
discharging of the measuring chamber. They operate by trapping a certain
amount of incoming fluid, displacing it to the discharge side of the meter
and counting the number such discharge recharge cycles to determine the
total amount of fluid displaced. The clearance between the impeller and
its casing must be controlled carefully to prevent leakage and thus to
avoid error.
Figure shows a positive displacement flowmeter with two rotating
impellers driven by the flowing liquid. Each impeller has three gear lobes
and a pulsed output signal is generated each time a lobe passes by a
nonintrusive sensor. Each pulse represents a known volume of liquid that
is captured in between th e lobes of the impellers and an electronic
controller converts the pulses to volume units. This particular meter has a
quoted accuracy of 0.1 percent, has a low pressure drop and can be used
with high or low viscosity liquids at temperatures up to 23 o C and pressure
up to 7 MPa for flow rates of up to 700 gal/min (or 50L/s).
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The most widely used flowmeters to measure liquid volumes are

nutating disk flowmeters, shown in f igure. They are commonly used as
water and gasoline meters. The liquid enters t he nutating disk meter
through the chamber (A). This causes the disk (B) to nutate or wobble and
results in the rotation of a spindle (C) and the excitation of a magnet (D).
This signal is transmitted through the casing of the meter to a second
magnet (E). The total volume is obtain by counting the number of these
signals during discharge process.

Quantities of gas flows, such as the amount of natural gas used in

buildings, are commonly metered by using bellows flowmeters that
displace a certain amount of gas volume during each revolution.

Turbine Flowmeters
A turbine flowmeter consists of a cylindrical flow section that houses a
turbine
(a vaned rotor) that is free to rotate, additional stationary vanes at the
inlet to straighten t he flow, and a sensor that generates a pulse each time
a marked point on the turbine passes by to determine the rate of rotation.
The rotational speed of the turbine is nearly proportional to the flow rate
of the fluid. Turbine flowmeters give highly accur ate results (as accurate
as 0.25 percent) over a wide range of flow rates when calibrated properly
for the anticipated flow conditions. Turbine flowmeters have very few
blades (sometimes just two blades) when used to measure liquid f low, but
several blades when used to measure gas flow to ensure adequate torque
generation. The head loss caused by the turbine is very small.
Turbine flowmeters have bee n used extensively for flow
measurement since the 1940s because of their simplicity, low cost, and
accuracy over a wide range of flow conditions. They are made
commercially available for both liquids and gases and for pipes of
practically all sizes. Turbine flowme ters are also commonly used to
measure flow velocities in unconf ined flows such as winds, rivers, an d
ocean currents. The handheld device shown is used to measure wind
velocity.
 28

VARIABLE AREA FLOWMETER(ROTAMETER)

A simple, reliable, inexpensive, and easy -to-install flowmeter with low
pressure drop and no electrical connections that gives a direct re ading of
flow rate for a wide range of liquids and gases is the variable -area
flowmeter, also called a rotameter or floatmeter. A variable -area
flowmeter consists of a vertica l tapered conical transparent tube made of
glass or plastic with a float inside t hat is free to move, as shown in figure.
As fluid flows through the tapered tube, the float rises within the tube to a
location where the float weight, dra g force, and buoyancy force balance
each other and the net force acting on the float is zero. The flo w rate is
determined by simply matching the position of the float against the
graduated flow scale outside the tapered transparent tube.
We know from experience that high winds knock down trees, break
power lines, and blow away hats or umbrellas. This is b ecause the drag
force increases with flow velocity. The weight and the buoyancy force
acting on the float are constant, but the drag force changes with flow
velocity. Also, the velocity along the tapered tube decreases in the flow
direction because of the increase in the cross -sectional area. There is a
certain velocity that generates enough drag to balance the float weight and
the buoyancy force, and the location at which this velocity occurs around
the float is the location where the float settles. The de gree of tapering of
the tube can be made such that the vertical rise changes linearly with flow
rate, and thus the tube can be calibrated linearly for flow rates. The
transparent tube also allows the fluid to be seen during flow.
There are numerous kinds o f variable-area flowmeters. The gravity -
based flowmeter discussed previously must be positioned vertically, with
fluid entering from the bottom and leaving from the top. In spring -
opposed flowmeters, the drag force is balanced by the spring force, and
such flowmeters can be installed horizontally. Another type of flow meter
uses a loose-fitting piston instead of a float.
The accuracy of variable -area flowmeters is typically ±5 percent.
Therefore, these flowmeters are not appropriate for applications that
 29

require precision measurements. However, some manufacturers quote

accuracies of the order of 1 percent. Also, these meters depend on visual
checking of the loca tion of the float, and thus they cannot be used to
measure the flow rate of fluids that are opaq ue or dirty, or fluids that coat
the float since such fluids block visual access. Finally, glass tubes are
prone to breakage and thus they pose a safety hazard if toxic fluids are
handled. In such applications, vari able-area flowmeters should be
installed at locations with minimum traffic.

VORTEX FLOWMETER
You have probably noticed that when a flow stream such as a river
encounters an obstruction such as a rock, the fluid separates and moves
around the rock. But the pres ence of the rock is felt for some distance
downstream via the swirls generated by it.
Most flows, encountered in practice are turbulent, and a disk or a sho rt
cylinder placed in the flow coaxially sheds vortices . It is observed that
these vortices are shed periodically, and the shedding fre quency is
proportional to the average flow velocity. This suggests that the flow rate
can be determined by generating vortices in the flow by placing an
obstruction along the flow and measuring the shedding frequency. Th e
flow measurement devices that work on this principle are called vortex
flowmeters. The Strouhal number, defined as St = fd/V, wheref is the
vortex shedding frequency, d is the characteristic diameter or width of the
obstruction, and V is the velocity of the flow impinging on the
obstruction, also remains constant in this case, provided that the flow
velocity is high enough.
A vortex flowmeter consists of a sharp -edged bluff body (strut) placed in
the flow that serves as the vortex generator, and a detect or (such as a
 30

pressure transducer that records the oscillation in pressure) placed a

short distance downstream on the inner surface of the casing to measure
the shedding frequency. The detector can be an ultrasonic, electronic, or
fiber-optic sensor that monitors the changes in the vortex pattern and
transmits a pul sating output signal . A microprocessor then uses the
frequency information to calculate and display the flow velocity or flow
rate. The frequency of vortex shedding is proportional to the av erage
velocity over a wide range of Reynolds numbers . The vortex flowmeter has
the advantage that it has no moving parts and thus is inherently reliable,
versatile, and very accurate (usually ± 1 percent over a wide range of flow
rates), but it obstructs f low and thus causes con siderable head loss.
 31

LAB SESSION No. 14 STUDY OF PUMPS

There are two broad categories of turbomachinery, pumps and

turbines. The word pump is a general term for any fluid machine that adds
energy to a fluid . Some authors call pumps energy absorbing devices since
energy is supplied to them, and they transfer most of that energy to the
fluid, usually via a rotating shaft . The increase in fluid energy is usually
felt as an increase in the pressure of the fluid. Turbines, on the other
hand, are energy producing devices —they extract energy from the fluid
and transfer most of that energy to some form of mechanical energy
output, typically in the form of a rotating shaft . The fluid at the outlet of a
turbine suffers an energy loss, typically in the form of a loss of pressure.
The purpose of the pump is to add energy to a fluid, resulting in an
increase in fluid pressure, not necessarily an increase of fluid speed
across the pump .
The purpose of a turbine is to extrac t energy from a fluid, resulting
in a decrease of fluid pressure, not necessarily a decrease of fluid speed
across the turbine.
Fluid machines that move liquids are called pumps, but there are
several other names for machines that move gases. A fan is a gas pump
with relatively low pressure rise and high flow rate. Examples include ceil -
ing fans, house fans, and propellers. A blower is a gas pump with
relatively moderate to high pressure rise and moderate to high flow rate.
Examples include centrifugal blow ers and squirrel cage blowers in
automobile ventila tion systems, furnaces, and leaf blowers. A
compressor is a gas pump designed to deliver a very high pressure rise,
typically at low to moderate flow rates. Examples include air compressors
that run pneumatic tools and inflate tires at automobile service stations,
and refrigerant compressors used in heat pumps, refrigerators, and air
conditioners.)

Fluid machines may also be broadly classified as either positive -

displacement machines or dynamic machines, based on the manner in
which energy transfer occurs. In positive-displacement machines,
fluid is directed into a closed volume. Energy transfer to the fluid is
accomplished by movement of the boundary of the closed volum e, causing
the volume to expand or con tract, thereby sucking fluid in or squeezing
fluid out, respectively. In dynamic machines, there is no closed volume;
instead, rotating blades supply or extract energy to or from the fluid. For
 32

pumps, these rotat ing blades are called impeller blades, while for
turbines; the rotating blades are called runner blades or buckets.
Examples of dynamic pumps include enclosed pumps and ducted pumps
(those with casings around the blades such as the water pump in your
car's engine), and open pumps (those with out casings such as the ceiling
fan in your house, the propeller on an air plane, or the rotor on a
helicopter). Examples of dynamic turbines include enclosed turbines, such
as the hydroturbine that extracts energy from wate r in a hydroelectric
dam, and open turbines such as the wind turbine that extracts energy from
the wind.
PUMP PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
Some fundamental parameters are used to analyze the performance of a
pump. The mass flow rate of fluid thr ough the pump is an obvious pri mary
pump performance parameter. For incompressible flow, it is more
common; to use volume flow rate rather than mass flow rate. In the turbo -
machinery industry, volume flow rate is called capacity and is simply mass
flow rate divided by flu id density,
The performance of a pump is characterized additionally by its net head
H, defined as the change in Bernoulli head between the inlet and outlet of
the pump,
H = (p/ρg + V 2 /2g + z) o u t – (p/ ρg + V 2 /2g + z )in
The dimension of net head is length, and it is often listed as an equivalent
column height of water, even for a pump that is not pumping water.
For the case in which a liquid is being pumped, the Bernoulli head at the
inlet is equivalent to the energy grade line at the inlet, EGL i n , obtained by
aligning a Pilot probe in the center of the flow .
The energy grade line at the outlet EGL O U T is obtained in the same
manner, as also illustrated in the figure. In the general case, the outlet of
the pump may be at a different elevation than the inlet, and its diameter
and average speed may not be the same as those at the inlet. Regardless of
these differ ences, net head H is equal to the difference between EGL o l i t
and EGL i n ,
Consider the special case of incompressible flow through a pu mp in which
the inlet and outlet diameters are identical, and there is n o change in
elevation. Above equation reduces to
H = p o u t – p i n /𝜌g
For this simplified case, net head is simply the pressure rise across the
pump expressed as a head (column height of the fluid).
Net head is proportional to the useful power actually delivered to the
fluid. It is traditional to call this power the water horsepower, even if the
fluid being pumped is not water, and even if the power is not measured in
units of horsepower. By dimensional reasoning, we must multiply the ne t
head of by mass flow rate and gravitational acceleration to obtain'
dimensions of power. Thus Power =
 33

All pumps suffer from irreversible losses due to friction, internal leakage,
flow separation on blade surfaces, turbulent dissipation etc. Therefore,
the mechanical energy supplied to the pump must be larger than water
horsepower In pump terminology, the external power supplied to the
pump is called the brake horsepower, which we abbreviate as bhp. We
define pump efficiency as the ratio of useful power to supplied power.
ηpump = /bhp

PUMP PERFORMANCE CURVE S AND MATCHING A PUMP TO A

PIPING SYSTEM
The maximum volume flow rate through a pump occurs when its net head
is zero, H = 0; this flow rate is called the pump's free delivery . The free
delivery condition is achieved when there is no flow restriction at th e
pump inlet or outlet —in other words when there is no load on the pump.
At this operating point, Q is large, but H is zero; the pump's efficiency is
zero because the pump is doing no useful work. At the other extreme, the
shutoff head is the net head that occurs when the volume flow rate is zero,
Q = 0, and is achieved when the outlet port of the pump is blocked off.
Under these conditions, H is large but Q is zero; the pump's efficiency is
again zero, because the pump is doing no useful work. Between thes e two
extremes, from shutoff to free delivery, the pump's net head may increase
from its shutoff value somewhat as the flow rate increases, but H must
eventually decrease to zero as the volume flow rate increases to its free
delivery value. The pump's effi ciency reaches its maximum value
somewhere between the shutoff condition and the free delivery condition;
this operating point of maximum efficiency is appropri ately called the
best efficiency point (BEP), and is notated by an asterisk and bhp as
functions of Q are called pump performance curves (or characteristic
curves); typical curves at one rotational speed are plotted in figure. The
pump performance curves change with rotational speed.
It is important to realize that for steady conditions, a pump can operate
only along its performance curve. Thus, the operating point of a piping
system is determined by matching system requirements (required net
head) to pump performance (available net head). In a typical application,
H r e q u i r e d and H a v a i l a b l e match at one unique value of flow rate —this is the
operating point or duty point of the system.
The steady operating point of a piping system is established at the volume
flow rate where H r e q u i r e d = H a v a i l a b l e .
For a given piping system with its major and minor los ses, elevation
changes, etc., the require d net head increases with volume flow rate. On
the other hand, the available net head of most pumps decreases with flow
rate, at least over the majority of its recommended operating range.
Hence, the system curve an d the pump performance curve intersect as
sketched in figure, and this establishes the operating point. If we are
lucky, the operating point is at or near the best efficiency point of the
pump. In most cases, however, as illustrated in figure, the pump doe s not
run at its optimum efficiency. If efficiency is of major concern, the pump
 34

should be carefully selected (or a new pump should be designed) such that
the operating point is as close to the best efficiency point as possible. In
some cases it may be possible to change the shaft rotation speed so that an
existing pump can operate much closer to its design point (best efficiency
point).

There are unfortunate situations where the system curve and the pump
performance curve intersect at more than one operating point. This can
occur when a pump that has a dip in its net head performance curve is
mated to a system that has a fairly flat system curve, as illustrated in
figure. Although rare, such situations are possible and should be avoided,
because the system may "hunt" for an operating point, leading to an
unsteady-flow situation.
It is fairly straightforward to match a piping system to a pump, once we
realize that the term for useful pump head (h p u m p ) that we used in the
head form of the energy equatio n is the same as the net head (H) used in
the present context. Consider, for example, a general piping system with
elevation change, major and minor losses, and fluid acceleration. We
begin by solving the energy equation for the required net head H r e q u i i e d ,

H r e q u i i e d = h p u m p , u = (p 2 – p 1 )/𝜌g + (V 2 2 – V 2 1 )/2g + (z 2 – z 1 ) + h l o s s
Where we assume that there is no turbine in the system, although that
term can be added back in, if necessary. Equation is evaluated from the
inlet of the piping system (point 1, upstream of the pump) to the outlet of
the piping system (point 2, down stream of the pump). Equation agrees
with our intuition, because it tells us that the useful pump head delivered
to the fluid does four things:
 35

1. It increases the static pressure of the fluid from point 1 to point 2 (fi rst
term on the right).
2. It increases the dynamic pressure (kinetic energy) of the fluid from
point 1to point 2 (second term on the right).
3. It raises the elevation (potential energy) of the fluid from point 1 to
point 2 (third term on the rig ht).
4. It overcomes irreversible head losses in the piping system (last term on
the right).
In a general system, the change in static pressure, dynamic pressure, and
elevation may be either positive or negative, while irreversible head losses
are always positive. In many mechanical and civil engineering problems in
which the fluid is a liquid, the elevation term is important, but when the
fluid is a gas, such as in ventilation and air pollution control problems,
the elevation term is almost always negligib le.
To match a pump to a system, and to determine the operating point, we
equate H r e q u i r e d to H a v a i l a b l c which is the (typically known) net head of the
pump as a function of volume flow rate.
The most common situation is that an engineer selects a pump tha t is
somewhat heftier than actually required. The volume flow rate through the
piping system is then a bit larger than needed, and a valve or dampe r is
installed in the line so that the flow rate can be decreased as necessary.
PUMP CAVITATION AND NPSH
When pumping liquids, it is possible for the local pressure inside the
pump fall below the vapor pressure of the liquid, p v . (p v is also called the
saturation pressure p s a t and is listed in thermodynamics tables as a
function of saturation temperature.) When p < p v , vapor-filled bubbles
called cavitation bubbles appear. In other words, the liquid boils locally,
typically on the suc tion side of the rotating impeller blades where the
pressure is After the cavitation bubbles are forme d, they are transported
through the pump to regions where the pressure is higher, causing rapid
collapse of the bubbles. It is this collapse of the bubbles that is
undesirable, since it causes noise, vibration, reduced efficiency, and most
importantly, damage to the impeller blades. Repeated bubble collapse
near a blade surface leads to pitting or erosion of the blade and eventually
catastrophic blade failure.
To avoid cavitation, we must ensure that the local pressure everywhere
inside the pump stays above the vapor pressure. Since pressure is most
easily measured (or estimated) at the inlet of the pump, cavitation criteria
are typically specified at the pump inlet. It is useful to employ a flow
parameter called net positive suction head (NPSH), defined as the
difference between the pump's inlet stagnation pressure head and the
vapor pressure head.
NPSH = (p/𝜌g + v 2 /2g) p u m p inlet – p v /𝜌g
Pump manufacturers test their pumps for cavitation in a pump test facility
by varying the volume flow rate and inlet pressure in a controlled manner.
Specifically, at a given flow rate and liquid temperature, the pressure at
 36

the pump inlet is slowly lowered until cavitation occurs somewhere inside
the pump. The value of NPSH is calculated using above equation and is
recorded at this operating condition. The process is repeated at several
other flow rates, and the pump manufac turer then publishes a
performance parameter called the required net positive suction head
(NPSH r e q u i r e d ), defined as the minimum NPSH necessary to avoid
cavitation in the pump. The measured value of NPSH r e q u i r e d varies with
volume flow rate, and therefor e NPSH r e q u i r e d is often plotted on the same
pump performance curve as net head . When expressed properly in units of
head of the liquid being pumped, NPSH r e q u i r e d is independent of the type
of liquid. However, if the required net positive suction head is ex pressed
for a particular liquid in pressure units such as pascals or psi, the
engineer must be careful to convert this pressure to the equivalent column
height of the actual liquid being pumped. Note that since NPSH r e q u i r e d is
usually much smaller than H over the majority of the performance curve,
it is often plotted on a separate expanded vertical axis for clarity) or as
contour lines when being shown for a family of pumps. NPSH r e q u i r e d
typically increases with volume flow rate, although for some pumps it
decreases with Q at low flow rates where the pump is not operating very
efficiently.
In order to ensure that a pump does not cavitate ,the actual or available
NPSH must be greater than NPSH r e q u i r e d . It is important to note that the
value of NPSH varies not only with flow rate, but also with liquid
temperature, since p v is a function of temperature. NPSH also depends on
the type of liq uid being pumped, since there is a unique p v versus T curve
for each liquid. Since irreversible head losses through the pipin g system
upstream of the inlet increase with flow rate, the pump inlet stagnation
pressure head decreases with flow rate. Therefore, the value of NPSH
decreases with Q. By identifying the volume flow rate at which the curves
of actual NPSH and NPSH r e q u i r e d intersect, we estimate the maximum
volume How rate that can be delivered by the pump without cavitatio n.
Note: Some authors define NPSH as the difference in inlet static head and
vapour pressure head.
Finally, how can we increase the maximum flow? Any modification that
increases NPSH helps us. We can raise the height of reservoir surface (to
increase hydrostatic head).we can reroute the piping so that only one
elbow is necessary and replace the globe valve with a ball valve (to
decrease the separation loss es).We can increase the diameter of the pipe
and decrease the surface roughness (to decrease frictional loss).This is
one reason why many centrifugal pumps have a larger inlet diameter.
 37

PUMPS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

When faced with the need to increase volume flow rate or pressure rise by
a small amount, you might consider adding an additional smaller pump in
series or in parallel with the original pump. While series or parallel
arrangement is acceptable for some applications, arranging dissimilar
pumps in series or in parallel may lead to problems, especially if one
pump is much larger than the other A better course of action is to increase
the original pump's speed and/or input power (larger electric motor),
replace the impeller with a larger one, or replace the entire pump with a
larger one. The logic for this decision can be seen from the pump
performance curves, realizing those pressure rise and volume flow rates
are related. Arranging dissimilar pumps in series may create problems
because the volume flow rate through each pump must be the same, but
the overall pressure rise is equal to the pressure rise of one pump plus
that of the other. If the pumps have widely different performance curves,
the smaller pump may be forced to operate beyond its free delivery flow
rate, whereupon it acts like a head loss, reducing the total volume flow
rate. Arranging dissimilar pumps in parallel may create problems because
the overall pressure rise must be the same, but the net volume flow r ate is
the sum of that through each branch. If the pumps are not sized properly,
the smaller pump may not be able to handle the large head imposed on it,
and the flow in its branch could actu ally be reversed; this would
inadvertently reduce the overall pr essure rise. In either case, the power
supplied to the smaller pump would be wasted.
Keeping these cautions in mind, there are many applications where two or
more similar (usually identical) pumps are operated in series or in
parallel. When operated in series, the combined net head is simply the
sum of the net heads of each pump (at a given volume flow rate
Combined net head for n pumps in series: H c o m b i n e d =
 38

This equation is illustrated in figure for three pumps in series. In this

example, pump 3 is the strongest and pump 1 is the weakest. The shutoff
head of the three pumps combined in series is equal to the sum of the
shut-off head of each individual pump. For low values of volume flow rate,
the net head of the three pumps in series is equal to H l + H 2 + H 3 . Beyond
the free delivery of pump 1 ,pump 1 should be shut off and bypassed.
Otherwise it would be running beyond its maximum designed operating
point, and the pump or its motor could be damaged. Furthermore, the net
head across this pump w ould be negative as previously discussed,
contributing to a net loss in the system. With pump 1 bypassed, the
combined net head becomes H 2 + H 3 . Similarly, beyond the free delivery
of pump 2, that pump should also be shut off and bypassed, and the
combined net head is then equal to H 3 alone. In this case, the combined
free delivery is the same as that of pump 3 alone, assuming that the other
two pumps are

bypassed.

When two or more identical (or similar) pumps are operated in parallel,
their individual volume flow rates (rather than net heads) are summed
Combined capacity for n pumps in parallel: Q c o m b i n e d =
As an example, consider the same three pumps, but arranged in parallel
rather than in series. The combined pump pe rformance curve is sho wn in
figure. The free delivery of the three combined pumps is equal to the sum
of the free delivery of each individual pump. For low values of net head,
the capacity of the three pumps in parallel is equal to Q 1 + Q 2 + Q 3 . Above
the shutoff head of pump 1 ,pump 1 should be shut off and its branch
should be blocked (with a valve). Otherwise it would be running beyond
its maximum designed operating point, and the pump or its motor could
be damaged. Fur thermore, the volume flow rate through this pump would
be negative as previously discussed, contributing to a net loss in the
system. With pump 1 shut off and blocked, the combined capacity becomes
Q 2 + Q 3 . Similarly, above the shutoff head of pump 2, that pump should
also be shut off and blocked. The combined capacity is then equal to
Q 3 alone. In this case, the combined shutoff head is the same as that of
pump 3 alone, assuming that the other two pumps are shut off and their
branches are blocked.
 39

In practice, several pumps may be combined in pa rallel to deliver a large

volume flow rate. Examples include banks of pumps used to circulate
water in cooling towers and chilled water loops .Ideally all the pumps
should be identical so that we don't need to worry about shutting any of
them off Also, it is wise to install check valves in each branch so that
when a pump needs to be shut down (for maintenance or when the
required flow rate is low), backflow through the pump is avoided. Note
that the extra valves and piping required for a paral lel pump netw ork add
additional head losses to the syste m; thus the overall performance of the
combined pumps suffers somewhat.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Multistage centrifugal pumps are used as boiler feed water pumps. In the
turbine centrifugal pum p, the impeller is surrounded by a stationary
diffusion ring containing passages of gradually increasing cross sectional
area. Water leaves the impeller rim at a high velocity which is converted
into pressure as the water passes through the diffusion ring. The casing
surrounding the diffusion ring is usually circular in shape and of constant
cross-sectional area.
In the volute pump no diffusion rings are used, but the casing is volute in
shape—that is, of gradually increasing cross -sectional area—so that as the
water flows in the casing its velocity is reduced and its pressure is
increased.

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS

People have designed numerous positive -displacement pumps throughout
the centuries. In each design, fl uid is sucked into an expanding volume
and then pushed along as that volume contracts, but the mechanism that
causes this change in volume differs greatly among the various designs.
Some designs are very simple, like the flexible -tube peristaltic pump that
compresses a tube by small wheels, pushing the fluid along. (This mecha -
nism is somewhat similar to peristalsis in your esophagus or intestines,
where muscles rather than wheels compress the tube.) Others are more
complex, using rotating cams with synchr onized lobes, interlocking gears ,
 40

or screws. Positive-displacement pumps are ideal for high -pressure

applications like pumping viscous liquids or thick slurries and for
applications where precise amounts of liquid are to be dispensed or
metered, as in medical applications.
To illustrate the operation of a positive -displacement pump, we sketch
four phases of half of a cycle of a simple rotary pump with two lobes on
each rotor .The two rotors are synchronized by an external gear box so as
to rotate at the sam e angular speed, but in opposite directions. In the dia -
gram, the top rotor turns clockwise and the bottom rotor turns
counterclock wise, sucking in fluid from the left and discharging it to the
right.
Gaps exist between the rotors and the housing and bet ween the lobes of
the rotors themselves, as illustrated (and exaggerated) in figure . Fluid can
leak through these gaps, reducing the pump's efficiency. High -viscosity
fluids cannot penetrate the gaps as easily; hence the net head (and
efficiency) of a rotary pump generally increases with fluid viscosity. This
is one reason why rotary pumps (and other types of positive -displacement
pumps) are a good choice for pumping highly viscous fluids and slurries.
They are used, for example, as automobile engine oil pu mps and in the
foods industry to pump heavy liquids like syrup, tomato paste, and
chocolate, and slurries like soups.
41
 42

The pump performance curve (net head versus capacity) of a rotary pump
is nearly vertical throughout its recommended operating range, since the
capacity is fairly constant regardless of load at a given rotational speed.
However, as indicated by the dashed line , at very high values of net head,
corresponding to very high pump outlet pressure, leaks become more
severe, even for high -viscosity fluids. In addition, the motor driving the
pump cannot overcome the large torque caused by this high outlet
pressure, and the motor begins to suffer stall or overload, which may burn
out the motor. Therefore, rotary pump manufacturers do not rec ommend
operation of the pump above a certain maximum net head, which is
typically well below the shutoff head. The pump performance curves sup -
plied by the manufacturer often do not even show the pump's performance
outside of its recommended operating range.

Positive-displacement pumps have many advantages over dynamic pumps.

For example, a positive -displacement pump is better able to handle shear
sensitive liquids since the induced shear is m uch less than that of a
dynamic pump operating at similar pr essure and flow rate. Blood is a
shear sensitive liquid, and this is one reason why positive -displacement
pumps are used for artificial hearts. A well -sealed positive -displacement
pump can create a sig nificant vacuum pressure at its inlet, even when dry,
and is thus able to lift a liquid from several meters below the pump. We
refer to this kind of pump as a self -priming pomp .Finally, the rotor(s) of
a positive-displacement pump run at lower speeds than' the rotor
(impeller) of a dynamic pump at similar lo ads, extending the useful
lifetime of seals etc.
There are some disadvantages of positive -displacement pumps as well.
Their volume flow rate cannot be changed unless the rotation rate is
changed. (This is not as simple as it sounds, since most AC electric motors
are designed to operate at one or more fixed rotational speeds.) They
create very high pressure at the outlet side, and if the outlet becomes
blocked, ruptures may occur or electric motors may overheat, as
previously discussed. Overpressure protect ion (e.g., a pressure -relief
valve) is often required for this reason. Because of their design, positive -
 43

displacement pumps may deliver a pulsating flow, which may be

unacceptable for some applications.
Analysis of positive-displacement pumps is fairly str aightforward. From
the geometry of the pump, we calculate the closed volume (V c l o s e d ) that is
filled (and expelled) for every n rotations of the shaft. Volume flow rate is
then equal to rotation rate h times V c l o s e d divided by n,
Volume flow rate, positive displacement pump: Q = V c l o s e d /n

AIR LIFT
An air lift is a device for raising water f rom wells by compressed air, no
moving mechanical parts being used. As shown in figure, a large pipe is
placed in the well with the lower end submerged. Compressed air is led
into the bottom of the large pipe through a small air line, run either inside
the larger pipe, as shown in sketch, or on the outside and curved up into
the larger pipe at the bottom.
As the compressed air escapes into the water at the bottom of the suction
pipe, it produces a mixture of air bubbles and water which is lighter than
the well water on the outside of the suction pipe. This column of air bub -
bles and water is forced upward by the pressure of the heavier column of
water outside. A supply of compressed air is necessary to operate the air
lift.
Rate of discharge depends upon lift and submergence. Lift is the vertical
distance from the surface of the water in the well t o the point of
discharge. Submergence is the vertical distance from the point at which
the compressed air enters the suction pipe to the surface o f the water in
the well. The depth of water in the well is, of course, lowered to sonic
extent when the air l ift is in operation; so the running submergence varies
in practice between 35 and 75 percent of the total vertical distance from
point of air entry to point of water discharge.
 44

LAB SESSION No.15 STUDY OF FILTERS, STRAINERS AND

STEAM SEPARATORS.

Modern hydraulic systems must be dependable and provide high accuracy.

This requires highly precision -machined components. The worst enemy of
a precision-made hydraulic component is contamination of the fluid.
Essentially, contamination is any foreign material in the fluid that results
in detrimental operation of any component of the system. Contamination
may be in the form of a liquid, gas, or solid and can be caused by any of
the following:
1. Built into system during component maintenance and
assembly: Contaminants here include metal chips, bits of pipe threads,
tubing burrs, pipe dope, shreds of plastic tape, bits of seal material,
welding beads, bits of: hose, and dirt.
2. Generated within system during operation : During the operation
of a hydraulic system, many sources of contamination exist. They include
moisture due to water condensation inside the reservoir, entrained gases;
scale caused by rust, bits of worn seal materials, particles of metal due to
wear, and sludges and varnishes due to oxidation of the oil.
3. Introduced into system from externa l environment: The main
source of contamination here is due to the use of dirty maintenance
equipment such as funnels, rags, and tools. Disassembled components
should be washed using clean hydra ulic fluid before assembly. Any oil
added to the system should be free of contaminants and poured from clean
containers.
STRAINERS
Reservoirs help to keep the hydraulic fluid clean. In fact, some reservoirs
contain magnetic plugs at their bottom to trap iron and steel parti cles
carried by the fluid. However, this is not adequate, and in reality the main
job of keeping the fluid clean is performed by filters and strainers.
Filters and strainers are devices for trapping contaminants. Specifically, a
filter is a device whose primary function is to retain, by some porous
medium, insoluble contaminants from a fluid. Basically, a strainer is a
coarse filter. Strainers are constructed of a wire screen that rarely
contains openings less tha n 100 mesh. Because st rainers have low -
pressure drops, they are usually in stalled in the pump suction line to
remove contaminants large enough to damage ' the pump. A pressure gage
is normally installed in the suction line between the pump and strainer to
indicate the conditio n of the strainer. A drop in pressure in dicates that
the strainer is becoming clogged. This can starve the pump, resulting in
cavitation and increased pump noise.
 45

FILTERS
A filter can consist o f materials in addition to a screen. Particle sizes
removed by filters are measured in micrometers (or microns).The
smallest-sized particle that can normally be removed by a strainer is
0.0059 in or approximately 150 µm. On the other hand, filters can remove
particles as small as 1 µm.
There are three basic types of filtering methods used in hydraulic systems;
mechanical, absorbent, and adsorbent.
1. Mechanical. This type normally contains a metal or cloth screen or a
series of metal disks separated by thin spacers. Mechanical -type filters are
capable of removing only relatively coarse particles from the fluid.
2. Absorbent. These filters are porous and permeable materials such as
paper, wood pulp, diatomaceous earth, cloth, cellulose, and asbestos.
Paper filters are normally impregnated with a resin to provide added
strength. In this type of filter, the particles are actually absorbed as the
fluid permeates the material. As a result, these filters are used for
extremely small particle filtration.
3. Adsorbent . Adsorption is a surface phenomenon and r efers to the
tendency of particles to cling to the surface of the filter. Thus, the
capacity of such a filter de pends on the amount of surface area available.
Adsorbent materials used include ac tivated clay and chemically treated
paper. Charcoal and Full er's earth should not be used because they
remove some of the essential additives from the hydraulic fluid.
Some filters are designed to be installed in the pressure line and normally
are used in systems where high -pressure components such as valves are
more dirt sensitive than the pump. Pressure line filters are accordingly
designed to sustain sys tem operating pressures. Return line filters are
used in systems that do not have a very large reservoir to permit
contaminants to settle to the bottom. A retur n line filter is needed in
systems containing close -tolerance, high -performance pumps, be cause
inlet line filters, which have limited pressure drop allowance, cannot filter
out extremely small particles in the 1 -to 5 µm range.
STEAM SEPARATOR (STEAM DRYER)
A steam separator is an apparatus for separating out moisture that may be
carried in suspension by steam flowing in pipelines and for preventing
this moisture from reaching and perhaps damaging engines, pumps, or
other machiner y that may be driven by the steam. The separation of the
moisture from the steam is accomplished by .either giving the steam a
whirling motion or causing it to strike baffles that change the direction of
its How.
A centrifugal steam separator is shown at the left in figure. In passing
through this separator, the steam strikes a spiral -shaped plate which gives
it a whirling motion. The moisture is thrown outward by centrifugal force,
and it drains down the walls to the bottom of the separator while the te am
passes up the central pipe and out to the line.
 46

In the baffle type of steam separator shown at the right, the direction of
flow of the steam is changed by suitable baffles. The moisture adheres to
the baffle walls and drains down to the bottom of the se parator. In all
types of separators the water is drained away through a steam trap.
 47

LAB SESSION No. 16 COGENERATION AND STEAM IN PROCESS

HEATING

What is cogeneration'? Cogeneration is the use of energ y a sequential

fashion to produce simultan eously thermal energy and power: specifically,
steam and electricity. An example is a gas engine driving an electrical
power generation system with the exhaust from the engine passing
through a waste heat recovery bailer to generate process steam. Another
example is the burning of a fuel in a boiler to produce steam, running the
steam through a backpressure steam engine or steam turbine, and then
taking the steam to process. The amount of fuel re quired to produce the
power and the heat in either cogenerati on system is less than the amount
of fuel that would have been required to produce the same amounts of
electricity and heat separately.
The two common forms of cogeneration are called "bottoming cycle" and
"topping cycle." Bottoming cycle refers to the system in which fuel is
burned to produce steam for process requirements and waste heat is
recovered for the production of power. Topping cycle is when fuel is
burned for steam to produce power first and the waste heal is used for
process requirements.
Efficient usage of bottoming cycles requires a high -temperature waste
heat stream an d this somewhat limits the opportunities. Topping cycles
can be used almost any place mat process heat is required.
Cogeneration will improve the overall system efficiency in a steam system.
Some of the more common cogeneration systems include the following:
1. Drop higher pressure boiler steam through a backpressure turbine to
a lower steam pressure to process.
2. Drop higher pressure boiler steam through a backpressure turbine to
a lower steam pressure to an absorption chiller for refrigeration.
3. Recover waste heat from exhaust of a gas turbine, generate steam,
and drop the steam through a backpressure turbine to a lower steam
pressure to process.
4. Recover waste heat from exhaust an d cooling water of a gas engine ,
generate steam and drop the steam through a backpressure turbine -
to a lower steam pressure to process.
5. Recover the waste heat from a source, generate steam with HRSG,
and drop the steam through a backpressure turbine to a lo wer steam
pressure to process.
6. Use a condensing turbine in the foregoing examples when process
steam demand does not exist.
7. Replace steam pressure reducing valve with backpressure turbine (if
justifiable).
 48

STEAM FOR PROCESS HEATING

STEAM RAISING:
We must start at very beginning and ask why we generate steam at all.
Steam is not an end itself. It is, within the produced to serve as a
convenient carrier of energy in the form of heat and pressure.
Heat which produces a change o f temperature is called sensible heat. The
first effect of burning fuel in boiler furnace is therefore to add sensible
heat to the water. As more heat passé from furnace to the water, the
temperature of the water goes on increasing. At the same time evapor ation
occurs at increasing rate. If this steam has no outlet from the boiler, a
pressure is set up by the steam on the surface of water. The effect of this
pressure is to raise the T at which water boils. This calls for a further
supply of sensible heat, b ut as pressure increases, latent heat of
vaporization decreases So
As pressure increase s, h f increases and h f g decreases. But remember that
h g increases upto 3.8 MPa, then it decreases with increase of pressure,
which means that heat required to produce sa turated steam from a water
which is at a given T (say 25°C) will increase with pressure upto 3.8 MPa,
but after 3.8 MPa, it will decrease with increase of pressure . (You can also
verify this from p -h chart or steam tables).
Coming back to our boiler, if the steam is taken away faster than it is
being generated, the surface of the water will be below atmospheric
pressure. The effect of this will be to lower the boiling point, lower the
Sensible. Heat, and increase the Latent Heal .
For example, at 1 bar, h f is 417 kJ/kg,h f g is 2258 kJ/kg and h g is 2675
kJ/kg.
And at 15 bar, h f is 845kJ/kg, h f g is 1947 kJ/kg and h g is 2792 kJ/kg
These points are being made to illustrate two important facts : That it
requires only 117 more heat units to generate 1 kg of steam at 15bar,
pressure, than that required at atmospheric pressure — only 4.1% more.
That at 15 bar, no less than 30% of the heat in the steam is sensible heat,
while at 1 bar the proportion is only 1 5.58 %.
WET STEAM:
When steam is generated in a boiler, the water surface is turbulent and
droplets of water are thrown up into the steam. Particularly when steam is
being extracted from the boiler at a high rate; the movement of the steam
towards the outlet will carry these droplets away and into the steam
system.
Steam which contains these particles of water in a finely divided state' is
called wet steam.
SUPERHEAT STEAM:
If we superheat the steam at 15 bar to a degree of superheat of 52°C, then
enthalpy of steam will be 2925 kJ/kg .
 49

So then
h f is 28.85 % of total enthalpy
h f g is 66.56 % of total enthalpy
Superheat enthalpy is 4.54 % of total e nthalpy
If will be seen that superheating provides a valuable safeguard
against loss of heat -content due to wet steam conditions, particularly
when the steam is to be used fo r generating power. But the superheating
of steam has also a problem.
Steam Volume:
Dry saturated steam at 1 bar takes up a lot of room. 1kg of it fills 1.694 m 3 .
As steam pressures rise, so steam becomes more compact. At 15 bar
volume of 1 kg of dry steam is 0.1520 m 3 .
This is a valuable point. We remember that steam at this pressure has only
4.1% more heat per kg than steam at 1bar, but we can get more than 11
times the amount of steam at th is higher pressure into the same space.
If the steam should not b e dry and we decide to superheat it, we find that
the volume factor now starts to work against us, because steam expands
when it is superheated. At 15 bar with a degree of superheat of 52°C,
volume of 1 kg of steam is 0.1324 m 3 .At 15 bar, enthalpy of dry s team per
m 3 of steam is 21100.69 kJ and at 15 bar with a degree of superheat of
52°C, enthalpy of steam per m 3 of steam is 19243.42 kJ. So
Enthalpy of steam per kg is increased by superheating dry steam to 52°C
degree of superheat from 2792 kJ to 2925 kJ (4.76 % increase) but volume
per kg is increased from 0.1317 m 3 to 0.1520 m 3 (15.41 % increase)
resulting in decrease of enthalpy of steam per m 3 from 21100.69 kJ to
19243.42 kJ (8.80 % decrease).Recall mass flow rate equation
Mass flow rate = AV/ ν
For a given velocity (dictated by losses) and a given area (hence initial
cost), mass flow rate decrease as ν (specific volume) increases. So less kg
of steam per unit time will be supplied, resulting in less enthalpy
available for process heating.
CONDENSATION
The heat provided by dry saturated steam is, so far as it does not
condense, latent heat. This is all transmitted at the temperature of
saturated steam corresponding to the steam pressure. Since it is only the
latent heat in steam which has change d it from water, as soon as the latent
heat is removed it changes back , it condenses. The amount of latent heat
which is given up by 1 kg of steam in condensing is the same as the
amount which was put into it in vaporizing.
The condensate which is formed i s at the temperature of the saturated
steam and it still contains all its sensible heat. There is still a tempera ture
head between the condensate and its surroundings 3 so it gives up heat to
them. But the loss of sensible heat, unlike the loss of latent heat, produces
a drop in temperature. The condensate cools and in doing so reduces the
 50

temperature head between it and the process material. If the condensate

were allowed to stay in the steam space it would go on giving up sensible
heat until all the temper ature head had been used up and the heating of
the process material would stop. Sensible heat units in process plant are
therefore only of value so long as the temperature head is sufficient to
allow the passage of heat to the process material at a rate wh ich the
process demands.
SUPERHEAT IN PROCESS PLANT
If the superheating of steam is a valuable means of drying it and ensures
the full amount of latent heat being present, it would seem that superheat
might help in preventing the formation of condensate in process plant.
Let us consider a typical example. We can feed our process plant either
with dry saturated steam at 15bar or with superheated steam at the same
pressure and 52°C superheat.
1 kg of dry saturated steam at 15 bar has 1947 kJ of latent enthalpy and
2792 kJ of total enthalpy and occupies 0.1317 m 3 .
1 kg of superheated steam has 1947 kJ of latent enthalpy, 133 kJ of
superheat enthalpy, 2925 kJ of total enthalpy, and occupies 0.1520 m 3 .
The steam space of the process plant is a certain fixed am ount— supposes
it to be 1 m 3 . Dry saturated steam in this space will contain 1947/0.1317 kJ
of heat which can be used before condensation, or 14783.60 kJ.
Superheated steam will contain (1947+ 133)/ 0.1520 or 13684.21 kJ. Thus
the heat readily available in the steam space is greater if saturated steam
is used.
Against this, the temperature head, using superhea ted steam, will be
greater by 52 °C and so heat should flow more quickly to the process
material. As soon as any superheat units are taken away, howeve r, the
temperature drops. Moreover there are only 133 kJ available in each kg
before the temperature is down to saturation temperature. If the process
is such that its heat requirements can be met by the small amount
available as superheat (and there are s uch processes) then th e greater
temperature head available with superheat will be an advantage. If the
heat requirements cannot be met by the superheat alone, the presence of
superheated steam in the steam space will be found to be a definite
disadvantage to production.
Furthermore, if part of a surface is being heated by the superheat in the
steam and part by saturated steam, there may be an undesirable difference
in temperature between one part of the face and another.
Nevertheless there are some advantages in superheating at the boiler as
will be made clear when considering steam transmission.
STEAM DISTRIBUTION
It will help to get a realistic outlook on a process steam distribution %
system if we start by considering the boiler as a store for raw materia l. It
is a store for energy in the form of steam heat, which is itself a raw
material for the process operation, just as clearly as is wool or sugar or a
chemical component. The steam distribution system is thus shown to be
 51

the means by which this raw mate rial is conveyed from the store to the
process plant. But whereas you can see and stop material falling off a belt
conveyor you can't so easily see heat material falling off a heat conveyor —
except through the grosser errors such as leaking flanges and valv es.
Nevertheless heat is dropping off its conveyor constantly through the
insulation however good or bad may be, because, in the last analysis it is
inevitable that some losses should occur. Sometimes these losses are
unnecessarily high, for example, as th e result of the conveyor passing
round three sides of a building for purely historical reasons.
The process plant to which the heat is being led has almost certainly been
designed to work on dry saturated steam. But even if steam has been
generated genuine ly dry at the boiler —in itself something of a pious
hope—it cannot possibly also be dry at the plant. On the contrary, as soon
as the steam leaves the boiler on its way to the process plant, it gives up
some of its Latent Heat and begins to condense.
Condensation in the steam main will form initially on the wall of the pipe
as a film of water. This will be dragged along by the steam velocity of
perhaps ninety miles an hour and at the same time gravity will act to make
it thicker on the bottom of the main th an on the sides. As soon as there is
any disturbance to flow such as would be caused by a bend or valve, the
water film will be picked up by the steam in the form of drops so adding to
any water droplets already carried over from the boiler.
If the main is drained by appropriate steam trapping as is described in a
later chapter, the water on the bottom may be removed but not the high
speed drops—and even the water film is being dragged along very rapidly
and so needs a proper drain arresting point before it will flow down to the
steam trap.
If the droplets of condensation from the main are allowed to pass through
into the process unit they will interfere with the passage of Latent Heat
from the dry steam to the metal. In themselves the drops have no Latent
Heat, so contribute nothing to the process. In draining down the metal
surface they add to the thickness of the water film that has legitimately
formed as a result of the passage of heat from the dry steam to the metal.
This thicker film increases the resis tance to heat flow and lowers the
temperature of the metal wall, thus slowing production in the plant.
The better the quality of the steam, that is, the less water it contains at
the plant the higher will be the possible rate of production. There are
three ways of improving steam quality .
If the boiler plant allows, it is worth considering slightly superheating the
steam before it leaves for the process plant —not to provide super heat at
the plant, but to allow the unneeded superheat to be dissipated in pip e
losses rather than the needed Latent Heat. This course cannot mean that
all process units are fed with dry saturated steam, because they will be at
different distances from the boiler and have different heat losses in their
feed mains; but if the choice is made based on the largest steam user,
much good will have been achieved.
 52

A second, straightforward and simple, method of obtaining dry steam at

the plant is by the use of steam separators. Their use is better ex emplified
by their alternative name, stea m dryers, by which they will be known in
the following section only.

STEAM DRYERS
A steam dryer separates water particles from flowing steam by two
distinct methods, both of which operate by the difference in density of
steam and water.
Figure shows an impact dryer. This design has a double purpose. Steam
flows through an increasing area, its velocity falls and some water drops
out of suspension. The steam direction changes and the heavier water
drops impinge on a shaped surface down which they run out o f contact
with the continuing steam flow.
Second figure is a different conception. In this dryer the steam velocity is
first maintained but the flow is given a twist so that the heavier water
droplets are flung out of suspension by centrifugal force agains t the sides
of the vessel, then the flow area is increased so that the steam velocity
drops to prevent pick -up of separated water.
Steam dryers, when used for preventing bad effects of wet steam in
process units, should be fitted as near as possible to the units them selves.
A small dryer, drained by an appropriate steam trap, in such a position
will give the best steam quality that plant conditions permit. If the
ultimate output is required from steam heated plant this is certainly one
of the additions that should be carried out.
REDUCING STEAM PRESSURES
There remains yet another way in which, perhaps incidentally for our
purpose, steam quality becomes improved.
The higher the pressure at which steam is generated the less space one
pound of it takes up and the more steam can be pushed along a pipe line.
Or, if a certain amount of steam has to be transmitted, the smaller the
pipe which is needed to carry it.
By reducing to a minimum the size of pipe required to carry the steam we
have done two things—we have reduced the capital cost of the trans -
mission plant and we have reduced the heat losses from it.
But one kg of steam at high pressure is not so valuable for process work as
one pound at a lower pressure; because the higher the pressure, the lower
the latent enthalpy per kg.
Process plant is generally designed to give a certain output at a certain
steam pressure and temperature. There must be some temperature & head
between the steam and the process material. This will determine the low
limit of steam pressu re, The higher the steam pressure above this low
limit the greater the temperature head will be and, within limits, the
greater the rate of production. But the higher the steam pressure the less
 53

the latent heat which is available per kg and so the more kg of steam
required to give the same heating effect.
The steam pressure for any given process job is therefore a nice choice
between output and fuel consumption. The steam pressure for best
generation and transmission is quite another matter. Within the per -
missible limits of the plant, the h igher the pressure the better.
As a result of these quite separate conditions it may be found that it is
correct to generate at a higher pressure than the pressure at which the
steam is to be used.
Let us assume that we a re generating dry saturated steam at 15 bar and we
want to use dry saturated steam at 5 bar.
The steam gives up latent heat to the steam main and by the time it
reaches the first process take -off, each kg has lost, say, 38.94 kJ in
making up pipe losses (d ryness fraction 0.98).
The enthalpy of steam which was 2792 kJ/kg has been reduced to 2753.06
kJ/kg.
The steam now passes through a pressure reducing valve to 5 bar on the
first process branch.
The h g of steam at 5 bar is 2749 kJ/kg. Assuming that no heat loss occurs
in the reducing valve, the wet steam which went in at 15 bar has come out
at 5 bar, not only dry but with 2753.06 - 2749 = 4.06 kJ per kg as
superheat, and so at a T above saturation temperature.
It would be crazy to fit a reducing valve just in order to dry steam.
However if such a valve must be used because of the pressure conditions
of generation and usage, it is as well to consider where and why it should
be fitted. If all the process plant is to be operated at a lower pressure than
the boiler and the higher pressure boiler has been chosen merely to save
capital on the distribution system, then obviously the pressure reduction
should be made near to the plant. A moment's consideration should
however be given to the possibility of reducing th e pressure through an
engine or an evaporator. You get much more for your high pressure that
way than by degrading it through a reducing value.
The correct sizing and installation of pressure reducing valves and their
protection against water, scale and d irt build-up is vital if they are to give
accurate and trouble-free service.
 54

LAB SESSION No. 17: STEAM TRAPS AND AIR VENTS

We know from our survey of a process and a power steam circuit that
there are many points in both systems where condensate f orms by the
steam giving up its h eat; in transmission lines, where the heat has been
wasted; in process units, where the heat has been put to good use; in
power plant, where the presence of condensate can be a potential danger.
We also know that superheat is wanted in one place and not in another;
that steam pressures must be high here and low there.
Also condensate from whatever source should be re turned for boiler feed,
or at least that its heat should be extracted from it.
An automatic drain valve, know n as a Steam Trap, is the only efficient
means by which this condensate can be taken away from where i t is not
wanted and helped on its way to where it will do most good.
The duty of a steam trap to discharge condensate while not permitting the
escape of live steam is common to all designs of trap; but there are several
methods by which this can be done. The steam pressures at which steam
traps must operate may be anywhere from vacuum to the highest in
practical use. The quantity of condensate which steam t raps have to
discharge on different jobs may vary from a trickle to a flood. They may
have to be suitable for saturated steam or for superheated steam. They
may have to discharge condensate at steam temperature, as soon as it
forms in the steam space; or t hey may have to discharge it below -steam
temperature, after it has given up some of its sensible heat units.
Nevertheless there are only three characteristics that differentiate the
behavior of steam and condensate as they arrive at the point where a
steam trap has to be fitted.
Firstly, the density of steam and hot condensate is different; therefore a
float can be used that will sink in steam and rise in water. This property
gives rise to the range of mechanical steam traps.
Secondly, a temperature differ ence can be made between the steam and
condensate if the two are separated, as the condensate will begin to lose
its Sensible Heat. From this property has sprung the range of thermostatic
trap.
The third factor is a trifle more complicated. If condensate is to be
discharged at full steam temperature there will be a maximum of flash
steam formed at the trap outlet. This will cause a maximum build -up of
pressure due to the sudden local increase of volume. If the condensate
temperature is cold there will be no buildup at all. Also if there is an
artificial restriction to the condensate out flow these tendencies will be
magnified.
The incidence of fl ash steam formation and the subsequent pressure
build-up is the basis for the design of steam traps of the types known
variously as Thermodynamic (or Flash Pressure) traps. So these traps
differentiate between steam and condensate due to difference in their flow
characteristics.
 55

THERMODYNAMIC OR FLASH PRESSURE TRAPS

IMPULSE TRAP:
Figure shows an impulse trap. The main valve E has a hole through it and
an orifice A at the top. C is a thin piston disc on the valve body and it
moves in the guide D. The guide is tapered, being wider at the top than at
the bottom.
When steam is first turned on, the pressur e acting under C lifts the valve
so that air is passed out. Then comes water. This too passes out of the
valve direct; water also passes round C into the chamber above the valve
and is discharged through A. The clearance at C drops the pressure of
water passing round so that the pressure below C is greater than the
pressure above it.
As the condensate gets up to steam temperature the orifice A is choked
with flash steam. A pressure is then set up above the valve which begins to
fall on to the reduced taper in D. The valve is then open to suit hot
condensate conditions.
If steam arrives, it passes comparatively easily round the reduced
clearance C and drops the valve. If, instead of steam, cooler condensate
arrives, the top flashing ceases and the valve lifts .
This type of trap is obviously very simple, but its correct operation does
depend upon the maintenance of fine machining limits under arduous
conditions Condensate is discharged continuously (through A, main valve
shut) if the load is light, intermittent ly if the load is medium, and con -
tinuously if the load is heavy. The temperature is somewhat below that of
steam.
Operating power is derived directly from the temperature arid pressure of
the steam.
 56

DISC TRAP:
Figure shows an interesting, and ver y important, type of trap that relies at
least partly on the formation of flash steam from condensate arriving at
increasing pressure and temperature; this accounts for the 'thermo'
beginning of the name. The "dynamic ‖ end exploits the Bernoulli theorem
that in a moving fluid the sum of dynamic and static pressures is constant.
A in figure is a finely finished disc that is also a freely floating valve. It
mates against concentric seat rings C. When steam is first turned on, the
disc A is raised by the press ure and air is discharged through the outlet
passage B. Condensate follows, cold at first, and is dis charged. As the
condensate temperature and pressure rise so flash steam is formed under
the disc and the velocity of this passing below the disc towards t he outlet
increases.
Here Bernoulli takes over. The increasing velocity lowers the pressure
under the disc, so the disc is drawn towards the seat rings. However at the
extreme circumference of the disc the velocity is reduced and the pressure
builds up in the chamber D above the floating disc. At a point when the
condensate temperature has approached that of steam the flash -produced
pressure in D acting on the large area of the disc overcomes the inlet
pressure acting on a small diameter. The disc D snaps s hut against the
rings C and prevents further flow.
Deprived of further flash steam, the pressure in the control chamber falls
and the inlet pressure once again opens the valve for the cycle to be
repeated.
 57

Since flash steam formation is greater with an inc rease in pressure, the
pressure available to close the disc rises with the pressure available to
open it and the trap is self -balancing both for pressure and for super heat.
The disc is the only moving part, so there is nothing within the trap that
can be damaged by extraneous forces such a waterham mer. These traps
are made completely in stainless steel so that corrosion is not a problem
and they can be frozen solid without coming to any harm.
The ability of a this trap to pass air will depend on velocity. For example,
when starting up, air will lift the disc and pass freely, to be followed by
condensate in the normal way. Should its velocity happen, on occasions, to
increase to the point at which the dynamic effect becomes great enough to
seat the disc, the trap will close. But this generally happens at a higher
pressure than it would with steam and the trap will reopen quite soon
because the air in the control chamber is warm and quickly loses heat and
contracts, allowing the disc to lift.
On jobs where a lot of air has to be discharged it may be necessary to fit a
separate air vent in parallel with the trap.
 58

MECHANICAL STEAM TRAPS

This is the range of traps that operates by using the d ifference in density
between steam and water. They are divided into open top bucket traps -
inverted bucket traps and closed float traps.

OPEN TOP BUCKET TRAPS:

Figure shows the basic design of the open top bucket type of the
mechanically operated group. C ondensate from the equipment to be
drained flows in at D and fills up the body of the trap, in which the bucket
A is resting on the bottom. To the bucket A there is fitted a valve B which
operates against a valve seat C. As condensate rises in the body of the trap
the bucket floats until the valve is shut. Now at this stage it may be that
no more condensate can get into the trap, although it wants to, because
the top of the trap body is full of air which cannot be displaced. To
prevent this happening, traps of this type are fitted with a hand operated
blow off valve E. If valve E is opened on starting any locked air will be
discharged and condensate can continue to flow to the trap. Alternatively
valve E can be replaced by an automatic valve that opens to re lease air,
because air locked in the top of the trap will cause a drop in temperature
 59

that opens a thermostat in the valve. In one design a small hole is drilled
in the discharge tube F which goes most of th8 way to obviate air -binding.
The bucket cannot r ise any higher, so water begins to overflow into it. As
this continues the time comes when the bucket can no longer float. In
sinking, it pulls the valve B off the seat C. Steam pressure then blows the
condensate out of the bucket. The weight of the bucket is so designed that
the bucket floats again before it is completely emptied. This leaves a water
seal in the bottom which prevents the escape of steam
Traps of this type have an intermittent or blast discharge because no
condensate is discharged while the bucket is filling. The condensate is at
steam temperature.
 60

CLOSED FLOAT TRAPS :

Although we have classed closed float traps as one group, there are three
different sub -sections to be considered.
(1) Traps operated by a float through l evers.
(2) Traps operated by a float through a separate relay mechanism.
(3) Traps operated by a float through levers and by a thermostat.
Figure shows the construction of a simple trap operated by a closed float
The trap does not need to be filled with wa ter before it will operate. When
steam is first turned on, the float A is resting in its lowest position. If air
is driven along in front of the steam it cannot escape from the trap and
must be released by hand through the cock provided at the top. The
removal of this air will facilitate the collection of condensate in the trap
body. The design is such that condensate does not begin to lift the float
until the valve seat B is covered. After this level is reached, any further
addition of condensate will rais e the float. This motion is passed through
the float rod C to the valve D by a suitable arrangement of levers which
increases the power of the float to lift the valve off its seat. The amount of
valve opening depends on the position of the float or the lev el of
condensate. As the condensate rate increases, so the level rises, opens the
valve wider and reduces the level.
A trap of the type shown discharges condensate continuously and at steam
temperature.
Figure shows such a trap which incorporates a separat e automatic valve
for preventing air binding. There are so many makes of steam trap of this
type that it can be considered as a separate sub -section.
The trap does not need to be filled with water. When steam is turned on,
the main valve B is shut and the air valve F is open. Condensate flows to
the trap and raises the closed float A. This, acting through levers, opens
the main valve B. If the condensate rate is very heavy, the level may rise
so that water is discharged through valve F also. When the condensate
rate falls and steam can reach the trap, a thermostat D expands and
pushes the valve E on to the seat F. The exact operation of this thermostat
will be discussed in full unde r the heading ―Balanced Pressure
Thermostatic Traps ‖. Sufficient for the mome nt that the thermostat closes
when surrounded by steam and opens to the lower temperature of
condensate or air. Because of this subsidiary valve, not only is air
discharged on starting from cold, but also any accumulation of air is
discharged when the plan t is running. This is because a collec tion of air
sufficient to cause air binding must be at a lower temperature than pure
steam and so will cause the thermostat to contract and open the air valve.
Apart from this, the characteristics of combined float an d thermostatic
traps are similar to those of the simple float type. Discharge capacity and
pressure range depend on the power of the float Condensate is discharged
continuously and at steam temperature.
61
62
 63

INVERTED BUCKET TRAPS

Figure shows the basic design of a mechanical steam trap operated by the
movement of an inverted bucket.
Some makers of these traps recommend that the trap be filled with water
before starting up.
The action is as follows —assuming trap to be empty. When steam is turned
on, the bucket A, which is open at the bottom, is lying on the bottom, and
valve B to which it is attached, either direct or through levers, is pulled
off the seat C. Any air which is present in the plant is expelled by steam
pressure both round the bottom of the bucket and out through C, or
through the small hole D in the top of the bucket and so out through C.
Condensate enters and fills up the body and also the bucket, expelling
remaining air through D. The valve B is still open and condensate is
discharged. Then steam reaches the trap and passes up into the bucket.
Some steam passes up through D to be lost, but most of it displaces, the
water from inside the buc ket, so that the bucket floats and brings the
valve B up to the seat C. If condensate is coming only very slowly to the
trap, the steam escapes at a low rate through D and condenses in the
water in the body —the water in the body being, however, very nearly at
steam temperature. Condensate will gradually fill up the bucket, according
to the rate at which it is reaching the trap. There will come a moment
when the buoyancy of the bucket is lost, the bucket will then sink and pull
the valve off its seat, permit ting the condensate to be discharged. Any air
 64

which comes to the trap during the running period will collect in the
bucket and pass slowly away through the hole D.
In the standard design, the larger D is the faster air will escape and the
faster steam will pass; the smaller D is the slower steam will escape, but
the slower air will be able to get away. In some designs there is an
additional hole D in the bucket top, the opening of which is controlled by
a simple thermostat. But since the trap is always full of water the small
temperature difference to operate this thermostat does not permit it to
have much power.
Inverted bucket traps discharge condensate intermittently and at steam
temperature.
65
 66

THERMOSTATIC STEAM TRAPS

At any given pressure saturated steam must be at one temperature and one
temperature only. In condensing it forms water at steam tempera ture, but
the water can and does begin giving up Sensible Heat units and loses
temperature, although the pressure on the surface of it is still steam
pressure. Thermostatic steam traps differentiate between water and steam
because of this difference in temperature between the tw o.

BALANCED PRESSURE THERMOSTATIC TRAPS:

Figure shows the construction of a typical thermostati c trap with what is
known as a balanced pressure thermostatic element.
The thermostatic element A is a sealed vessel with a rigid metal top , and
bottom, but with side walls which will lengthen or shorten if the rigid
ends are pulled apart or pushed together. The vessel is filled under
vacuum generally with a mixture of water and another fluid having a
boiling point less than water. The length of the element when cold is such
that the valve B is off the seat C. When steam is first turned on, air is
discharged through the open valve orifice B which is carried on the
floating end of the thermostatic element A —the top end of the element
being rigidly fixed to the tra p, Cold condensate enters and passes out. As
the condensate warms up it transmits heat to the mixture in the element,
which expands and pushes the valve C a little closer to the seat. At a
temperature t below the saturated steam temperature corresponding t o
the pressure at the trap, the mixture boils and begins to exert a vapor
pressure. When the outside of the element is at steam pressure, the inside,
because of the temperature head, is at a pressure which is higher by the
amount p. This excess pressure fo rces the valve down on the seat and
closes the trap just before steam temperature is reached. Condensate is
then held up in the trap until it has cooled to the amount t below steam
temperature. At this point the vapor pressure in the element is less than
the outside steam pressure so that the element returns to its original
shortened length and the valve opens.
If superheated steam should reach a trap of this type, the superheat will
boil the mixture and set up an internal pressure which is greater than p.
This will disturb the operating principle and probably fracture the flexible
walls of the element. Balanced pressure thermostatic traps are therefore
not suitable if superheat can reach the element.
These traps usually discharge condensate intermittently, but, particularly
on low pressures, the flow may sometimes be continuous when the
condensate temperature and rate are steady.
67
 68

BIMETALLIC THERMOSTATIC TRAPS :

It will have been noted that thermostatic traps using th e expansion of a
straight metal rod suffer because they must be so long to give the re quired
valve movement, that the heat capacity of the rod makes them sluggish in
responding to temperature changes and that they need adjusting to meet
pressure variations—but they are rugged. Balanced pressure traps, on the
contrary, are small, responsive to temperature changes (hence better than
any other type for air venting) and self -adjusting to pressure variations —
but the element can be damaged by waterhammer, corros ion and
superheat. Various ingenious attempts have been made to combine the
advantages of both types by the use of a bimetal thermostatic element.
The results are frankly a compromise. Figure shows one of the best of
them.
It must be understood, as the nam e implies, that a bimetal strip consists
of two dissimilar metals fabricated together to form one entity. The two
metals have differing co -efficient of expansion under heat. If they are of
the same general composition, for example dis similar stainless steels,
their thermal activity will be small but their ability to resist corrosion will
be great. If the metals are unlike in composition the reverse will apply.
This is the first compromise to be faced.
If the trap is to be self -adjusting to normal pressure fluctuations some
way must be found to bring the leaves of the bimetal element into
operation in some form of sequence. Fig ure shows the plan view of the
element of the bimetal trap and illustrates one way in which this can be
done. The different lengths a nd widths of the sections deflect under
 69

changing temperatures and produce the needed varying force on the valve,
so making if follow in considerable measure the steam saturation curve.

STEAM TRAP INSTALLATION

A steam trap has two functions:
(1) It must pass all the condensate that forms in the section of plant
which it is draining.
(2) It must hold back any steam that reaches it.
DRAINAGE POINT
Figure shows a method of draining a steam main whi ch ensures that all
the water passing through that section of main does get to the trap.
A steam Dryer or Separator makes an ideal drain pocket (see page 4). Not
only does it catch the condensate running along the bottom of the main
but it also removes th e water droplets suspended in the steam flow so
greatly improving steam quality.
The point to be remembered at this stage is that even the best steam trap
cannot make condensate flow to it and that if condensate is not in fact
getting out of the trap it i s only logical to find out whether the trap is in
such a position that condensate can get to it.
 70

STEAM TRAP SELECTION

Having decided the best point at which to drain the plant, the next
problem is to find which of the many types of trap available is th e correct
one to use.
It will already have been noticed that a trap suitable for passing a certain
amount of condensate at a certain pressure may be one of many types, it
may be small or large, cheap or expensive, and pass condensate either at
or below steam temperature.
Experience shows that all types of trap have their good points and their
bad points, but most steam traps will work if the conditions are within
their range of pressure and capacity. In advising about correct steam
trapping, we are concerne d, not so much with making sure that a steam
trap will work, as with getting the greatest efficiency and output from the
plant being drained. At first sight it may not be obvious how the
difference between one trap installation and another can affect plant
efficiency—but it does.
To give another example —some traps are noisy, particularly the
intermittent discharge type. You would not therefore fit a noisy trap to
drain hospital equipment, where silence is appreciated.
But whatever trap is chosen, it must be able to work at the maximum
pressure which will be found at that point and it must be able to pass
condensate at the maximum rate at which it forms.
It must also be remembered that a thermostatic air vent, operating on the
balanced pressure principle, ca nnot be used if there is any danger of
waterhammer or superheat reaching the element.
The bucket trap is perhaps the most widely used trap in for general
purposes. Thermostatic, disc trap and combination float and thermostatic
traps are extensively used on heating systems. The impulse trap is used on
high pressure steam lines .
AIR VENTS
The advantages of air venting are at their greatest in process and heating
steam installations and it is unusual and generall y unwise to employ
superheat for these purposes. Nevertheless the problem does sometimes
arise of venting the air from a superheated steam space or from a steam
main where waterhammer does occur. A liquid expansion thermostatic air
vent can be used and thi s is similar to a liquid filled thermostatic steam
 71

trap. This provides only a com promise solution, but it is better than a
hand-operated vent.
When steam is first turned on, all is cold, the valve is wide open and air is
blown out. As the temperature rise s the liquid in the element expands and
slowly the valve is pushed towards its seat until it closes to prevent steam
loss. The opening of the valve will take place due t o loss of heat by the
element to its surroundings and will not be dependent on air form ation.
But as soon as ever the valve does begin to open, the first slight passage of
steam will close it. If air should be present so that the temperature is
lower in the steam space, the valve will stay open just that little bit
longer.
POSITION OF THE AI R VENT
In deciding on the number and positions of the air vents needed for a
particular machine two main factors must be borne in mind. The first is
the importance of getting the air out quickly before it has a chance to mix
with the incoming steam. Once t he air and steam are mixed to gether they
can only be separated by condensing the steam and deposit ing the air on
the heat transfer surface.
The second point is that, in most cases, the steam coming in will tend to
push the air in front of it until it rea ches some point or points remote
from the inlet, where it will collect. Here it will form a pocket, unless
removed, and gradually diffuse back into the steam to form a mixture
The temperature of the heating surface where the air pocket collects will
be much lower than that in contact with steam.
It is interesting to note that in most plants the fact that air is heavier than
steam does not mean that it falls to the bottom of the steam space. The
dynamic effect of the entering steam and the shape of the steam space are
the governing factors. There are exceptions to this but these are generally
very large steam spaces, such as autoclaves and retorts, where there is a
very big volume of air on which the incoming steam has less effect.
One further point is that s ometimes, but by no means always, the
condensate drain point is also the best point from which to remove the
air. If a considerable amount of air has to come out by way of the drain
point then either a steam trap that is capable of venting air efficiently
must be used, or a separate air vent must be fitted in parallel with it.
We will now show how air venting should be done in practice by
examining a number of different cases.
Figure shows two steam spaces identical in shape and size. In first case
steam enters at the bottom while in second case it comes in at the top. In
both cases, of course, the condensate drain point is at the bottom. When
steam is turned on to in first case it will push the air ahead of it to the
remote point, which is at the top of the steam space and this is where the
air vent should be fitted. The trap will have little or no air to deal with .
But in second the reverse is the case. The air will be pushed down to the
drain point by the steam coming in at the top and we must either fit a trap
 72

which has a high air venting capacity, such as a closed float with inbuilt
air vent, or fit a separate air vent in parallel with the trap.

AIR VENTS IN HOT WATER

Figure show two methods of removing the air which collects the high
places of hot wat er systems. The operation of both types is obvious. When
no air is present, hot water lifts the float and closes the outlet valve. As
air collects it displaces the water causing the float to fall and open the
valve.
 73

LAB SESSION NO.18 FLUID POWER SY STEMS

INTRODUCTION
Fluid power is the technology that deals with the generation, control, and
transmission of power, using pressurized fluids, it can be said that fluid
power is the muscle that moves industry. This is because fluid power is
used to push, pull, regulate, and drive virtually all the machines of
modern industry. For example, fluid power steers and brakes automobiles,
launches spacecraft, moves earth, harvests crops , mines coal, drives
machine tools, controls airplanes, processes food, and eve n drills teeth.
Fluid power is called hydraulics when the fluid is a liquid and is called
pneumatics when the fluid is a gas. Thus fluid power is the genera l term
used for both hydraulics and pneumatics. Hydraulic systems use liquids
such as petroleum oil s, synthetic oils, and water. The first hydraulic fluid
to be used was water because it is readily available. However, water has
many deficiencies. It freezes readily, is a relatively poor lubricant, and
tends to rust metal components. Hydraulic oils are f ar superior and hence
are widely used in lieu of water. Pneumatic systems use air as the gas
medium because, air is very abundant and can be readily exhausted into
the atmosphere after completing its assigned task.
There are actually two different types of fluid systems: fluid transport and
fluid power.
Fluid transport systems have as their sole objective the delivery of a fluid
from one location to another to accomplish some useful purpose.
Examples include pumping stations for pumping water to homes, cros s-
country gas lines, and systems where chemical processing takes place as
various fluids are brought together.
Fluid power systems are designed specifically to perform work. The work
is accomplished by a pressurized fluid bearing directly on an operating
fluid cylinder or fluid motor. A fluid cylinder produces a for ce resulting in
linear motion, whereas a fluid motor produces a torque resulting in rotary
motion. Thus in a fluid power system, cylinders and motors (which are
also called actuators), provide the muscle to do the desired work. Of
course, control components such as valves are needed to ensure that the
work is done smoothly, accurately, efficiently, and safely.
 74

ADVANTAGES OF FLUID POWER

There are three basic methods of transmitting power: electrical,
mechanical, and fluid power. Most applications actually use a combination
of the three methods to obtain the most efficient overall system. To
properly determine which method to use, it is important to know the
salient features of each type . For example, fluid sys tems can transmit
power more economically over greater distances than can mechanical
types. However, fluid systems are restricted to shorter distances than are
electrical systems.
The secret of fluid power's success and widespread use is its versatility
and manageability. Fluid power is not hindered by the geometry of the
machine, as is the case in mechanical systems. Also, power can be
transmitted in almost limitless quantities because fluid systems are not so
limited by the physic al limitations of materials as are electrical systems.
For example, the performance of -an electro magnet is limited by the
saturation limit of steel. On the other hand, the power ca pacity of fluid
systems is limited only by the physical strength of the ma terial (such as
steel) used for each component.
1. Ease and accuracy of control.
2. Multiplication of force.
3. Constant force or torque.
4. Simplicity, safety, economy.
75
 76

DRAWBACKS OF FLUID POWER

Fluid power systems also have some draw backs. For example, hydraulic
oils are messy, and leakage is impossible to eliminate completely.
Hydraulic lines can burst, possibly resulting in injuries to people due to
high-speed oil jets and flying pieces of metal if proper design is not
implemented. Prolonged exposu re to loud noise, such as that emanating
from pumps, can result in loss of hearing. Also, most hydraulic oils can
cause fires if an oil leak occurs in an area of hot equipment. In pneumatic
systems, components such as compressed air tanks and accumulators are
partially explosive if the pressure is allowed to increase beyond safe
design limits. Therefore each application must be studied thoroughly to
determine the best overall system to apply.
COMPONENTS OF FLUID POWER SYSTEM :
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM COMPONENTS :
There are six basic components required in a hydraulic system
1. A tank (reservoir) to hold the hydraulic oil .
2. A pump to force the oil through the system
3. An electric motor or other power source to drive the pump
4. Valves to control oil direction, pres sure, and flow rate
5. An actuator to convert the pressure of the oil into mechanical force or
torque
 77

To do useful work actuators can either be cylinders to provide linear

motion, or motors (hydra ulic) to provide rotary motion . Piping, which
carries the o il from one location to another.

PNEUMATIC SYSTEM COMPONENTS:

Pneumatic systems use air as the fluid medium, because air is a safe, low
cost, and readily available fluid. It is particularly safe in environments
where an electric spark could ignite leaks from system components.
Generally speaking, pneumatic systems are less expensive than hydraulic
systems. Pneumatic systems have components that are similar to those
used in hydraulic systems. Essentially the following six basic components
are required for pneumatic systems:
1. An air tank to store a given volume of compressed air
2. A compressor to compress the air that comes directly from the
atmosphere
3. An electric motor or other prime mover to drive the compressor
4. Valves to control air direction, pr essure, and flow rate
 78

5. Actuators, which are similar in operation to hydraulic actuators

6. Piping to carry the pressurized air from one location to another
Figure shows a compact, self -contained pneumatic power unit complete
with tank, compressor, electr ic motor, and miscellaneous components
such as valves, piping, and pressure gages.
In pneumatic systems, after the pressurized air is spent driving actuators,
it is then exhausted back into the atmosphere. On the other hand, in
hydraulic systems the spent oil drains back to the reservoir and is
repeatedly reused after being re -pressurized by the pump as needed by the
system.
HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
A hydraulic fluid has the following four primary functions: -
1. Transmit power
2. Lubricate moving parts
3. Seal clearances between mating parts
4. Dissipate heat
In addition a hydraulic fluid must be inexpensive and readily available. To
accomplish properly the four primary functions and be practical from a
safety and cost point of view, a hydraulic fluid should have the following
properties:
1. Good lubricity
2. Ideal viscosity
3. Chemical stability
4. Compatibility with system materials -
5. High degree of incompressibility
6. Fire resistance
7. Good heat-transfer capability
8. Low density
9. Foam resistance
10. Nontoxicity
11. Low volatility
PUMPS
A pump, which is the heart of a hydraulic system, converts mechanical
energy into hydraulic energy. The mechanical energy is delivered to the
pump via a prime mover such as a n electric motor. Due to mechanical
action, the pump creates a partial vac uum at its inlet. This permits
atmospheric pressure to force the fluid through the in - f let line and into
the pump. The pump then pushes the fluid into the hydraulic system .
There are two broad classifications of pumps as identified by the fluid
power industry.
 79

1. DYNAMIC PUMPS:
This type is generally used for low -pressure, high-volume flow
applications. Because they are not capable of with standing high pressures,
they are of little use in the fluid power field . This type of pump is
primarily used for transport ing fluids from one location to another. The
two most common types of dynamic pumps are the centrifugal and the
axial flow propeller pumps.
2. POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS:
This type is universally used for fluid power systems. As the name implies,
a positive displacement pump ejects a fixed amount of fluid into the
hydraulic system per revolution of pump shaft rotation. Such a pump is
capable of overcoming the pressure resul ting from the mechanical loads
on the system as well as the resistance to flow due to friction. These are
two features that are desired of fluid power pumps. These pumps have the
following advantages over nonpositive displacement pumps:
a. High-pressure capability (up to 12,000 psi)
b. Small, compact size
c. High volumetric efficiency
d. Small changes in efficiency throughout the design pressure range e.
Great flexibility of performance (can operate over a wide range of pres sure
requirements and speed ranges)
There are three main types of positive displacement pumps; gear, vane,
and piston.
It should be understood that pumps do not pump pressure. Instead they
produce fluid flow. The resistance to this flow, produced by the hydraulic
system, is what det ermines the pressure. For example, if a positive
displacement pump has its discharge line open to the atmosphere, there
will be flow, but there will be no dis charge pressure above atmospheric
because there is essentially no resistance to flow. However, if the
discharge line is blocked, then we have theoretically infinite resistance to
flow. Hence there is no place for the fluid to go . The pressure will
therefore rise until some component breaks unless pressure relief is
provided. This is the reason a pressure relief valve is needed when a
positive displacement pump is used. When the pressure reaches a set
value, the relief valve will open to allow flow back to the oil tank. Thus, a
pressure relief valve determines the maximum pressure lev el that the
system will experience regardless of the magnitude of the load resistance.
PUMP CLASSIFICATION
DYNAMIC PUMPS:
Although these pumps provide smooth continuous flow, their flow output
is reduced as circuit resistance is increased and thus are rarely used in
fluid power systems. In dynamic pumps there is a great deal of clearance
between the rotating impeller or propeller and the stationary housing.
Thus as the resistance of the external system starts to increase, some of
the fluid slips back into the clearance spaces, causing a reduction in the
 80

discharge flow -rate. This slippage is due to the fact that the fluid follows
the path of least resistance. When the resistance of the external system
becomes infinitely large (for example, a valve is closed in the outlet line),
the pump will produce no flow.
Also since there is a great deal of clearance between the rotating and sta -
tionary elements, dynamic pumps are not self -priming unlike positive
displacement pumps. This is because the la rge clearance space does not
permit a suction pressure to occur at the inlet port when the pump is first
turned on. Thus if the fluid is be ing pumped from a reservoir located
below the pump, priming is required. Priming is the prefilling of the pump
housing and inlet pipe with fluid so that the pump can -initially draw in
the fluid and pump it efficiently.
The fact that there is no positive internal seal against leakage is the
reason that the cen trifugal pump is not forced to produce flow against no
demand. When demand for the fluid occurs (for example, the opening of a
valve), the pressure delivers the fluid to the source of the demand. This is
why centrifugal pumps are so desirable for pumping stations used for
delivering water to homes and factories. The demand for water may go to
near zero during the evening and reach a peak sometimes dur ing the
daytime. The centrifugal pump can readily handle these large changes in
fluid demand.
Although dynamic pumps provide smooth continuous flow (when a
demand exist s), their output flow rate is reduced as r esistance to flow is
increased. The maximum pressure is called the shutoff head because an
external circuit valve is closed which shuts off the flow. As the external
resistance decreases due to the valve being ope ned, the flow increases at
the expense of re duced pressure.
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS
This type of pump ejects a fixed quantity of fluid per revolution of the
pump shaft. As a result, pump output flow, neglecting changes in the small
internal leakage, is constant and not dependent on system pressure. This
makes them particularly well suited for fluid power systems. However,
positive displacement pumps must be pro tected against overpressure if
the resistance to flow becomes very large. This can happen i f a valve is
completely closed and there is no physical place for the fluid to go. The
reason for this is that a positive displacement pump continues to eject
fluid (even though it has no place to go), causing an extremely rapid
buildup in pressure as the fluid is compressed. A pressure relief valve is
used to protect the pump against overpressure by diverting pump flow
back to the hydraulic tank, where the fluid is stored for system use.
81
82
 83

HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS
Pumps perform the function of adding ene rgy to the fluid of a hydraulic
system for transmission to some output location. Motors are positive
displacement machines extracting energy from the fluid. Whiles turbines
are rotodynamic machines extracting energy from the fluid. Engines are
also positiv e displacement machines extracting energy from the fluid but
they are classed separate from the motors. Basically hydraulic cylinder is
also a motor as it is the reverse of reciprocating pump but sometimes term
motor is used for rotary type motors only (re verse of rotary positive
displacement pumps). Hydraulic cylinders and hydraulic motors do just
the opposite of the positive displacement pumps . They extract en ergy from
the fluid and convert it to mechanica l energy to perform useful work,
action being positive displacement. Hydraulic cylinders (also called linear
actuators) extend and retract a piston rod to provide a push or pull force
to drive the external load along a straight -line path. On the other hand,
hydraulic motors (also called rotary actuators) rotate a shaft to provide a
torque to drive the load along a rotary path.
84
85
86
 87

Figure shows a hydraulic impact wrench, which is ideal for heavy -duty
drilling, loosening, and tightening operations. It delivers an infinitely
adjustable range of speed and torque up to 5400 rpm and 400 ft - lb (1900
N • m), respectively. This impact wrench weighs 7.1 lb (3.2 kg) and uses a
gear motor. It operates with a flow -rate range of 4 to 12 gpm (15 to 45
Lpm) and a pressure range of 1000 to 2000 psi (70 to 1 40 bars).
 88

PILOT ACTUATED VALVES

Directional control valves can also be shifted by applying air pressure
against a piston at either end of the valve spool. As shown, springs
(located at both ends of the spool) push against centering washers to
center the spool when no air is applied. When air is introduced through
the left end passage, its pressure pushes against the piston to shift the
spool to the right. Removal of this left end air supply and introduction of
air through the right end passage causes the spool to shift to the left.
Therefore, this is a four -way, three-position, spring -centered, air pilot -
actuated directional control valve.

SOLENOID ACTUATED VALVES

A very common way to actuate a spool valve is by using a solenoid. As
shown, when the electric coil (solenoid) is energized, it creates a magnetic
force that pulls the armature into the coil. This causes the armature to
push on the push pin to move the spool of the valve.
Solenoids are actuators that a re bolted to the valve housing . Like
mechanical or pilot actuators, solenoids work against a push pin which is
sealed to prevent external leakage of oil .
 89

BASIC ELECTRICAL DEVICES

There are seven basic electrical devices that are used in the control of
fluid power systems: m anually actuated push button switches, limit
switches, pressure switches, solenoids, relays, timers and
temperature switches.
SOLENOIDS: Solenoids are electromagnets that provide a push or pull
force to operate fluid power valves remotely. When a solenoid (an electric
coil wrapped around an armature) is energized, the magnetic force created
causes the armature to shift the spool of the valve containing the solenoid.
PRESSURE SWITCHES: Pressure switches open or close their contacts
based on system pressure. They generally have a high-pressure setting and
a low-pressure setting. For example, it may be necessary to start or stop a
pump to maintain a given pressure. The low -pressure setting would start
the pump, and the high -pressure set ting would stop it. Figure shows a
pressure switch that can be wired either nor mally open (NO) or normally
closed (NC), as marked on the screw terminals.
TEMPERATURE SWITCHES : Figure shows a temperature switch, which
is an instrument that automatically senses a change in temperature and
opens or closes an electrical switch when a predetermined temperature is
reached. This switch can be wired either normally open or normally
closed. Note that at its upper end there is an adjustment screw to change
the actuation point. The capillary tube (which comes in standard lengths
of 6 or 12 ft) and bulb permit remote temperature sensing. Thus, the
actual temperature switch can be located at a substantial distance from
the oil whose temperature is to be sensed.
Temperature switches can be used to protect a fluid power system from
serious damage when a component such as a pump or strainer or cooler
begins to mal -' function. The resulting excessive buildup in oil
temperature is sensed by the temperature switch, which shuts off the
entire system. This permits troubl eshooting of the system to repair or
replace the faulty component.
 90

LAB SESSION NO.19 Compressed air systems

Standard Air
This is defined as air at a temperature of 68o F, a pressure of 14.70 psia, and a
relative humidity of 36% (0.075 density). This is in agreement with definitions adopted
by ASME, but in the gas industries the temperature of ―standard air‖ is usually given as
60oF.

Ratings for equipment using compressed air and for compressors delivering the
air are given in terms of free air. This gives the quantity of air delivered per unit time,
assuming that the air is at standard atmospheric conditions of 14.7 psia and 60oF.

Dried and Oil-Free Air

Why Moisture in Compressed Air
Air entering the first stage of any air compressor carries with it a certain amount
of native moisture. This is unavoidable, although the quantity carried will vary widely
with the ambient temperature and relative humidity. For the purpose of this discussion,
relative humidity is assumed to be the same as degree of saturation. A maximum error
of less than 2% is involved.

In any air-vapor mixture, each component has its own partial pressure, and the
air and the vapor are each indifferent to the existence of the other. It follows that the
conditions of either component may be studied without reference to the other. In a
certain volume of mixture, each component fills the full volume at its own partial
pressure. The water vapor may saturate this space (be at its saturation pressure and
temperature).

As this vapor is compressed, its volume is reduced while, at the same time, the
temperature automatically increases and the vapor may become superheated. More
 91

pounds of vapor are now contained in 1 ft3 than when originally entering the
compressor.

Under the laws of vapors, the maximum quantity of a particular vapor a given
space can contain is solely dependent on the vapor temperature. As the compressed
water vapor is cooled it will eventually reach the temperature at which the space
becomes saturated, now containing the maximum it can hold. Any further cooling will
force part of the vapor to condense into the liquid form. It is clearly evident that the
lower the temperature and the greater the pressure of compressed air, the greater will be
the amount of vapor condensed.

Example. Given that 1000 ft3 of saturated free air drawn into a compressor at
atmospheric pressure and at a temperature of 70oF contains 1.12 1b of moisture. After
this air has been compressed to psig pressure and then cooled to its original
temperature of 70oF its moisture content will be reduced to 0.15 1b. If its temperature is
reduced an additional 15oF, that is to 55oF, the remaining moisture content, will be 0.09
lb. This is only 0.06 lb less than at 70oF, showing that in cooling air to eliminate
moisture a point is reached below which little additional moisture is removed. As a
general rule a differential of 15oF between the temperature of the cooling water entering
and the temperature of the air leaving the after cooler should be maintained, with about
1-1.5 gal of water required per 100 ft3 of free air handled.

Problems Caused by Water in Compressed Air

Few plant operators need to be told of the problems caused by water in
compressed air. They are most apparent to those who operate pneumatic tools, rock
drills, automatic pneumatic powered machinery, paint and other sprays, sand blasting
equipment, and pneumatic controls. However, almost all applications, particularly of
100-psig power, could benefit from the elimination of water carry over. The principal
problems might be summarized as:
1. Washing away of required lubrication.
2. Increase in wear and maintenance.
3. Sluggish and inconsistent operation of automatic valves and cylinders.
4. Malfunctioning and high maintenance of control instruments.
 92

5. Spoilage of product by spotting in paint and other types of spraying.

6. Rusting of parts that have been sandblasted.
7. Freezing of exposed lines during cold weather.
8. Further condensation and possible freezing of moisture in the exhaust of
those more efficient tools that expand the air considerable

In connection with the last item, in some rock drills there is a 70oF drop in
temperature from inlet to exhaust. Most portable pneumatic tools have a considerably
lower temperature drop, but the foregoing problem sometimes exists.

The increased use of control systems and automatic machinery has made these
problems more serious and has spurred activity toward their reduction. The amount of
moisture entering the compressor is widely variable, depending on ambient temperature
and relative humidity. The problems are usually the worst when both temperature and
humidity are height. Pipeline freezing problems are prevalent only in the winter months.

A fact to remember is that water vapor as vapor does no harm in a pneumatic

system. It is only when the vapor condenses and remains in the system as liquid that
problems exist. The goal, therefore, is to condense and remove as much of the vapor as
is economically desirable, considering the applications involved.

The Conventional System

The air compressor plant should always include a water-cooled after cooler
followed by a receiver. There are few exceptions to this rule, all due to local conditions
or a special use of the air.
After coolers alone, or after coolers following intercoolers, will under normal summer
conditions condense at 100 psig up to 70% or more of the vapor entering the system.
This a substantial portion, some often being collected in the receiver. Therefore, both
cooler and receiver must be kept drained. Inevitably, more water will condense in the
distribution lines if the air cools further. This must also be removed if the problems
outlined earlier are to be reduced. To remove this water one may.
1. Take all feeders off the top of mains and branches.
2. Slope mains and branches toward a dead end
 93

3. Drain all low points and dead ends through a water leg using automatic traps
to ensure drainage.
4. Incorporate strainers and lubricators in the piping to all tools.

The temperature of compressed air leaving an aftercooler and receiver will largely
depend on the temperature and quantity of the water used in the cooler. Unfortunately,
when atmospheric temperature and humidity are highest and condensation in the cooler
is mot needed, the water temperature is usually also high. Results are not always all that
could be desired.

The Dried Air System

A dried air system involves processing the compressed air beyond the after cooler
and receiver to further reduce moisture content. This requires special equipment, a
higher first cost and a higher operating cost. These costs must be balanced against the
gains obtained. They may show up as less wear and maintenance of tools and air
operated devices, greater reliability of devices and controls, and greater production
through fewer outages for repairs. Frequently, reduction or elimination of product
spoilage or a better product quality may result. Many automobile plants are drying air
with the high-priority objective of improving car finish by better paint spraying.

The degree of drying desired will vary with the pneumatic equipment and
application involved. The air is to eliminate further condensation in the line and tool.
Prevailing atmospheric conditions also have an influence.

Terminology involves drier outlet dew point at the line pressure. This is the saturation
temperature of the remaining moisture. If the compressed air temperature is never
reduced below this dew pint at any pint beyond the drying equipment, there will be no
further condensation.

Another value sometimes involved when the air pressure is reduced before it is
used is the dew point at that lower pressure condition. A major example is the use of
100-psig (or higher) air reduced to 15 psig for use in pneumatic instruments and
 94

controls. This dew point will be lower because the volume involved increases as the
pressure is lowered.

The dew point at atmospheric pressure is often used as a reference point for
measurement of drying effect. This is of little interest when handling compressed air.

Example. 1000 ft3 of compressed air at 100 psig at 50oF, or 1000 ft3 of compressed air at
15 psig at 50oF will hold the same amount of vapor at the dew point. However, 1000 ft3
at 100 psig and 50oF reduced to 15 psig will become 3860 ft3 at so is capable of holding
3.86 times as much vapor, and the dew point will not be reached until the mixture
temperature is lowered materially.

General Drying Methods

There are three general methods of drying air, chemical drying, adsorbing, and
refrigerating, in all cases, aftercooling and adequate condensate removal must be done
ahead of this equipment. The initial and operating costs and the results obtained vary
considerably.

These methods are primarily for water vapor removal. Removal of lubrication oil
is secondary, although all systems will reduce its carryover. It must be understood that
complete elimination of lubricating oil, particularly in the vapor form, is very difficult
and that, when absolutely oil-free air is required, some form of nonlubricated
compressor is the best guaranteed method.

Chemical Drying
Chemical driers use materials that combine with or absorb moisture from air
when bough into close contact. The second type utilizes an ethylene glycol liquid to
absorb the moisture. Standard dew pint reduction claimed is 45oF, but greater
reductions are said to be possible with special equipment. They glycol is regenerated
(dried) in a still using fuel gas or steam as a heating agent. The released moisture is
vented to atmosphere. The regenerated glycol is recirculated by a pump. Usually driven
by compressed air. A water cooled glycol cooler is also required.
 95

Adsorbing
Adsorption is the property of certain extremely porous materials to hold vapors
in the pores until the desiccant is either heated or exposed to a drier gas.

Separators
Separators are available from many sources, in many designs, and usually consist
of a knockout chamber and condensate removal trap. Some designs include a removable
filter of some type. These can removed only contaminants condensed to this point and
are meant to be placed at the actual point the compressed air is used.

Compressed Air System Fires

The danger of fire is inherent in almost any compressor system. Although there
are few such occurrences for the number of air compressors in operation, there are
enough to causes concern. The reasons should be appreciated. When is known as the
―fire triangle‖ exists in any fire or potential fire. The triangle consists of oxygen, fuel,
and an ignition source. In the air compressor system, oxygen is always present.
Petroleum oils are used as lubricant. These have fuel value; they and their vapors will
burn if ignited. Two sides of the triangle are always present. The third side, an ignition
source, is mot likely to be brought into action when too much or an improper oil is used
or when maintenance is neglected.

Maintenance is most important because dirty water cooled intercoolers, dirty fins
on air cooled units; broken or leaky discharge valves, broken piston rings, and the like
always tend to increase normal discharge air temperature, sometimes rapidly. These
excessive temperatures cause more rapid oil deterioration and formation of deposits,
both of which are further accelerated if tool much oil or improper oil is being used.
Based on experience, fires and explosions are seldom if ever caused ever cased by
reaching the autogenous ignition temperature of the oil. This averages between 600o
and 750oF, there appears little opportunity for the existence of such a temperature.
Petroleum oils do decompose and form carbonaceous deposits. They collect on valves,
heads and discharge parts, and in piping, experiments have shown that, in time, they
may absorb some oxygen from the air and under favorable conditions, will themselves
 96

start to decompose, generating heat. This heat might reach a point where the mass
glows and becomes a trigger for more violent burning. This action is speeded by high
temperatures. It is believed this reaction applies to a majority of reported incidents.

There is an obvious approach to the prevention of fires and explosions.

1. Keep the compressor in good repair.

2. Replace broken and leaking valves and parts immediately.
3. Check and record discharge temperatures frequently.
4. Keep the compressor clean internally and externally.
5. See that the coolant is actually flowing and in proper quantity.
6. Drain separators and receiver frequently.
7. Use the proper lubricant.
8. Use only enough lubricant.

An aftercooler should be used with ever air compressor. If a fire starts between the
compressor and aftercooler, it will go no farther than the cooler as a rule.
 97

Why fire tube boilers cannot be used for high pressure steam generation?

Firstly: we know from stress analysis of thick walled pressure vessels

that radial and hoop stress are given by

σ r = [p i r i 2 – p o r o 2 + ( p o – p i )(r o r i /r) 2 ]/ (r o 2 – r i 2 )

σ θ = [p i r i 2 – p o r o 2 - ( p o – p i )(r o r i /r) 2 ]/ (r o 2 – r i 2 )

where

p i = internal pressure

p o = outer or external pressure

r i ,r o = inner and outer radii

Now we consider twp special cases:

Case 1: Cylinder internally pressurized

This is the case with water tubes of water tube boiler.

Setting outer pressure p o equal to zero, so above relations reduce to

σ r = p i r i 2 ( 1– r 0 2 /r 2 )/ (r o 2 – r i 2 )

σ θ = p i r i 2 ( 1+ r 0 2 /r 2 )/ (r o 2 – r i 2 )

Figure shows the radial and ho op stress in an internally pressurized

cylinder. Hoop stress is tensile, and the radial stress is compressive.
 98

Further the maximum radial and hoop stresses occur at r = r i

σr,max = – pi

σ θ , m a x = p i (r o 2 + r i 2 )/ (r o 2 – r i 2 )

Case 2: Cylinder externally pressurized

This is the case with the fire tubes in fire tube boiler.

Setting internal pressure equal to zero , we have

σ r = p o r o 2 (r i 2 /r 2 – 1)/ (r o 2 – r i 2 )

σθ = – p o r o 2 (r i 2 /r 2 + 1)/ (r o 2 – r i 2 )

Figure shows the radial and hoop stres ses in externally pressurized
cylinder. Note that both stresses are compressive. Furthermore, the
maximum hoop stress occurs at r = r i , and the maximum radial stress
occur at r = r o .
 99

These expressions are

σr,max = – po

σ θ , m a x = –2r 0 2 p o / (r o 2 – r i 2 )

Now let’s see an example with numerical values to make these concepts
clear:

Example: Find maximum radial and hoop stresses in a thick walled

cylinder with 0.3m internal diameter and 0.4m external diameter. If the
cylinder is subjected to an a) internal pressure of 70 MPa

b) external pressure of 70 MPa

Solution:

a) cylinder subjected to internal pressure of 70 MPa

σ r , m a x = – p i = – 70 MPa ( at r = r i = 0.15 m)

σ θ , m a x = p i (r o 2 + r i 2 )/ (r o 2 – r i 2 ) = 250 MPa (at r = r i = 0.15 m)

b) cylinder subjected to external pressure of 70 MPa

σr,max = – po = – 70 MPa (at r = r o =0.2m)

σ θ , m a x = –2r 0 2 p o / (r o 2 – r i 2 ) = – 320 MPa (at r = r i = 0.15m)

 100

From these results, we can see that

1. In both cases hoop stresses are la rger in magnitude as compared to

radial stresses.

2. Magnitude of hoop stress is much greater i.e. 320 MPa in case of

external pressure application as compared to magnitude of hoop
stress in internal pressure application where it is 250 MPa.

Since in case of fire tube boiler, fire tubes are subjected to external
pressure because they are immersed in water in shell, so a high
pressure in shell will mean that a high external pressure is acting on
fire tubes which will produce large stresses specially hoop stress es.
These stresses may be beyond the crushing strength (or compression
strength) of material of tube resulting in failure of tube. To bear these
large stresses, we can use very high strength material which will be too
costly or we can increase to increase thickness but increased thickness
produces more resistance to heat flow across the thickness of tube,
resulting in overheating and consequently bursting of tube .

While in case of water tube boiler, water tubes are subjected to high
internal pressure which produces less stress as compared to external
pressure case, so water tubes in case of water tube boiler can be
subjected safely to high pressures.

Secondly in case of fire tube boiler, since fire tubes are inside the
shell and moreover since these fire tub es must be prevented from
directly exposed to steam (i.e. they should remain in water space),so
the shell of fire tube boiler must be of larger diameter. Since shell is
thin walled pressure vessel for which

σ θ = pr/t

σ a x i a l = pr/2t

So an increase in radius, even if pressure is same low value which is

safe for fire tubes, would mean that hoop stress is increased. To bear
this increased stress, we can increase thickness but there is a limit to
the thickness of shell dictated by constraints of manufacturing and
bending of sheet .So obviously if p is also increased, then both p and r
will contribute to produce high value of hoop stress. So this also limits
the pressure that can be safely withstood by shell of fire tube boiler.

While in case of water tube boiler, most of water is flowing through the
tubes, and there are no tubes in water drum to which we have to
accommodate by increasing internal diameter of water drum , so
internal diameter of water drum can be kept smaller.

Thirdly since in fire tube boiler, fire tubes are inside the shell, so the
end plates or tube sheets of shell of fire tube boiler must be flat
circular plates so that fire tubes are welded here. So these flat plates
 101

will also be subjected to pressure. A flat plate is not an ideal shape to

resist this pressure, because this pressure will tend to bend flat plate
and make it hemispherical resulting in distortion of flat plates (called
bulging).

While in water tube boiler, since water tubes are outside the shell of
water drum, so we can connect dish (i.e. hemispherical ) or ellipsoidal
ends which can resist high pressure to which they are subjected .

These are three reasons why fire tube boiler cannot be used for high
pressure steam generation, while water tube boiler can be used in such
cases.

Note: In real practise, in case of water tube boiler external pressure

may not be zero gauge exactly but near to this. Similarly in case of fire
tube boiler, internal pressure for fire t ubes is not necessarily zero
gauge but not too different from this. But although we have here
presented calculation for zero gauge case, same trend will be for the
case of non zero gauge cases.