Differential Calculus

UNIT 7 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Structure
7.1 Introduction
Objectives
7.2 Real Number System
7.3 Functions
7.4 Limits
7.5 Continuity
7.6 Derivative
7.7 Application of Geometry
7.7.1 Geometrical Meaning of the Derivative
7.7.2 Equations of Tangent and Normal at a Point
7.7.3 Angle of Intersection between Two Curves
7.8 Derivative as a Rate Measure
7.8.1 Motion in a Straight Line
7.8.2 Motion under Gravity
7.9 Increasing and Decreasing Functions
7.10 Maxima and Minima
7.11 Mean-value Theorems
7.11.1 Rolle’s Theorem
7.11.2 Lagrange’s Mean-value Theorem
7.11.3 Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem
7.11.4 Taylor’s Theorem
7.12 Curve Sketching
7.13 Summary
7.14 Answers to SAQs

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Calculus was related to meet the pressing mathematical needs of the 17th century science
and is still the fundamental mathematics for solving problems in Science and
Technology. In this unit, we will introduce the concept of functions and discuss different
types of functions, algebra of functions and their limit and continuity. We will also
introduce the concept of derivative as the instantaneous rate of change, and shall discuss
methods of differentiation.
We propose to study the applications of derivative to geometry. We will define
increasing and decreasing functions and shall discuss how derivatives can be used to
determine the points where a differentiable function has maxima and minima. We shall
also discuss some fundamental theorems of differential calculus.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• recall the basic properties of real numbers,
• define a function and examine whether a given function is one-one/onto, 5
Calculus • identify whether a given function has an inverse or not,
• determine whether a given function is even or odd,
• evaluate the limit of a function at a point,
• identify points of continuity and discontinuity of a function,
• obtain the derivative of a function at a point,
• find the tangent and normal to a given function at given points,
• determine whether a function is decreasing or increasing,
• solve some problems when it is required to minimize or maximize a
function, and
• identify whether the derivative of a function can vanish once within an
interval.

7.2 REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

The set of all real numbers is denoted by R. The real number system is the foundation on
which a large part of mathematics including calculus rests. You are familiar with the
operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of real numbers and with
inequalities. We shall recall some of their properties :
P1 - R is closed under addition.
P2 - Addition is associative and commutative.
P3 - R is closed under multiplication.
P4 - Multiplication is commutative and associative.
P5 - Multiplication is distributive over addition.
P6 - For any two real numbers a and b, either a > b or a < b or a = b.
You are also familiar with the following subsets of R.
(i) N, the set of natural numbers.
(ii) Z, the set of integers.
(iii) Q, the set of rational numbers.
Definition 1
If x is a real number, its absolute value, denoted by | x | is defined as
| x | = x if x ≥ 0
= − x if x < 0
For example
|5|=5
|−5|=5
The following theorems (without proof) gives some of the important properties
of | x |.
Theorem 1
If x and y are real numbers, then
(i) | x | = max {− x, x}

6 (ii) |x|=|−x|
 (iii) | x |2 = x2 = | − x |2 Differential Calculus

(iv) |x+y|≤|x|+|y|
(v) |x−y|≥||x|−|y||
Definition 2
Let S be a non-empty subset of R. An element u ∈ R is said to be upper bound of S
if u ≥ x for all x ∈ S. If S has an upper bound, we say S is bounded above. On
similar lines we can define a lower bound for a non-empty set S to be a real
number v such that v ≤ x for all x ∈ S and we say that the set S is bounded below.
7.2.1 Intervals on the Real Line
Before we define an interval, let us see what is meant by a number line. The real numbers
in set R can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the points on a straight line L. In
other words, we shall associate a unique point on L to each real number and vice-versa.
Consider a straight line L (Figure 7.1(a)). Mark a point O on it. The point O divides the
straight line into two parts. We shall use the part of the left of O for representing negative
real numbers and the part of the right of O for representing positive real numbers. We
choose a point A on L which is to the right of O. we shall represent the number 0 by O
and 1 by A. OA can now serve as a unit. To each positive real number, x we can associate
exactly one point P lying to the right of O on L, so that
OP = x units (= x). A negative real number y will be represented by a point Q lying to the
left of O on the straight line L so that OQ = y units (= − y, since y is negative). We thus
find that to each real number we can associate a point on the line. Also, each point S on
the line represents a unique real number z, such that z = OS. Further, z is positive if S is to
the right of O, and is negative if S is to the left of O.
This representation of real numbers by points on a straight line is often very useful.
Because of this one-to-one correspondence between real numbers and the points of a
straight line, we often call a real number “a point of R”. Similarly, L is called a “number
line”. Note that the absolute value or the modulus of any number x is nothing but its
distance from the point O on the number line. In the same way, x – y denotes the distance
between the two numbers x and y (Figure 7.1(b)).
−2 −1 0 1 2
y>x
x |x–y| y
Q O A P S

y<x
y |x–y| x

(a) (b) Distance between x and y is | x – y |

Figure 7.1
Now let us consider the set of real numbers which lie between two given real numbers a
and b. Actually, there will be four different sets satisfying this loose condition. These
are :
(i) (a, b) = {x | a < x < b} a b

(ii) [a, b] = {x | a ≤ x ≤ b} a b
(iii) (a, b] = {x | a < x ≤ b} a b
(iv) [a, b) = {x | a ≤ x < b} a b
Figure 7.1 (c)
The representation of each of these sets is given alongside (Figure 7.1(c)). Each of these
sets is called an interval, and a and b are called the end points of the interval. The interval
(a, b), in which the end points are not included, is called an open interval. Note that in 7
Calculus this case we have drawn a hollow circle around a and b to indicate that they are not
included in the graph. The set [a, b] contains both its end points and is called a closed
interval. In the representation of this closed interval, we have put thick black dots at a
and b to indicate that they are included in the set.
The sets (a, b] and [a, b) are called half-open (or half-closed) intervals or
semi-open (or semi-closed) intervals, as they contain only one end point. This fact is
also indicated in their geometrical representation.
Each of these intervals is bounded above by b and bounded below by a.
Can we represent the set
I = {x : | x – a | < δ}
on the number line? Yes, we can. We know that x – a can be thought of as the distance
between x and a. This means I is set of all numbers x, whose distance from a is less than
δ. Thus, I is the open interval (a − δ, a + δ). Similarly,
I1 = {x : | x – a | ≤ δ}
is the closed interval [a – δ, a + δ]. Sometimes, we also come across sets like
I2 = {x : | 0 < | x – a | < δ}
This means if x ∈ I2, then the distance between x and a is less than δ, but is not zero. We
can also say that the distance between x and a is less than, δ, but x ≠ a. Thus,
I2 = (a – δ, a + δ) – {a} = (a – δ, a) ∪ (a, a + δ)
Apart from the four types of intervals listed above, there are a few more types. These
are :
(a, ∞) = {x | a < x} (open right ray)
[a, ∞) = {x | a ≤ x} (closed right ray)
(− ∞, b) = {x | x < b} (open left ray)
(− ∞, b] = {x | x ≤ b} (closed left ray)
(− ∞, ∞) = R (open interval)
As you can see easily, none of these sets is bounded. For instance, (a, ∞) is bounded
below, but is not bounded above, (− ∞, b) is bounded above, but is not bounded below.
Note that ∞ does not denote a real number; it merely indicates that an interval extends
without limit.
We note further that if S is any interval (bounded and unbounded) and if c and d are two
elements of S then all numbers lying between c and d are also elements
of S.
SAQ 1
(a) Prove the following using results of Theorem.
(i) x = 0, if | x | = 0
1 1
(ii) = , if x ≠ 0
x | x|
(iii) |x−y|≤|x|+|y|
(b) State whether the following are true or false.
(i) 0 ∈ [1, ∞] True/False
(ii) − 1 ∈ (− ∞, 2) True/False
(iii) 1 ∈ [1, 2] True/False
(iv) 5 ∈ (5, ∞) True/False

8
 Differential Calculus
7.3 FUNCTIONS
Now let us move over to functions. Here we shall present some basic facts about
functions which will help you refresh your knowledge. We shall look at various
examples of functions and shall also define inverse functions. Let us start with the
definition.
7.3.1 Definition and Examples
Definition 3
If X and Y are two non-empty sets, a function f from X to Y is a rule or a
correspondence which connects every member of X to a unique member
of Y. We write f : X → Y (reads as “f is a function from X to Y” or “f is a function
of X into Y”). X is called the domain and Y is called the co-domain of f. We shall
denote by f (x) that unique element of Y, which corresponds to x ∈ X.
The following examples will help you in understanding this definition better.
Example 7.1
Consider f : N → R defined by f (x) = − x. Is “f ” a function?
Solution
“f ” is a function since the rule f (x) = − x associates a unique member (− x) of R to
every member x of N. The domain here is N and the co-domain is R.
Example 7.2
x
Consider f : N → Z, defined by the rule f (x) = . Is “f ” a function?
2
Solution
“f ” is not a function from N to Z as odd natural numbers like 1, 3, 5 . . . from N
cannot be associated with any member of Z.
Example 7.3
Consider f : N → N, under the rule f (x) = a prime factor of x. Is “f ” a function?
Solution
Here, since 6 = 2 × 3, f (6) has two values : f (6) = 2 and f (6) = 3. This rule does
not associate a unique member in the co-domain with a member in the domain and,
hence, f, as defined, is not a function of N into N.
Thus, you see, to describe a function completely we have to specify the following three
things :
(i) the domain,
(ii) the co-domain, and
(iii) the rule which assigns to each element x in the domain, a single fully
determined element in the co-domain.
Given a function f : X → Y, f (x) ∈ Y is called the image of x ∈ X under f or the
f-image of x. The set of f-images of all number of X, i.e. {f (x) : x ∈ X} is called the
range of f and is denoted by f (X). It is easy to see that f (X) ⊂ Y.
Remark
(i) Throughout this unit we shall consider functions whose domain and co-
domain are both subsets of R. Such functions are often called real functions
or real value functions.
(ii) The variable x used in describing a function is often called a dummy
variable because it can be replaced by any other letter. Thus, for example,
the rule f (x) = − x, x ∈ N can as well be written in the form f (t) = − t, t ∈ N,
or as f (u) = − u, u ∈ N. The variable x (or t or u) is also called an
independent variable and f (x), which is dependent on this independent
9
variable, is called a dependent variable.
Calculus Graph of a Function
A convenient and useful method for studying a function is to study it through its
graph. To draw the graph of function f : X → Y, we choose a system of co-ordinate
axes in the plane. For each x ∈ X, the ordered pair (x, f (x)) determines a point in
the plane (Figure 7.2). The set of all the points obtained by considering all possible
values of x, that is, (x, f (x)) : x ∈ X) is the graph of f.
y

(x, f (x))

f (x)

0 x

Figure 7.2
The role that the graph of a function plays in the study of the function will become
clear as we proceed further. In the meantime let us consider some more examples
of functions and their graphs.
A Constant Function
A simple example of a function is a constant function. A constant function
sends all the elements of the domain to just one element of the co-domain.
For example, let f : R → R be defined by f (x) = 1.
Alternatively, we may write
f : x → 1 for all x ∈ R
The graph of f is as shown in Figure 7.3.
y

f (x) = 1

0 x

Figure 7.3
It is the line y = 1.
In general, the graph of a constant function y : x → c is a straight line which
is parallel to the x-axis at a distance of c units from it.
The Identity Function
Another simple but important example of a function is a function which
sends every element of the domain to itself.
Let X by any non-empty set, and f be the function of X defined by setting
f (x) = x, for all x ∈ X.
10
 This function is known as the identity function on X and is denoted by IX. Differential Calculus

The graph of IR, the identity function of R, is shown in Figure 7.4. It is the
line y = x.

y=x

0 x

Figure 7.4

Absolute Value Function

Another interesting function is the absolute value function (or modulus
function) which can be defined by using the concept of the absolute value of
a real number as

⎧ x, if x ≥ 0
f (x) = | x | = ⎨
⎩− x, if x < 0
The graph of this function is shown in Figure 7.5. It consists of two rays,
π 3π
both starting at the origin and making angles and respectively, with
4 4
the positive direction of the x-axis.
y

θ1 θ2

0 x

Figure 7.5

The Exponential Function

If a is a positive real number other than 1, we define a function
f : R → R by f (x) = ax where a > 0, a ≠ 1.
This function is known as the general exponential function. A special case
of this function, where a = e, is often found useful. Figure 7.6 shows the
graph of the function f : R → R such that f (x) = ex. This function is called
the natural exponential function. Its range is the set R+ of positive numbers.

11
 y y=e
x
P P

Calculus
2 (1, e)

−2 −1 1 2 3 x
Figure 7.6
The Natural Logarithmic Function
This function f : R+ → R is defined on the set R+ of all real numbers such
that f (x) = ln (x). The range of this function is R. Its graph is shown in
Figure 7.7.
y
y = ln (x)

(e, 1)

0 x
1 2 3 4

Figure 7.7
The Greatest Integer Function
Take a real number x. Either it is an integer, say n (so that x = n), or it is not
integer. If it is not an integer, we can find an integer n, such that
n < x < n + 1. Therefore, for each real number x we can find an integer n,
such that n < x < n + 1. Further, for a given real number x, we can find only
one such integer n. We say that n is the greatest integer not exceeding x and
denote it by [x]. For example, [3] = 3 and [3.5] = 3, [− 3.5] = − 4.
Other Functions
The following are some important classes of functions.
Polynomial Functions f (x) = a0 xn + a1 xn − 1 + . . . + an where a0, a1, . . . , an are
given real numbers (constants) and n is a positive integer.
We say n is the degree of the polynomial f (x) and assume
a0 ≠ 0.
Rational Functions g ( x)
f (x) = , where g (x) and k (x) are polynomial
k ( x)
functions of degree n and m respectively. This is defined
for all real x for which k (x) ≠ 0.
Trigonometrical or f (x) = sin x, f (x) = cos x, f (x) = tan x,
Circular Functions f (x) = cot x, f (x) sec x, and f (x) = cosec x.
Hyperbolic Functions (e x + e − x )
f (x) = cosh x = ,
2
(e x − e − x )
f (x) = sinh x = .
2
We shall study these in detail in this unit.

12
7.3.2 Inverse Functions Differential Calculus

In this sub-section we shall see what is meant by the inverse of a function. But before
talking about the inverse, let us look at some special categories of functions. These
special types of functions will then lead us to the definition of inverse of a function.
One-one and Onto Functions
Consider the function h : x → x2, defined on the set R. Here h (2) = h (− 2) = 4; i.e.
2 and – 2 are distinct members of the domain R, but their h-images are the same
(Can you find some more members whose h-images are equal?). In general, this
may be expressed by saying : find x, y such that x ≠ y but h (x) = h (y).
Now consider another function g : x → 2x + 3. Here you will be able to see that if
x1 and x2 are two distinct real numbers, then g (x1) and g (x2) are also distinct.
For,
x1 ≠ x2 ⇒ 2 x1 ≠ 2 x2 ⇒ 2 x1 + 3 ≠ 2 x2 + 3 ⇒ g ( x1 ) ≠ g ( x2 ) .
We have considered two functions here. While one of them, namely g, sends
distinct members of the domain to distinct members of the co-domain, the other,
namely h, does not always do so. We give a special name to functions like g
above.
Definition 4
A function f : X → Y is said to be a one-one function (a 1–1 function or an
injective function) if images of distinct members of X are distinct members of Y.
Thus, the function g above is one-one, whereas h is not one-one.
Remark
The condition that the images of distinct members of X are distinct members of Y
in the above definition, can be replaced by either of the following equivalent
conditions :
(i) For every pair of members x, y of X, x ≠ y ⇒ f (x) ≠ f (y).
(ii) For every pair of members x, y of X, f (x) = f (y) ⇒ x = y.
We have observed earlier that for a function f : X → Y, f (X) ⊆ Y.
This opens two possibilities :
(i) f (X) = Y, or
(ii) f (X) ⊂ Y, that is f (X) is a proper subset of Y.
The function h : x → x2, for all x ∈ R falls in the second category. Since the square
of any real number is always non-negative, h (R) = R+ ∪ (0) which is the set of
non-negative real numbers. Thus h (R) ⊂ R.
On the other hand, the function g : x → 2x + 3 belongs to the first category. Given
⎛1⎞ 3
any y ∈ R (co-domain), if we take x = ⎜ ⎟ y − , we find that g (x) = y. This
⎝2⎠ 2
shows that every member of the co-domain is a g-image of some member of the
domain and, thus, is in the range g. From this, we get that g (R) = R. The following
definition characterises this property of the function.
Definition 5
A function f : X → Y is said to be an onto function (or a surjective function) if
every member of Y is the image of some members of X.
Thus h is not an onto function, whereas g is an onto function. Functions which are
both one-one and onto (or bijective) are of special importance in mathematics. Let
us see what makes them special.
13
Calculus Consider a function f : X → Y which is both one-one and onto. Since f is an onto
function, each y ∈ Y is the image of some x ∈ X. Also, since f is one-one, y cannot
be the image of two distinct members of X. Thus, we find that to each y ∈ Y there
corresponds a unique x ∈ X such that f (x) = y. Consequently, f sets up one-to-one
correspondence between the members of X and Y. It is the one-to-one
correspondence between members of X and Y which makes a one-one and onto
function so special, as we shall soon see.
Consider the function f : N → E defined by f (x) = 2x, where E is the set of even
natural numbers. We can see that f is one-one as well as onto. In fact, to each
y ⎛ y⎞
y ∈ E there exists ∈ N such that f ⎜ ⎟ = y . The correspondence
2 ⎝2⎠
y y
y → defines a function, say g, from E to N such that g ( y ) = .
2 2
The function g so defined is called as inverse of f. Since, to each y ∈ E there
corresponds a unique x ∈ N such that f (x) = y only one such function g can be
defined corresponding to a given function f. For this reason, g is called the inverse
of f.
As you will notice, the function g is also one-one and onto and therefore it will
also have an inverse. You must have already guessed that the inverse of g is the
function f.
From this discussion, we have the following :
If f is one-one and onto function from X to Y, then there exists a unique function
g : Y → X such that for each y ∈ Y, g (y) = x ⇔ y = f (x). The function g so defined
is called the inverse of f. Further, if g is the inverse of f, then f is the inverse of g,
and the two functions f and g are said to be the inverse of each other. The inverse
of a function f is usually denoted by f – 1.
To find the inverse of a given function f, we proceed as follows :
Solve the equation f (x) = y for x. The resulting expression for x (in terms of y)
defines the inverse function.

x5
Thus, if f ( x) = + 2,
5

x5
we solve + 2 = y for x
5
1
This gives us x = (5 ( y − 2)) 5 .

Hence f – 1 is the function defined by

7.3.3 Graphs of Inverse Functions
There is an interesting relation between the graphs of a pair of inverse functions because
of which, if the graph of one of them is known, the graph of the other can be obtained
easily.
Let f : X → Y be a one-one and onto function, and let g : Y → X be the inverse of f. A
point (p, q) lies on the graph of f ⇔ q = f (p) ⇔ p = g (q) (q, p) lies on the graph of g.
Now, the point (p, q) and (q, p) are reflections of each other with respect to (w. r. t.) the
line y = x. Therefore, we can say that the graphs of f and g are reflections of each other w.
r. t. the line y = x.
14
Therefore, it follows that if the graph of one of the functions f and g is given, that of the Differential Calculus
other can be obtained by reflecting it w. r. t. the line y = x. As an illustration, the graphs
of the functions x3 and y = x1/3 are given in Figure 7.8.
y

0 x

Figure 7.8
Do you agree that these two functions are inverses of each other? If the sheet of paper on
which the graph have been drawn is folded along the line y = x, the two graphs will
exactly coincide.
If a given function is not one-one on its domain, we can choose a subset of the domain on
which it is one-one and then define its inverse function. For example, consider the
function f : x → sin x.
Since we know that sin (x + 2π) = sin x, obviously this function is not one-one
⎡ π π⎤
on R. But if we restrict it to the intervals ⎢− , ⎥ we find that it is one-one.
⎣ 2 2⎦
Thus, if

⎡ π π⎤
f (x) = sin (x), for all x ∈ ⎢− , ⎥.
⎣ 2 2⎦
Then we can define

f −1 ( x ) = sin −1 ( x) = y , if sin y = x.

Similarly, we can define cos– 1 and tan– 1 functions as inverse of cosine and tangent
⎡ π π⎤
functions if we restrict the domains to [0, π] and ⎢− , ⎥ respectively.
⎣ 2 2⎦
SAQ 2

(a) Compare the graphs of ln x and ex given in Figures 7.6 and 7.7 and verify
that they are inverses of each other.
(b) Which of the following functions are one-one?
(i) f : R → R defined by f (x) = | x |.
(ii) f : R → R defined by f (x) = 3x − 1.
(iii) f : R → R defined by f (x) = x.
(iv) f : R → R defined by f (x) = 1.
(c) Which of the following functions are onto?
(i) f : R → R defined by f (x) = 3x + 7.

(ii) f : R+ → R defined by f (x) = x.

(iii) f : R → R defined by f (x) = x2 + 1. 15
Calculus 1
(iv) f : X → R defined by f (x) = where X stands for the set of non-zero
x
real numbers.
x +1
(d) Show that the function f : X → X such that f ( x) = , where X is the set
x −1
of all real number except 1, is one-one and onto. Find its inverse.
(e) Give one example of each of the following :
(i) a one-one function which is not onto?
(ii) onto function which is not one-one?
(iii) a function which is neither one-one nor onto?

7.3.4 New Functions from Given Functions

In this sub-section, we shall see how we can construct new functions from some given
functions. This can be done by operating upon the given functions in a variety of ways.
We give a few such ways here.
7.3.5 Operations on Functions
Scalar Multiple of a Function
Consider the function f : x → 3x2 + 1, for all x ∈ R. The function
g : x → 2 (3x2 + 1) for all x ∈ R is such that g (x) = 2f (x), for all x ∈ R. We say
that g = 2f and that g is a scalar multiple of f by 2. In the above example, there is
nothing special about the number 2. We could have taken any real number to
construct a new function from f. Also, there is nothing special about the particular
function that we have considered. We could as well as have taken any other
function. This suggests the following definition : Let f be a function with domain
D and let k any real number. The scalar multiple of f by k is a function with domain
D. It is denoted by kf and is defined by setting (kf) (x) = kf (x).
Two special cases of the above definition are important.
(i) Given any function f, if k = 0, the function kf turns out to be the zero
function. That is, kf = 0.
(ii) If k = − 1, the function kf is called the negative of f and is denoted simply
by – f.
Absolute Value Function (or Modulus Function) of a Given Function
Let f be a function with domain D. The absolute value of function f denoted by | f |
and read as mod f is defined by setting (| f |) (x) = | f (x) | for all x ∈ D.
Since | f (x) | = f (x), if f (x) ≥ 0, thus | f | have the same graph for those values of x
for which f (x) ≥ 0.
Now let us consider those values of x for which f (x) < 0. Here | f (x) | = − f (x).
Therefore, the graphs of f and | f | are reflections of each other w. r. t. the x-axis for
those values of x for which f (x) < 0.
16
 As an example, consider the graph in Figure 7.9(a). The portion of the graph below Differential Calculus
the x-axis, that is, the portion for which f (x) < 0 has been shown as dotted.
To draw the graph of | f | we retain the undotted portion in Figure 7.9(a) as it is,
and replace the dotted portion by its reflection w. r. t. the x-axis (Figure 7.9(b)).
y y

0 x 0 x

(a) (b)
Figure 7.9
Sum, Difference, Product and Quotient of Two Functions
If we are given two functions with a common domain, we can form several new
functions by applying the four fundamental operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division on them.
(i) Define a function δ on D by setting δ (x) = f (x) + g (x). The functions is
called the sum of the functions f and g, and is denoted by f + g. Thus,
(f + g) (x) = f (x) + g (x).
(ii) Define a function d on D by setting d (x) = f (x) – g (x). The function d is the
function obtained by subtracting g from f, and is denoted by f – g. Thus, for
all x ∈ D, (f − g) (x) = f (x) – g (x).
(iii) Define a function p on D by setting p (x) = f (x) g (x). The function p is
called the product of the functions f and g, and is denoted by fg. Thus, for all
x ∈ D, (fg) (x) = f (x) g (x).
f (x)
(iv) Define a function q on D by setting q (x) = . The function q (x) exists
g (x)
provided g (x) ≠ 0 for any x ∈ D. The function q is called the quotient of f
f f f (x)
by g and is denoted by . Thus, (x) = , (g (x) ≠ 0 for any x ∈ D).
g g g (x)
Remark
In case g (x) = 0 for some x ∈ D, we can consider the set, say D′ of all those values
f f f (x)
of x for which g (x) ≠ 0 and define on D′ by setting (x) = for all
g g g (x)
x ∈ D′.
Example 7.4
Consider the functions f : x → x2 and g : x → x3. Find the functions which are
defined as
(i) f + g,
(ii) f – g,
(iii) fg,
(iv) (2f + 3g), and
f
(v) .
g
17
Calculus Solution
(i) (f + g) (x) = x2 + x3
(ii) (f – g) (x) = x2 – x3
(iii) (fg) (x) = x5
(iv) (2f + 3g) (x) = 2f (x) + 3g (x)
= 2f (x) + 3g (x)
= 2x2 + 3x3.
(v) Now, g (x) = 0 ⇔ x2 = 0 ⇔ x = 0. Therefore, in order to define the function
f f (x) x 2 1
, we shall consider only non-zero values of x. If x ≠ 0, = = .
g g (x) x 3 x
f f 1
Therefore, is the function : x → , whenever x ≠ 0.
g g x
7.3.6 Composition of Functions
We shall now describe a method of combining two functions which is somewhat
different from the ones studied so far. Uptil now, we have considered functions with the
same domain. We shall now consider a pair of functions such that the co-domain of one
is the domain of the other.
Let f : X → Y and g : Y → Z be two functions. We define a function h : X → Z by setting
h (x) = g (f (x)).
To obtain h (x), we first take the f-image f (x) of an element x of X. Thus f (x) ∈Y, which
is the domain of g. We then take the g image of f (x), that is, g (f (x)), which is an element
of Z. This scheme has been shown in Figure 7.10.

h
X y Z
h

X f g
f (x) g[f (x)]

Figure 7.10
The function h, defined above, is called the composition of f and g and is written as
“gof”. Note the order. We first find the f-image and then its g-image. Try to distinguish
the composite function gof from the composite function fog which will be defined only
when Z is a subset of X.
Example 7.5
For functions f : x → x2, ∀ x ∈ R and g : x → 8x + 1, for all x ∈ R, obtain functions
“gof ” and “fog”.
Solution
“gof ” is a function from R to itself, defined by
(gof ) (x) = g (f (x)) = g (x2) = 8x2 + 1 for all x ∈ R
“fog ” is a function from R to itself, defined by
(fog) (x) = f (g (x)) = f (8x + 1) = (8x + 1)2.
Thus gof and fog are both defined but are different from each other.
18
The concept of composite functions is used not only to combine functions, but also to Differential Calculus
look upon a given function as made up of two simpler functions. For example, consider
the function
h : x → sin (3x + 7).
We can think of it as the composition (gof) of the functions f : x → 3x + 7, for all x ∈ R
and g : u → sin u, for all u ∈ R.
Now let us try to find the composite functions “fog” and “gof” of the functions :
⎛ x⎞ ⎛3⎞
f : x → 2x + 3, for all x ∈ R, and g : x → ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟, for all x ∈ R.
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠
Note that f and g are inverses of each other. Now
1 3
gof (x) = g (f (x)) = g (2x + 3) = (2 x + 3) − = x.
2 2
⎛ x 3⎞ ⎛ x 3⎞
Similarly, fog (x) = f (g (x)) = f ⎜ − ⎟ = 2 ⎜ − ⎟ + 3 = x.
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 2⎠
Thus, we see that gof (x) = x and fog (x) = x are the identity functions on R. What we
have observed here is true for any two functions f and g which are inverses of each other.
Thus, if f : X → Y and g : Y → X are inverses of each other, then gof and fog are identity
functions. Since the domain of gof is X and that of fog is Y, we can write this as :
gof = Ix, fog = Iy
This fact is often used to test whether two given functions are inverses of each other or
not.
7.3.7 Types of Functions
In this section, we shall talk about various types of functions, namely, even, odd,
increasing and decreasing. In each case, we shall also try to explain the concept through
graphs.
Even and Odd Functions
We shall first introduce two important classes of functions : even functions and
odd functions.
Consider the function f defined on R by setting
f (x) = x2, for all x ∈ R.
You will notice that
f (− x) = (− x)2 = x2 = f (x), for all x ∈ R.
This is an example of an even function. Let’s take a look at the graph
(Figure 7.11) of this function. We find that the graph (a parabola) is symmetrical
about the y-axis. If we fold the paper along the y-axis, we shall see that the parts of
the graph on both sides of the y-axis completely coincide with each other. Such
functions are called even functions. Thus, a function f, defined on R is even if, for
each x ∈ R, f (− x) = f (x).

0 x

Figure 7.11
19
Calculus The graph of an even function is symmetric with respect to the y-axis. We also
note that if the graph of a function is symmetric with respect to the y-axis, the
function must be an even function. Thus, if we are required to draw the graph of an
even function, we can use this property to our advantage. We only need to draw
that part of the graph which lies to the right of the y-axis and then just take its
reflection w. r. t. the y-axis to obtain the part of the graph which lies on the left of
the y-axis.
Now let us consider the function f defined by setting f (x) = x3, for all x ∈ R. We
observe that f (− x) = (− x)3 = − x3 = − f (x), for all x ∈ R. If we consider another
function g given by g (x) = sin x, we shall be able to note again that
g (− x) = sin (− x) = − sin x = − g (x).
The functions f and g above are similar in one respect : the image of – x is the
negative of the image of x. Such functions are called odd functions. Thus, a
function f defined on R is said to be an odd function if f (– x) = − f (x), for
all x ∈ R.
If (x, f (x)) is a point on the graph of an odd function f, then (– x, − f (x)) is also a
point on it. This can be expressed by saying that the graph of odd function is
symmetric with respect to the origin. In other words, if you turn the graph of an
odd function through 180o about the origin you will find that you get the original
graph again. Conversely, if the graph of a function is symmetric with respect to the
origin, the function must be an odd function. The above facts are often useful
while handling odd functions.
While many of the functions that you will come across in this course will turn out
to be either even or odd, there will be many more which will be neither even nor
odd. Consider, for example, the function f : x → (x + 1)2.
Here f (− x) = (− x + 1)2 = x2 – 2x + 1.
Is f (x) = f (− x), for all x ∈ R?
The answer is ‘no’. Therefore, f is not an even function.
Further is f (x) = − f (− x), for all x ∈ R?
Again, the answer is ‘no’. Therefore f is not an odd function. The same conclusion
could have been drawn by considering the graph of f which is given in
Figure 7.12.
y
4
3
2
1

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
0

Figure 7.12
You will observe that the graph is symmetric neither with respect to the
y-axis, nor with respect to the origin.
Now, there should be no difficulty in solving the exercise below.
SAQ 3
(a) Given below are two examples of even functions, alongwith their graphs.
Try to convince yourself, by calculations as well as by looking at the graphs,
that both the functions are, indeed, even functions.
20 (i) The absolute value function on R
 f:x→|x| Differential Calculus

The graph of f is shown in Figure 7.13.

y

0 x

Figure 7.13
(ii) The function g defined on the set of non-zero real number by setting
1
g (x) = 2 , x ≠ 0. The graph of g is shown in Figure 7.14.
x
y

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
0

Figure 7.14
(b) We are giving two functions alongwith their graphs (Figures 7.15(a) and
(b)). By calculations as well as by looking at the graphs, prove that each is
an odd function.
(i) The identity function on R :
f:x→x
(ii) The function g defined on the set of non-zero real numbers by setting
1
g (x) = , x ≠ 0.
x

y y
4
3
2
−4 −3 −2 −1 1
0 1 2 3 4
0 x −1
x
−2
−3
−4

(a) (b)
Figure 7.15
(c) Which of the following functions are even, which are odd, and which are
neither even nor odd?
21
Calculus (i) x → x2 + 1, for all x ∈ R.
(ii) x → x2 – 1, for all x ∈ R.
(iii) x → cos x, for all x ∈ R.
(iv) x → | x |, for all x ∈ R.

⎧0, if x is rational
(v) f (x) = ⎨ .
⎩1, if x is irrational

7.4 LIMITS
In Section 7.3, we introduced you to the concept of a function and discussed several
useful types of functions. In this section, we consider the value “to which
f (x) approaches as x gets closer and closer to some number a”. The phrase in inverted
commas is to be understood intuitively and through practice. We do not give a formal
definition here. We call such a value the limit of f (x) and denote it by lim f ( x).
x→a
Sometimes, this value may not exist, as you will see in an example later.
Example 7.6
Consider the function f : R → R given by f (x) = x + 4. We want to find lim f ( x) .
x→2

Solution
Look at Tables 7.1 and 7.2. These give values of f (x) as x gets closer and closer at
2 through values less than 2 and through values greater than 2, respectively.
Table 7.1

x 1 1.5 1.9 1.99 1.999

f (x) 5 5.5 5.90 5.99 5.999

Table 7.2

x 3 2.5 2.1 2.01 2.001

f (x) 7 6.5 6.1 6.01 6.001

From the above tables, it is clear that as x approaches 2, f (x) approaches 6. In fact,
the nearer x is chosen to 2, the closer f (x) will be to 6. Thus, 6 is limit of x + 4 as x
approaches 2, that is, lim ( x + 4) = 6.
x→2

In the above example, the value of lim ( x + 4) coincides with the value x + 4
x→2
when x = 2, that is, lim f ( x) = f (2).
x→2

22
Numbers x near 2 fall into two natural categories; those which are < 2, that is, Differential Calculus
those that lie to the left of 2, and those which are > 2, that is, those which lie to the
right of 2.
We write
lim f ( x) = 6
x → 2−

to indicate that as x approaches 2 from the left, f (x) approaches 6.

We shall describe this limit as the left-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches (or tends
to) 2.
Similarly,
lim f ( x) = 6
x → 2+

indicates that as x tends to 2 from the right, f (x) approaches 6.

We shall call this limit as the right-handed limit of f (x) as x approaches 2.
The left and right-hand limits are called one-sided limits.
It is clear now that
lim f ( x) = 6
x→2

if and only if, both

lim f ( x) = 6 and lim+ f ( x) = 6 .
x → 2− x→2

In the above example, the value of lim ( x + 4) coincides with the value of
x→2
x + 4 when x = 2, that is
lim f ( x) = f (2).
x→2

Likewise lim ( x 2 − 3 x + 1) = − 1.
x→2

as also lim ( x 2 − 3 x + 1) = − 1 = lim+ ( x 2 − 3x + 1).

x → 2− x→2

x2 − 4
Now consider another function f : R − {2} → R given by f ( x) = . This
x−2
function is not defined at the point x = 2, since division by zero is undefined. But
f (x) is defined for values of x which approach 2. So it makes sense to evaluate
x2 − 4
lim . Again, we consider the following Tables 7.3 and 7.4 which give the
x→2 x − 2

values of f (x) as x approaches 2 through values less than 2 and through values
greater than 2, respectively.
Table 7.3

x 1 1.5 1.9 1.99 1.999

f (x ) 3 3.5 3.9 3.99 3.999
Table 7.4

x 3 2.5 2.1 2.01 2.001

f (x ) 5 4.5 4.1 4.01 4.001
23
Calculus As you can see
lim f ( x) = 4 and lim+ f ( x) = 4.
x → 2− x→2

Hence, we shall say

lim f ( x) = 4.
x→2

Now we are in a position to define the limit of a function.

Let f be a function and let a be a real number. We do not require that f be defined at a,
but we do require that f be defined on a set of the form (a – p, a) ∪ (a, a + p).
(This guarantees that we can form f (x) for all x ≠ a that are “sufficiently close”
to a.)
Definition 6
f (x) is said to tend to the limit l as x approach a, written as
lim f ( x) = l ,
x→a

if, and only if,

lim f ( x) = l , and lim f ( x) = l.
x → a− x → a+

There is another definition of the limit of a function, equivalent to the above definition.
Definition 7
Let f be a function defined on some set (a – p, a) ∪ (a, a + p).
Then lim f ( x) = l
x→a

if, and only if, for each ε > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that | f (x) – l | < ε when
0 < | x – a | < δ. Note that we do not deny that f may be possibly defined at the
point a. All we are saying is that the definition does not require it.
We illustrate the above definitions with the help of examples.
Example 7.7
Show that
lim (mx + n) = ma + n; m ≠ 0.
x→a

Solution
Let ε > 0. We seek a number δ > 0 such that, if 0 < | x – a | < δ, then
| (mx + n) – (ma + n) | < ε.
What we have to do first is establish a connection between
| (mx + n) = (ma + n) | and | x – a |.
The connection is simple :
| (mx + n) – (ma + n) | = | m | | x – a |.
ε
To make | (mx + n) – (ma + n) | < ε, we need only make | x − a | < .
| m|
ε
This suggests that we choose δ = .
|m |
Thus, if 0 < | x – a | < δ, then | (mx + n) – (ma + n) | < ε.
Hence lim (mx + n) = ma + n.
x→a
24
Example 7.8 Differential Calculus

⎧3, x an integer
Given f ( x) = ⎨ , evaluate lim f ( x), if it exists.
⎩1, otherwise x→2

Solution
lim f ( x) = 1 = lim+ f ( x).
x → 2− x→2

Hence lim f ( x) = 1.
x→2

Example 7.9
1
Consider the function f : R − {0} → R given by f ( x) = . As you see, f (0) is
x
not defined. In contrast to Examples 7.6, 7.7 and 7.8 where f is defined at the point
a where we are evaluating the limit. We try to evaluate lim f ( x).
x →0

Look at Tables 7.5 and 7.6.

Table 7.5
x 1 1 1 1
2 10 100 1000
f (x ) 2 10 100 1000
Table 7.6

x 1 1 1 1
− − − −
2 10 100 1000
f (x ) −2 − 10 − 100 − 1000
We see that f (x) does not approach any fixed number as x approaches 0. In this
case we say that lim f ( x) does not exist.
x→0

Example 7.10
Evaluate the following limits :
x2 − 9
(i) lim
x →3 x−3

x 3 − 27
(ii) lim
x→−3 x+3

Solution

x2 − 9 ( x + 3) ( x − 3)
(i) lim = lim
x →3 x−3 x →3 ( x − 3)

= lim ( x + 3) = 6
x →3

x 3 − 27
(ii) lim
x→−3 x+3

( x + 3) ( x 2 − 3 x + 9)
= lim
x→−3 ( x + 3)

= lim ( x 2 − 3x + 9) = (− 3) 2 − 3 (− 3) + 9 = 27
x→−3 25
Calculus We state below a theorem giving six properties of limits.
Theorem 2 : Properties of Limits
Let f and g be two functions of x. Then
(i) For any constant c, lim c = c .
x →a

(ii) lim [ f ( x ) + g ( x )] = lim f ( x ) + lim g ( x )

x →a x →a x →a

(iii) lim [ f ( x ) − g ( x )] = lim f ( x ) − lim g ( x )

x →a x →a x →a

(iv) lim [kf ( x )] = k lim f ( x ), k is any real number

x →a x →a

(v) lim [ f ( x ) g ( x )] = [ lim f ( x )] . [ lim g ( x )]

x →a x →a x →a

[ lim f ( x )]
⎡ f ( x) ⎤ x →a
(vi) lim ⎢ ⎥ = provided lim g ( x ) ≠ 0.
x →a ⎣ g ( x) ⎦ [ lim g ( x )] x →a
x →a

Using the above properties, we try a few examples.

Example 7.11
Evaluate lim (x 2 − 4) ( x 2 + x + 1)
x→2

Solution
lim (x 2 − 4) ( x 2 + x + 1) = [ lim (x 2 − 4)][ lim ( x 2 + x + 1)]
x→2 x→2 x→2

= (4 – 4) (4 + 2 + 1) = 0.
Example 7.12
x3 + 2 x 2 + x
Evaluate lim .
x →0 x2 + 2x
Solution
x3 + 2 x 2 + x
First we reduce by cancelling the common factor :
x2 + 2x

x3 + 2 x 2 + x x ( x + 1) 2 ( x + 1) 2
= =
x2 + 2x x ( x + 2) x+2

x3 + 2 x 2 + x ( x + 1) 2
Hence, lim = lim
x→0 x2 + 2x x→0 x+2

lim ( x + 1) 2
x→0 1
= = .
lim ( x + 2) 2
x→0

We now state another theorem, the importance of which will become clear by the
examples taken later in this unit.
Theorem 3
sin x
(i) lim = 1.
x →0 x
(ii) lim cos x = 1.
x →0
26
We are now in a position to evaluate a variety of trigonometric limits. Differential Calculus

Example 7.13
sin 4 x
Find lim
x →0 x
Solution
sin x
You have seen that lim = 1.
x →0 x
From this, it follows that
sin 4 x
lim =1
x →0 4x
sin 4 x ⎛ sin 4 x ⎞
and lim = lim (4) ⎜ ⎟ = 4.
x→0 x x→0 ⎝ 4x ⎠
Example 7.14
Find lim x cot 4 x.
x →0

Solution
cos 4 x
We write x cot 4 x = x
sin 4 x

sin x
Since lim = 1,
x→0 x
it follows that
x 1 1
lim = lim = =1
x→0 sin x x → 0 sin x 1
x

⎛1⎞ ⎛ 4x ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1
Thus lim x cot 4 x = lim ⎜ ⎟ cos 4 x ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ (1) (1) = .
x→0 x→0 ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ sin 4 x ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ 4

Example 7.15

x2
Find lim
x→0 sec x − 1

Solution

x2
We cannot deal with the expression as it stands since both the numerator
sec x − 1
and denominator tend to zero with x. As such we rewrite the expression in a certain
form which will make things easy.

x2 x 2 cos x x 2 cos x
lim = lim = lim
x →0 sec x − 1 x → 0 1 − cos x x → 0 2 sin 2 x
2
2
⎛ x ⎞⎟
⎜
= lim (2) (cos x ) ⎜ 2 ⎟
x→0 ⎜ ⎛ x⎞⎟
⎜ sin ⎜ ⎟ ⎟
⎝ ⎝2⎠⎠
= (2) (1) (1) = 2. 27
Calculus SAQ 4
Evaluate the limits that exist :

x2 − x − 6 ⎛ 3x 8 ⎞
(i) lim (ii) lim ⎜⎜ + ⎟
x→−2 ( x + 2) 2 x→−4 ⎝ x + 4 x+ 4 ⎟⎠

(x 2 + x − 12) 2 tan x
(iii) lim (iv) lim
x →3 x−3 x →0 x

x2 − 2x sin 2 x
(v) lim (vi) lim
x→0 sin 3 x x→0 x (1 − cos x)

sin (x − a) 3+ x − 3
(vii) lim (viii) lim
x→a (x − a ) 2 x →0 x

sin α x
(ix) lim .
x→0 sin β x

7.5 CONTINUITY
In ordinary language, to say that a certain process is “continuous” means that it goes on
without interruption and without abrupt changes. In mathematics, continuity of a function
can also be interpreted in a similar way.
Like limits, the idea of continuity is basic to calculus. First we introduce the idea of
continuity at a point (or number) a, and then define continuity on an interval.
Continuity at a Point
Definition 8
Let f be a function defined at least on an open interval (a – p, a + p).
We say f is continuous at a if and only if,
lim f ( x) = f (a).
x→a

or, equivalently,
lim f (a + h) = f (a).
h →0

If the domain of f contains an interval (a – p, a + p), then f can fail to be

continuous at a for one of the following two reasons :
(i) Either lim f ( x) does not exist.
x→a

(ii) lim f ( x) exists but is not equal to f (a).

28 x→a
 The function graphed in Figure 7.16 is discontinuous at a because it does Differential Calculus
not have a limit at a.
y

0 a x

Figure 7.16
The function depicted in Figure 7.17 does have a limit at a. It is
discontinuous at a only because lim f ( x) is different from f (a), the value
x→a
of f at a. The discontinuity at a is removable; it can be removed by lowering
the dot into place (or by redefining f at a).
y

0 a x

Figure 7.17
An ε, δ characterization of continuity at a reads as follows :
Definition 9
A function f is continuous at a if, and only if, for each ε > 0, there exists
δ > 0 such that if | x – a | < δ, then | f (x) – f (a) | < ε. Clearly, δ will depend
both on ε and a; if any of these are changed the same δ may not work.
Continuity of the function f (x) at an end point of an interval [a, b] of its
domain is defined below :
(i) f (x) is continuous at the left end point ‘a’ if lim+ f ( x) = f (a).
x→a

(ii) f (x) is continuous at the right end point ‘b’ if lim− f ( x) = f (b).
x →b

If a function is continuous at each point of an interval, it is continuous over

the interval.
Remark
If the interval is closed, the limit in the continuity test over the interval is
two-sided at an interior point and the appropriate one-sided at the end points.
Example 7.16
Prove that f (x) = sin x is continuous at x = 0.
Solution
(i) f (0) = sin 0 = 0
(ii) lim f ( x) = lim sin x = 0 and
x→0 x →0 29
Calculus (iii) lim f ( x) = f (0) = 0
x→0

Therefore, f (x) = sin x is continuous at x = 0. (In fact sin x and cos x are
continuous at each real x.)
Example 7.17

1
Examine the continuity of the function f ( x) = .
x
Solution
The function is defined for all non-zero real value of x. It is not defined at
x = 0.
y

1
y=
x

0 x

Figure 7.18
1
Also lim f ( x) = = f ( x0 ), if x0 ≠ 0
x → x0 x0
Therefore, the function is continuous for all real x ≠ 0. It fails to be continuous at
x = 0 (why)? (Figure 7.18). This function is continuous on any interval which does
not include x = 0 as an element of it.
Theorem 4 : Properties of Continuous Functions
(a) If the functions f (x) and g (x) are continuous at x = a, then
(i) f (x) ± g (x),
(ii) f (x) g (x), and
f ( x)
(iii) , g (a ) ≠ 0,
g ( x)
are continuous at x = a.
(b) If f (x) is continuous at x = x0 and if g (y) is continuous at y = y0 = g (x0),
then the composite function F (x) = g (f (x)) is continuous at x = x0.
These results are in fact the immediate corollaries of the corresponding limit theorems
discussed in Section 7.4.
If a function is not continuous at a point x0, it is said to be discontinuous at x0.
Example 7.18
sin x
Let f ( x) = ( x ≠ 0) . Now f is not defined at x = 0. If we define f (0) = 1
x
sin x
which is same as lim , then f is continuous at x = 0.
x→0 x

y
30

sin x
y=
x
 Differential Calculus

0 x

Figure 7.19
Example 7.19
The function f defined by
⎧ 1 for x > 0
f ( x) = ⎨
⎩− 1 for x ≤ 0
is discontinuous at x = 0.
y
1

0 x

−1

Figure 7.20

Example 7.20
Draw the graph of the function

⎧− 1 + x 2 , −1≤ x < 0
⎪
⎪ x, 0 ≤ x <1
⎪
f ( x) = ⎨ 2, x =1
⎪
⎪ − x + 2, 1< x < 2
⎪⎩ 0, 2< x≤3

and examine its continuity on [− 1, 3].

Solution
The possible points of discontinuity are x = 0, x = 1 and x = 2. We examine the
continuity of the function f (x) on each of these points.
(i) lim f ( x) = − 1 ≠ 0 = f (0) = lim+ f ( x)
x → 0− x→0

Therefore, x = 0 is a discontinuity.
(ii) lim f ( x) = (lim f ( x) = 1)
x →1− x →1+

But lim f ( x) = 1 ≠ f (1) = 2 . Therefore, x = 1 is a discontinuity.

x →1

(iii) The function is not defined at x = 2, but lim f ( x) = 0 exists. Therefore,

x→2
x = 2 is also a removable discontinuity.
y 31

2
Calculus (1,2)

(1,1)
1
y=x y=−x+2

−1
0 1 2 3 x
y = −1+x
2

−1

Figure 7.21

SAQ 5
(a) Which of the following functions are continuous

⎧ 2 x − 1 if x < 0
(i) f ( x) = ⎨
⎩2 x + 1 if x ≥ 0

⎧x
⎪ if x ≠ 0
(ii) f ( x) = ⎨| x|
⎪⎩ 0 if x = 0

(b) Find the value of b for which the function

⎧ x 3 + 1 when x < 2
⎪
f ( x) = ⎨ 2
⎪⎩bx + x when x ≥ 2

is continuous at x = 2.
(c) Prove that the greatest integer function [x] is not continuous at x = 0
and x = 1.

7.6 DERIVATIVE
You are familiar with notions like velocity, acceleration, slope of a tangent line, etc. You
also know that differential calculus is the right mathematical tool to obtain formulae to
calculate velocity and acceleration of moving bodies, the slope of the tangent line to a
curve, etc. In fact differential calculus deals with the problem of calculating rates of
change and also helps to express the physical laws in precise mathematical terms for
studying their consequences. The problems associated with a moving body are mainly
responsible for development of the concept of derivative in calculus. To illustrate the fact
we consider the rectilinear motion of a body. We know that the distance ‘s’ traversed by
the body and measured from a fixed point depends on the time ‘t’. Let the distance s = f
(t) be a function of time ‘t’. The average of velocity during a time interval (t, t + Δt) is

32
 Δs Differential Calculus
Vav = , where Δs = f (t + Δt) − f (t ).
Δt
To obtain the velocity at time t, we need to calculate
f (t + Δt) − f (t )
lim
Δt → 0 Δt
The above limit, if exists, is called the derivative of f (t) with respect to t and we write
Δs ds
lim = = f ′ (t ).
Δt → 0 Δt dt
ds
The derivative is the velocity of the moving body at time t.
dt
7.6.1 Derivative of a Function
We now define the derivative of a given function by using the notion of limit.
Definition 10
The function y = f (x) is said to have a derivative (or be differentiable) at a point x
if, and only if, the limit
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
lim
h→0 h
dy
exists and is finite. This limit, written as or f ′ (x), is called the derivative of
dx
f (x) with respect to x.
If the derivative of a function exists at every point of an interval, then we say that the
function is differentiable in that interval. However, while considering the derivatives at
the end points of an interval, we evaluate suitable one-sided derivatives. For example, if
the interval is [a, b], then the derivative at x = a is calculated as
f ( a + h) − f ( a ) f (b + h) − f (b)
lim+ and at b as lim−
h→0 h h→0 h

If f ′ (x) is continuous at a point, then we say that f (x) is continuously differentiable at

that point.
Example 7.21
dy
Let y = xn (n is a positive integer). Prove that = nx n −1.
dx
Solution

y = f ( x) = x n

f ( x + h) − f ( x ) ( x + h) n − x n
Then =
h h
( x + h − x)
= [(x + h) n −1 + ( x + h) n − 2 x + . . . + (x + h) x n − 2 + x n −1 ]
h
The above step is derived by using the result

a n − b n = ( a − b) [ a n −1 + a n − 2 b + . . . + ab n − 2 + b n −1 ]

We now have
33
Calculus f ( x + h) − f ( x)
= ( x + h) n − 1 + ( x + h ) n − 2 x + . . . + ( x + h ) x n − 2 + x n − 1
h
Taking the limit h → 0, we get
dy f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim = x n −1 + x n − 2 x + . . . + x n −1 (n number of terms)
dx h → 0 h
dy
Therefore, = nx n −1.
dx
In the following theorem, we make an important observation (a necessary condition)
about any differentiable function.
Theorem 5
If a function y = f (x) is differentiable at some point x = x0, it is continuous at
that point.
Proof
By definition, the derivative of f (x) at x = x0 is
f ( x0 + h) − f ( x0 )
f ′ ( x0 ) = lim
h→0 h
Now lim [ f ( x0 + h) − f ( x0 )]
h→0

f ( x0 + h) − f ( x0 )
= lim .h
h→0 h
f ( x0 + h) − f ( x0 )
= lim . lim h
h→0 h h →0

= f ′ ( x0 ) . 0

=0
∴ lim f ( x0 + h) − lim f ( x0 ) = 0
h →0 h→0

i.e. lim f ( x0 + h) = lim f ( x0 )

h →0 h→0

i.e. f (x) is continuous at x0.

The converse of the above result is not true. Indeed, there exist functions which are
continuous but not differentiable.
Example 7.22

Examine the differentiability of the function

⎧ x whenever x > 0
y=⎨
⎩− x whenever x ≤ 0
Solution
The function is continuous for – ∞ < x < ∞. The graph of the function is given in
Figure 7.22.

y
y =− x y=x
34
 Differential Calculus

0 x

Figure 7.22
f (0 + h) − f (0) h − 0
Further = = 1 when h is positive.
h h
−h−0
= = − 1 when h is negative.
h
f (0 + h) − f (0)
∴ lim+ =1
h→0 h
f ( 0 + h) − f ( 0 )
lim− = −1
h→0 h
i.e. f ′ (0) does not exist.
Remark
The above example will help you to conclude that a function can never have
derivative at a point of discontinuity. In the light of this remark, look at the
following example.
Example 7.23
Examine the differentiability of the function
⎧ x , −∞<x<0
⎪
y=⎨ 1 , 0 ≤ x< 2
⎪3 − x , 2 ≤ x
⎩
Solution
From Figure 7.23, we observe as follows :
y

y=1

y=3−x

0 1 2 3 x
y=x

Figure 7.23
(i) The function is not continuous at x = 0. Hence it is not differentiable there.
(ii) Though the function is continuous at x = 2, the one-sided limits
f (2 + h) − f (2)
lim+
h→0 h
35
Calculus [(3 − (2 + h)] − (3 − 2)
= lim+
h→0 h

3 − 2 − h −1
= lim+
h→0 h

−h
= lim+ = −1
h→0 h

f (2 + h) − f ( 2)
and lim−
h→0 h

1 − (3 − 2)
= lim−
h→0 h

= lim− = 0 = 0 are not equal.

h→0

Therefore, the derivative does not exist at x = 2.

At all points (x ≠ 0 and x ≠ 2) the derivatives exist.
SAQ 6
(a) Show that the derivative of a constant function is zero.
(b) Show that y = | x | is differentiable at all points except at x = 0.
(c) Find the derivative of the function
(i) y = x2
(ii) y = 3x2 + 5x – 1.

7.6.2 Algebra of Derivatives

We now state some important rules regarding the derivatives of the sum, difference,
product and quotient of functions in terms of their derivatives.
Theorem 6
If f (x) and g (x) are differentiable functions at a point x, then
d df ( x ) dg ( x )
(i) [ f ( x ) ± g ( x )] = ±
dx dx dx
d dg ( x ) df ( x )
(ii) ( f ( x ) . g ( x )) = f ( x ) + g ( x)
dx dx dx
df ( x ) dg ( x )
⎛ f ( x) ⎞ g ( x) − f ( x)
d dx dx
(iii) ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =
dx ⎝ g ( x) ⎠ [ g ( x )]2
provided g (x) ≠ 0.
We shall give the proof of the result (ii) below. Other results we leave as an exercise for
you.
36 Proof
 Let y = f (x) . g (x) Differential Calculus

dy f ( x + h) g ( x + h) − f ( x ) g ( x )
Then = lim
dx h → 0 h
Now f ( x + h) g ( x + h ) − f ( x ) g ( x )
= f ( x + h) [ g ( x + h) − g ( x)] + g ( x) [ f ( x + h) − f ( x)]

dy ⎧ [g ( x + h) − g ( x)] [f ( x + h) − f ( x)] ⎫
∴ = lim ⎨ f ( x + h) + g ( x) ⎬
dx h → 0 ⎩ h h ⎭
dy g ( x + h) − g ( x ) f ( x + h) − f ( x )
= lim f ( x + h) lim + g ( x) . lim
dx h → 0 h→0 h h→0 h
That is,
dy dg ( x) df ( x)
= f ( x) + g ( x) ,
dx dx dx
Use of the product rule (ii) and the result which states that ‘derivative of a constant
is zero’ gives
d d
= [cf ( x)] = c f ( x) ,
dx dx
where c is a constant.
Example 7.24
Find the derivative of y = 5x2 sin x.
Solution
dy d d
= 5 [x2 (sin x) + sin x ( x 2 )]
dx dx dx
d
We derive (sin x) as under :
dx
d sin ( x + h) − sin x
(sin x) = lim
dx h → 0 h

⎛ ⎛h⎞⎞
⎜ sin ⎜ ⎟ ⎟
⎛ h⎞ ⎝2⎠⎟
= lim cos ⎜ x + ⎟ ⎜
h ⎝ 2⎠ ⎜ h ⎟
→0
2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠

⎛h⎞
sin ⎜ ⎟
⎛ h⎞ ⎝ 2⎠
= lim cos ⎜ x + ⎟ . lim
h
→0 ⎝ 2 ⎠ h →0 h
2 2
2
= cos x . 1 = cos x
d
and (x2 ) = 2x
dx
dy
Hence, = 5 [ x 2 cos x + 2 x sin x] .
dx
Example 7.25

37
Calculus dy cos x
Find , if y = 2 .
dx x
Solution
By formula (iii)
d d
x2 (cos x) − cos x (x2 )
dy dx dx
=
dx x4
d
To obtain (cos x) , we have
dx
d cos ( x + h) − cos x
(cos x) = lim
dx h→0 h
⎛ ⎛h⎞⎞
⎜ sin ⎜ ⎟ ⎟
⎛ ⎞ ⎝2⎠⎟
= lim ⎜ − sin ⎜ x + ⎟ lim
h
h
→0
⎜ ⎝ 2 ⎠ h →0 h ⎟
2 ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠

⎛h⎞
sin ⎜ ⎟
⎡ ⎛ h ⎞⎤ ⎝2⎠
= − lim ⎢sin ⎜ x + ⎟⎥ lim
h
→0 ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦ h → 0 h
2 2
2
= − sin x . 1 = − sin x
d
and (x2 ) = 2x
dx
dy x sin x + 2 cos x
Therefore, =−
dx x3
7.6.3 Derivative of a Composite Function (Chain Rule)
Theorem 7
If y = f (u) is a differentiable function of u and u = g (x) is a differentiable
function of x, then y = f (g (x)) as a function of x is differentiable and
dy dy du
= . .
dx du dx
Proof
Let u = g (x) be differentiable at x0 and y = f (u) be differentiable at u0 where
u0 = g (x0).
Let h (x) = f (g (x)). The function g (x), being differentiable, is continuous at x0; so
also the function f (u) at u0 and, therefore, at x0.
Δu = g (x0 + Δx) – g (x0)
where Δu → 0 as Δx → 0
and at u0
Δy = f (u0 + Δu) – f (u0)
= f (g (x0 + Δx)) – f (g (x0))
= h (x0 + Δx) – h (x0)
Assuming Δu ≠ 0 (i.e. g (x) is not a constant function in neighbourhood
38 of x0), we write
 Δy Δy Δu Differential Calculus
= .
Δx Δu Δx
In the limit, we get
Δy Δy Δu
lim = lim lim
Δx → 0 Δx Δu → 0 Δu Δx → 0 Δx
dy dy du
or =
dx du dx
You can also show that in the case of Δu = 0 the above formula holds true. In fact it
becomes an identity 0 = 0. Note that it cannot be divided by Δu in this case.
Example 7.26
dy
If y = sin (x2), find .
dx
Solution
Let y = sin (u) and u = x2. By the chain-rule
dy d du
= (sin u ) .
dx du dx
= (cos u) (2x)
= 2x cos x2.
7.6.4 Second Order Derivatives
You know that the derivative of a function y = f (x), i.e. f ′(x) is also a function. Hence we
can calculate the derivative of f ′(x) at a point of its domain, if it exists, by using the same
f ′ ( x + h) − f ′ ( x )
limiting procedure. That is, if lim exists, it is called the second order
h→0 h
d2y
derivative of f (x) with respect to x. We write it as or f ′′ ( x) . You can also calculate
dx 2
higher order derivatives like 3rd order, 4th order etc., of a function f (x).
Example 7.27

Find the (i) 2nd order and (ii) 5th order derivatives of y = x 4 − 3 x 2 + 5 x − 1 .
Solution
dy
(i) = y′ = 4 x 3 − 6 x + 5
dx
d2y d ⎛ dy ⎞ d
= ⎜ ⎟= (4 x 3 − 6 x + 5) = 12 x 2 − 6
dx 2 dx ⎝ ⎠
dx dx

(ii) y (3) = 24 x, y ( 4) = 24, y (5) = 0

7.6.5 Implicit Differentiation

If we are given an equation like x 6 + 4 xy 4 − 3 y 3 + 1 = 0 , it is not easy to solve it for y in
dy
terms of x. However, it is often possible to calculate straight from the equation by
dx
the method of implicit differentiation. For example, if we differentiate both the sides of
the given equation, we get

39
Calculus ⎛ dy ⎞ ⎛ 2 dy ⎞ d
6 x5 + 4 y 4 + 4 x ⎜ 4 y 3 ⎟ − 3 ⎜3y ⎟+0= (0)
⎝ dx ⎠ ⎝ dx ⎠ dx

dy
⇒ 6 x 5 + 4 y 4 + (16 xy 3 − 9 y 2 ) =0
dx

dy − (6 x 5 + 4 y 4 )
Therefore, =
dx 16 xy 3 − 9 y 2

This holds for all points where 16 xy 3 − 9 y 2 ≠ 0 .

SAQ 7
(a) Differentiate
3x + 1
(i)
2x − 5
1
(ii)
x + 3x − 8
3

(iii) (x2 + x + 6) sin x

(iv) (x + 2) (x2 + 1) + cos x
(b) Find the derivatives of the functions
2x + 3
(i)
x2 − 5

(ii) tan x
(1 − sin x)
(iii)
1 + cos 2 x

(c) Find the 2nd order derivatives of the functions

(i) sin2 x
(ii) ax3 + bx2 + cx + d

7.6.6 Derivatives of Some Elementary Functions

Power Function y = xα (α is real)
We have already proved that the power function y = xn, where n is a positive
integer, has the derivative
dy
= n x n −1
dx
40
 p Differential Calculus
We shall show now that the above rule also holds when y = x q
(q, p are integers
with q > 0).
Let us assume p, q > 0.
Then yq = xp. By the method of implicit differentiation, we get
dy
q y q −1 = p x p −1
dx
p
dy p x p −1 p x p −1 p q −1 p
or = q − 1
= p
= x = nx n −1 , if =n
dx q y p− q q
qx q

d
In fact the formula ( x α ) = α x α −1 holds true for any real α. We shall accept
dx
this result without proof.
Trigonometric Functions
We have already seen that
d d
(sin x) = cos x, (cos x) = − sin x
dx dx
By using the quotient rule you can show that
d d
(tan x) = sec 2 x, (cot x) = − cos ec 2 x
dx dx
d d
(sec x) = sec x tan x, (cos ec x) = − cos ec x cot x
dx dx
Logarithmic Function
d 1
We shall prove that (log x) =
dx x
Let f (x) = log x
f (x + h) − f ( x) 1 1 ⎛ h⎞
Then = [log (x + h) − log ( x)] = log ⎜1 + ⎟
h h h ⎝ x⎠
f (x + h) − f ( x) log (x + h) − log x
f ′ ( x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
1 ⎛ h⎞
= lim log ⎜1 + ⎟
h→0 h ⎝ x⎠

⎛ h⎞
log ⎜1 + ⎟
= lim ⎝ x⎠ 1
.
h→0 h x
x
⎛ h⎞
log ⎜1 + ⎟
= lim ⎝ x⎠ 1 1 1
. lim = 1 × =
h→0 h h→0 x x x
x
⎛ log (1 + y ) ⎞
⎜⎜Θ lim = 1⎟⎟
⎝ y →0 y ⎠
41
Calculus Exponential Function (with respect to the base a)
Let y = ax with a > 0, but a ≠ 1
Then loge y = x loge a
By the method of implicit differentiation, we get
1 dy
= log e a
y dx

dy
Therefore, = y log e a = a x log e a
dx
dy
In particular if y = ex, then = ex (Θ log e e = 1)
dx
Inverse Function
Let y = sin– 1 x
Then sin y = x
Differentiating both sides w. r. t. x, we have
dy
cos y =1
dx
dy 1
i.e. =
dx cos y

1
=
cos 2 y

1
=
1 − sin 2 y

1
=
1 − x2

π π π π
As we know that the range of sin −1 x is − to , i.e. y lies between − to ,
2 2 2 2
so cos y is positive.
dy 1
Similarly, y = cos −1 x ⇒ =−
dx 1 − x2

dy 1
y = tan −1 x ⇒ =
dx 1 + x 2

dy 1
y = cot −1 x ⇒ =−
dx 1 + x2

Example 7.28

π π dy
If y = cos −1 (tan x), − < x < , find .
4 4 dx
42
Solution
 dy 1 d 1 Differential Calculus
Here =− (tan x) = − sec 2 x
dx (1 − tan 2 x) dx (1 − tan 2 x)

1
=−
cos x cos 2 x

7.6.7 Derivatives of a Function Represented Parametrically

Sometimes we represent a function say y = f (x), a ≤ x ≤ b by its parametric equations,

x = φ (t ) ⎤
, α≤t ≤β
y = ψ (t ) ⎥⎦

Let us assume φ (t), ψ (t) are differentiable and x = φ (t) has an inverse t = h (x). Then we
can consider the equation of the function y = f (x) as a composite function.
y = ψ (t ), t = h ( x)

Using the differentiation rule for a composite function (chain-rule), we get

dy dy dt dψ dh
= . =
dx dt dx dt dx
dψ
dy
Since t = h (x) is inverse of x = φ (t), we arrive at = dt .
dx dφ
dt
Example 7.29

The parametric equation of a semi-circular arc of radius ‘a’ with its centre at (0, 0)
is

x = a cos t ⎤
, 0≤t≤π
y = a sin t ⎥⎦

dy π
Find at t = .
dt 4
Solution
dy
dy dt a cos t
= = = − cot t
dx dx a ( − sin t )
dt
π dy π
At t= , = − cot = − 1
4 dx 4
7.6.8 Logarithmic Differentiation
dy
In some problems, it is easier to find by first taking logarithmic and then
dx
differentiating. Such process is called logarithmic differentiation. This is usually done in
two kinds of problems. First when the function is a product of many simpler functions. In
this case logarithm converts the product into a sum and facilitates differentiation.
Secondly, when the variable x occurs in the exponent. In this case logarithm brings it to a
simpler form.
Example 7.30 43
Calculus Differentiate sin x sin 2x sin 3x.
Solution
Let y = sin x sin 2x sin 3x
Then log y = log sin x + log sin 2x + log sin 3x.
Differentiating both sides, we have
1 dy 1 1 1
= . cos x + . cos 2 x . 2 + . cos 3x . 3
y dx sin x sin 2 x sin 3x

dy ⎡ cos x 2 cos 2 x cos 3x ⎤

∴ =y⎢ + +3 ⎥
dx ⎣ sin x sin 2 x sin 3 x ⎦

= sin x sin 2x sin 3x [cot x + 2 cot 2x + 3 cot 3x]

Example 7.31

Differentiate (sin x)x

Solution
Let y = (sin x)x
Then log y = x log sin x
Differentiating both the sides, we have
1 dy 1
= log sin x + x . . cos x
y dx sin x

dy
i.e. = y [log sin x + x cot x]
dx
= (sin x)x [log sin x + x cot x]
7.6.9 Differentiation by Substitution
Sometimes it is easier to differentiate by making substitution. Usually these examples
involve inverse trigonometric functions.
Example 7.32

Differentiate tan −1 ⎛⎜ 1 + x 2 − x ⎞⎟
⎝ ⎠
Solution
Put x = tan θ
Then 1 + x2 = sec2 θ

∴ 1 + x 2 − x = sec θ − tan θ

1 sin θ
= −
cos θ cos θ

1 − sin θ
=
cos θ

44
 θ θ θ θ Differential Calculus
cos 2 + sin 2 − 2 sin cos
= 2 2 2 2
2 θ 2 θ
cos − sin
2 2
2
⎛ θ θ⎞
⎜ cos − sin ⎟
= ⎝ 2 2⎠
⎛ θ θ ⎞⎛ θ θ⎞
⎜ cos − sin ⎟ ⎜ cos + sin ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 2 2⎠

θ θ θ
− sin
cos 1 − tan
= 2 2 = 2 = tan ⎛⎜ π − θ ⎞⎟
θ θ θ ⎝ 4 2⎠
cos + sin 1 + tan
2 2 2

⎛π θ⎞
∴ tan y = tan ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 4 2⎠

π θ
i.e. y= −
4 2
dy 1 dθ 1 d
∴ =− =− (tan −1 x)
dx 2 dx 2 dx
−1
=
2 (1 + x 2 )

SAQ 8

(a) A particle moves along a straight line. At any time t the distance s traveled
by the particle is given by the formula : s = 32t2 + 9. Find the velocity and
acceleration of the particle at time, t = 2 units.
dy
(b) Use the method of implicit differentiation to calculate , if
dx

2 x 2 − 3 xy + 4 y 2 = 8

(c) Differentiate the following

(i) x2 ex sin x
(ii) (x + 1)2 (x + 2)3 (x + 3)4
2x
(iii) tan −1
1 − x2

1 − x2
(iv) cos −1
1 + x2

45
Calculus

46
 Differential Calculus
APPLIED MATHEMATICS
This course on Applied Mathematics (BNA - 011) is in your hand. The whole course is
comprises three blocks : Algebra, Vectors and Probability and Statistics, Solid Geometry
and Calculus.
In first block, you will be introduced to the basic concepts of Algebra, Vectors and
Probability and Statistics. Learning algebra is a little like learning another language. In
fact, algebra is a simple language used to create mathematical models of real-world
situations and to handle problem that we can’t solve using just arithmetic. You will learn
complex members, determinants – its properties and applications, infinite series in this
section. The usefulness of vector in engineering mathematics results from the fact that
many physical quantities – for example, force, velocity, momentum etc. may be
represented by vectors.
Probability and statistics have relevance in our lives which have been introduced in this
block. The study of probability helps us figure out the likelihood of something
happening. But move than that it is itself inherently interesting. Our need to cope with
uncertainly leads us to study and use of probability theory.
Block 2 covers Solid Geometry. Solid geometry is concerned with polyhdera, sphere,
three-dimensional solids, lives in three-space, planes and so on. The basic knowledge of
solid geometry is absolute necessary in solving real life problems in the field of detailed
sciences.
Block 3 includes Calculus. You will be introduced to basic concepts of differential and
integral calculus. This includes limit, continuity, mean value theorem and application of
calculus in engineering field.
We believe that the course on Applied Mathematics will provide basic knowledge on the
subject which help you in understanding other subjects in B. Sc. Nautical Sciences.
Finally, list of books is given in section Further Reading, which are very happens to
understand move about the subject.

47
Calculus
CALCULUS
The knowledge and concepts of mathematics help in handling any engineering problem.
In block of Mathematics, which is in your hands, you will be studying some concepts of
mathematics, which are a must for you. This block will be dealing with the concepts of
Differentiation and Integration, and consists of three units.
Unit 7 is devoted to Differential Calculus. In fact, calculus was created to meet the
pressing mathematical needs of 17th century for solving problems in Science and
Technology.
In Unit 7, the concept of function has been introduced and different types of functions
and inverse functions have been discussed. This unit also lays the foundations of calculus
in terms of definitions and theorems centering around limit and continuity of functions
and algebra of derivatives. We will also be dealing with some of the applications of the
derivatives to geometry and maxima and minima of functions. Some important theorems
namely Rolle’s Theorem and Lagranges Mean-value Theorem have also been discussed.
Unit 8 deals with the concept of integrals and its applications. Indefinite integral of a
function as an antiderivative has been defined and the different techniques for finding
integrals of functions have been discussed. After introducing the concept of definite
integral, some applications have been dealt such as finding the area of a curved surface.
The firm grounding in integrals provided by Unit 8 shall be helpful for easy
understanding of Unit 9, dealing with ordinary differential equations.
For the want of clarity in concepts, number of solved examples has been introduced in
each unit. To help you check your understanding and to assess yourself, each unit
contains SAQs. The answers to these SAQs are given at the end of each unit. We suggest
that you look at them only after attempting the exercises.
At the end, we wish you all the best for your all educational endeavours.

48
Differential Calculus

45
Calculus
7.7 APPLICATION TO GEOMETRY
7.7.1 Geometrical Meaning of the Derivative
In Sub-section 7.6.1, we defined the derivative of a function y = f (x) as
dy f ( x + h) − f ( x )
= lim
dx h → 0 h
We now examine the geometrical meaning of this definition. Let P (x, y) and
Q (x + h, y + k) be two neighouring points on the curve y = f (x) (Figure 7.24).

Figure 7.24
Draw PM, QN the ordinates through P and Q respectively. Let the secant PQ makes an
angle θ with the positive x-axis. Draw PR perpendicular to QN. Then from Figure 7.24,
we see that
MP = f ( x) = y , NQ = f ( x + h) = y + k
RQ = NQ − NR = NQ − MP = f ( x + h) − f ( x)
MN = h = PR
f ( x + h) − f ( x) RQ
Hence = = tan θ
h PR
= slope of the secant PQ.
In the limit h → 0, the point Q → P along the curve y = f (x) and the secant PQ becomes
the tangent at P. If the tangent at P makes an angle ψ with the positive direction of the
x-axis, we get
dy f ( x + h) − f ( x )
= lim = lim tan θ = tan ψ
dx h → 0 h Q→P

= slope of the tangent at P. . . . (7.1)

Eq. (7.1) shows that
dy
= tan ψ
dx
represents the slope of the tangent to the curve y = f (x) at any point (x, y). The above
discussion shows that at any point of the graph of a differentiable function y = f (x), the
slope of the tangent is defined and is equal to the derivative of the function at that point.
This means that if y = f (x) is differentiable, then the graph of y = f (x) has a tangent at
every point.
Remark
dy
(i) If = 0 at a point P, then tan ψ = 0. Hence ψ = 0. This means the tangent
dx
to the curve at P is parallel to the x-axis. Conversely, if the tangent at a point
dy
is parallel to the x-axis then = 0 at that point (Figure 7.25(a)).
dx
46
 Differential Calculus

dy
Figure 7.25(a) : = 0 , Tangent Parallel to x-axis
dx

dy π
(ii) If is infinite at a point P then tan ψ = ∞ or ψ = , so that the tangent is
dx 2
parallel to the y-axis at that point (Figure 7.25(b)).

dy
Figure 7.25(b) : = ∞ , Infinite, Tangent Parallel to y-axis
dx
7.7.2 Equations of the Tangent and Normal at a Point
You know that the equation of the line through (x1, y1) with slope m is
y – y1 = m (x – x1)
If this line is the tangent to y = f (x) at (x1, y1), then we must have
⎛ dy ⎞
m=⎜ ⎟
⎝ dx ⎠ ( x1 , y1 )

⎛ dy ⎞
where ⎜ ⎟ is the value of the derivative at (x1, y1). Hence the equation of the
⎝ dx ⎠ ( x1 , y1 )
tangent to the curve y = f (x) at (x1, y1) is
⎛ dy ⎞
y − y1 = ⎜ ⎟ ( x − x1 )
⎝ dx ⎠ ( x1 , y1 )
The normal at P (x1, y1) is perpendicular to the tangent at P. The normal at
P (x1, y1) therefore has the slope
1 ⎛ dx ⎞
− = − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎛ dy ⎞ ⎝ dy ⎠ ( x1 , y1 )
⎜ ⎟
⎝ dx ⎠ ( x1 , y1 )

[Recall that if two straight lines with slopes m and m′ are perpendicular to each other then
1
mm′ = − 1 or m′ = − ]. Hence the equation of the normal at (x1, y1) to y = f (x) is
m
1
y − y1 = − ( x − x1 )
⎛ dy ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ dx ⎠ ( x1 , y1 )
47
Calculus ⎛ dy ⎞
or (x − x1 ) + ⎜ ⎟ ( y − y1 ) = 0.
⎝ dx ⎠ ( x1 , y1 )
Example 7.33
Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the parabola y2 = 4ax at the point
(x1, y1).
Solution
From y2 = 4ax, we find
dy
2y = 4a
dx
dy 4a
or =
dx 2 y
⎛ dy ⎞ 2a
This gives ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ dx ⎠ ( x1 , y1 ) y1
The equation of the tangent is
2a
y − y1 = ( x − x1 )
y1

or yy1 − y12 = 2ax − 2ax1

or yy1 = 2ax − 2ax1 + y12

Since (x1, y1) is a point on the parabola, we have y12 = 4ax1 . Using this we can
write the equation of the tangent as
yy1 = 2ax − 2ax1 + 4ax1
or yy1 = 2a ( x + x1 )
Similarly, the equation of the normal is
2a
(x − x1 ) + ( y − y1 ) = 0
y1
Example 7.34
Find the points where the tangent to the circle x2 + y2 = 25 is parallel to the line
2x – y + 6 = 0.
Solution
From x 2 + y 2 = 25, we get
dy
2x + 2 y =0
dx
dy x
Hence =−
dx y
⎛ x⎞
So the slope of the tangent at any point on the circle is ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ . The slope of the
⎝ y⎠
given line is 2. So the tangent to the circle is parallel to the given line if
x
− = 2 or x = − 2 y
y

Solving this and x 2 + y 2 = 25, we get the required points as (− 2 5 , 5 ) and

(2 5 , − 5 ) .
48
7.7.3 Angle of Intersection between Two Curves Differential Calculus

Two curves may intersect at one or more points. The x-coordinates of the points of
intersection of two curves given by the equations y = f1 ( x ) and y = f 2 ( x) can be
obtained by solving the equation f1 ( x ) = f 2 ( x ) . The y-coordinates of the points of
intersection can be obtained by putting these values of x in any of the equations
y = f1 ( x ) or y = f 2 ( x ) .
If A is the point of intersection of two curves, then the angle between the two curves at A
is defined to be the acute angle between the tangents to the two curves at A. Let C1 and
C2 be two curves intersecting at A and let α be the acute angle (Figure 7.26) between the
tangents to C1 and C2 at A.

Figure 7.26

dy
Let m1 = slope of the tangent AT1 = for the first curve C1 : y = f1 (x) at A and
dx
dy
m2 = slope of AT2 = for the second curve C2 : y = f2 (x) at A.
dx
m1 − m2 f ′ − f 2′
Hence tan α = = 1 ,
1 + m1 m2 1 + f1′ f 2′

where the derivatives on the right hand side are to be evaluated at the point of
intersection.
Remark
If α = 0, the two curves have a common tangent. The two curves are said to touch
each other if they have a common tangent.
Remark
π
If α = , the two curves intersect orthogonally. In this case, tan α = ∞ or
2
m1 m2 = − 1 .

Example 7.35

x2 y2
Show that the ellipse + = 1 and the hyperbola x2 – y2 = 5 cut orthogonally.
18 8
Solution
We first find the points of intersection of the two curves. To do this, we solve
simultaneously

x2 y2
+ =1 . . . (1)
18 8
and x2 – y2 = 5 . . . (2)

49
Calculus ⎛ x 2 ⎞⎟
From Eq. (1) y 2 = 8 ⎜1 −
⎜ 18 ⎟⎠
⎝
Substituting this in Eq. (2), we get
⎛ x 2 ⎞⎟
x 2 − 8 ⎜1 − =5
⎜ 18 ⎟⎠
⎝
4 2
or x2 + x = 13
9
13 x 2
or = 13
9
or x2 = 9
x=±3
Putting these values of x in Eq. (2), we get

9 − y 2 = 5 or y 2 = 4 or y = ± 2
Hence the points of intersections are
A (3, 2), B (3, − 2), C (− 3, 2) and D (− 3, − 2)
Differentiating Eq. (1), we get
x y dy
+ =0
18 8 dx
dy 4 x
or =−
dx 9 y
Let m1 and m2 denote the slope of the tangents to the curves (1) and (2)
respectively.
−4 ⎛3⎞ − 2
Then m1 = ⎜ ⎟= at A.
9 ⎝2⎠ 3
2
Similarly m1 = at B
3
2
m1 = at C
3
2
m1 = − at D
3
Differentiating (2), we get
dy
2x − 2 y =0
dx
dy x
or =
dx y

3
So m2 = at A
2
3
m2 = − at B
2
50
 3 Differential Calculus
m2 = − at C
2
3
and m2 = at D
2

⎛ 2⎞ ⎛3⎞
Now m1 m2 at A = ⎜ − ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = − 1 .
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝2⎠
Hence the two curves cut orthogonally at A.
Similarly, you can verify that the two curves cut orthogonally at all the other points of
intersection.
SAQ 9
(a) Find the equation of the tangent and the normal at any point of the ellipse
x2 y2
+ = 1.
a2 b2
(b) Find where the tangent is parallel to the x-axis for the curve

y 3 = x 2 (2 − x) .

(c) Show that the curves

x2 y2 x2 y2
+ = 1 and + =1
a2 b2 a2 + λ b2 + λ

intersect orthogonally.
(d) Find the angles of intersection of xy = 10 and x2 + y2 = 29.

7.8 DERIVATIVE AS A RATE MEASURE

The derivative of a function y = f (x) with respect to the independent variable x is nothing
but the rate measure of change of y with respect to change in x. Let there be a small
change Δx in the value of x and let Δy be the corresponding small change in the value
of y.
Then y + Δy = f (x + Δx)
⇒ Δy = f (x + Δx) – y
= f (x + Δx) – f (x)
Average change in y per unit change in x
Δy f (x + Δx) − f ( x)
=
Δx Δx
51
Calculus For small values of Δx, this average rate of change in the value of y will approximate
Δy
very closely to the rate of change in the value of y. Hence when Δx → 0, represents
Δx
the rate of change of y with respect to x, i.e. the rate of change of y w. r. t the change
in x.
f (x + Δx) − f ( x)
= lim = f ′ ( x)
Δx → 0 Δx
i.e. f ′ (x) represents the rate measure of f (x) w. r. t x.
Example 7.36
3
A balloon which remains spherical has a diameter (2 x + 3) . Determine the rate
2
of change of volume w. r. t x.
Solution
1 3 3
Radius of the sphere = . (2 x + 3) = (2 x + 3)
2 2 4
3
4 4 ⎡3 ⎤
V = volume = π r 3 = π ⎢ (2 x + 3)⎥
3 3 ⎣4 ⎦
9
= π (2 x + 3)3
16
Rate of change of volume w. r. t x
dV 9
= π . 3 (2 x + 3) 2 . 2
dx 16
27
= π (2 x + 3) 2
8
Example 7.37
A man 2 metres tall walks at a uniform speed of 6 km/h away from a lamp post
6 metres high. Find the rate at which the length of his shadow increases.

Figure 7.27
Solution
Let S be the source of light and BS is the pole. Let HP be the position of the man at
any time t. Let x be the distance of the man from the pole and y be the length of the
shadow.
From similar triangles AHP and ABS, we have
AH HP y 2 1
= ⇒ = =
AB BS y+x 6 3
52
 1 Differential Calculus
⇒ 3y = y + x ⇒ 2 y = x ⇒ y = x
2
dy 1 dx dx
∴ = , we are given = 6 km / h .
dt 2 dt dt
dy 1
∴ = . 6 = 3 km / h
dt 2
7.8.1 Motion in a Straight Line
Suppose a particle P is moving in a straight line. We take a point O on the straight line as
origin and set up a coordinate system on the line, that is, we consider it as the number
line. The directed distance of the particle from the origin is a function of line. Let the
particle P be at the point s at time t. Then s = f (t).
As you already know, the velocity of the particle is the rate of change of its distance
(from the origin). Let the position of the particle be the point (s + Δs) at time t + Δt, so
that s + Δs = f (t + Δt). Then average velocity of the particle between the points s and
Δs
s + Δs is .
Δt
The velocity v (instantaneous velocity) of the particle at the point s (at time t) is the
Δs
limiting value of as Δt → 0 .
Δt
Δs ( s + Δs) − s f (t + Δt) − f (t )
∴ v = lim = lim = lim = f ′ (t )
Δt → 0 Δt Δt → 0 Δt Δt → 0 Δt
Similarly, if v is the velocity of the particle at time t and v + Δv is the velocity at
t + Δt, then average acceleration of the particle between the points s and s + Δs.
Δv (v + Δv) − v f ′ (t + Δt) − f ′ (t )
= = =
Δt Δt Δt
The acceleration a at the point s is the limiting value of the average acceleration of the
particle between the points s and s + Δs.
f ′ (t + Δt) − f ′ (t )
= lim = f ′′ (t )
Δt → 0 Δt
Thus when the distance travelled by a particle (from the origin) is given as a function of
time, say
⎛ ds ⎞ ⎛ d 2s ⎞
s = f (t), then f ′ (t ) = ⎜ ⎟ represents the velocity and f ′′ (t ) = ⎜ 2 ⎟ represents its
⎝ dt ⎠ ⎜ dt ⎟
⎝ ⎠
acceleration at time t.
Example 7.38
A particle is moving along a straight line according to the formula
s = 12t – 3t2, where s is in metres and t is in seconds. Find its velocity and
acceleration.
Solution
We have s = 12t – 3t2. Differentiating with respect to t.
ds
= 12 − 6t
dt
This gives the velocity at time t.
Differentiating once again with respect to t.
d 2s
=−6
dt 2
This gives the acceleration at time t. 53
Calculus We note that the acceleration is the same at all times t.
The negative sign of the acceleration means that the velocity is decreasing.
Sometimes it (negative acceleration) is called retardation.
Example 7.39

A particle is moving in a straight line according to the formula

s = t3 – 9t2 + 3t + 1, where s is measured in metres and t in seconds. When the
velocity is – 24 m/s, find the acceleration.
Solution
We have
s = t 3 − 9t 2 + 3t + 1
ds
The velocity is given by = 3t 2 − 18t + 3 = 3 (t 2 − 6t + 1) .
dt
If this is equal to – 24, then
3 (t 2 − 6t + 1) + 24 = 0

That is, t 2 − 6t + 9 = 0
∴ t = 3.
The acceleration is given by
d 2s
= 3 (2t − 6) = 6 (t − 3)
dt 2
⎛ d 2s ⎞
∴ ⎜ ⎟ =0
⎜ dt 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠t = 3
Thus, when the velocity is – 24 m/s, the acceleration is 0 m/s2.
7.8.2 Motion Under Gravity
One particular instance of motion in a straight line is the motion of a falling body under
gravity. The acceleration of the falling body due to gravity has been calculated as
g = 32 feet/second2 or 9.8 metres/second2, towards the centre of the earth. In this
sub-section, we use differentiation to some practical problems concerning this motion.
Example 7.40

The motion of a stone thrown vertically upwards satisfies an equation of the form s
= at2 + bt when s and t are measured in metres and seconds respectively. If the
maximum height reached by the stone is 4.9 m and if its acceleration is – 9.8 m/s2,
find its height after half a second.
Solution
ds
We have s = at2 + bt. Differentiating = 2at + b .
dt
Differentiating once again,
d 2s
= 2a
dt 2
It is given that the acceleration is – 9.8 m/s2.
∴ 2a = − 9.8
or a = − 4.9
54
 ds Differential Calculus
∴ = b − 9.8t
dt
ds b
becomes zero when t = and negative for greater values of t. (If b were
dt 9.8
negative, there would be no upward motion at all). The maximum height reached is
given by
b
s = at 2 + bt with t = .
9.8
b2 b2 b2 ⎛ 1 ⎞ b2
This is, when s = − 4.9 + = ⎜1 − ⎟ =
(9.8) 2 9.8 9.8 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 19.6

b2
From the given data = 4.9
19.6
∴ b 2 = 4.9 × 19.6
∴ b = 9.8 (as already mentioned, b cannot be negative)
∴ The equation of motion of the stone becomes s = 4.9t2 + 9.8t.
1 4.9 9.8 4.9
When t= ,s=− + =− + 4.9
2 4 2 4
⎛ 1 ⎞ 14.7
= 4.9 ⎜1 − ⎟ = = 3.675
⎝ 4⎠ 4
The stone is at a height of 3.675 m after half a second.

7.9 INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS

Definition 11
Let I be an open interval contained in the domain of a real function f. f is called an
increasing (decreasing) function on I if whenever x1 < x2 in I it is true that
f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 ) [ f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 )] . Symbolically, it is written as f (x) is an increasing
function on I if x1 < x2 in I ⇒ f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 ) and f (x) is a decreasing function on
I if x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 ) .

(a) (b)
Figure 7.28
The graph in Figure 7.28(a) is the graph of an increasing function f (x) in
(a, b) and the graph in Figure 7.28(b) is the graph of a decreasing function
f (x) in (a, b).
Remark
It is possible that a function f is neither increasing nor decreasing on a given
interval I. The function f (x) in Figure 7.29 is neither increasing nor decreasing in
(a, b).
55
Calculus

Figure 7.29
If x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) [or f (x1 ) > f (x2 )] , then f is said to be strictly
increasing (or decreasing).
Definition 12
A function f is said to be increasing at a point x0 if there is an interval
I = (x0 − h, x0 + h) containing x0 such that for x1, x2 ∈ I.
x0 < x2 ⇒ f (x0 ) ≤ f (x2 )
and x1 < x0 ⇒ f (x1 ) ≤ f (x0 )
Definition 13
A function f is said to be decreasing at a point xo if there is an interval
I = (x0 − h, x0 + h) containing x0 such that for x1, x2 ∈ I.
x0 < x2 ⇒ f (x0 ) ≥ f (x2 )
and x1 < x0 ⇒ f (x1 ) ≥ f (x0 )
Example 7.41
Prove that the function f (x) = 3x + 5 is an increasing function.
Solution
Let x1 , x2 ∈ R such that x1 < x2, i.e. x1 − x2 < 0 then
f (x1 ) − f (x2 ) = (3 x1 + 5) − (3 x2 + 5)
= 3 ( x1 − x2 ) < 0
∴ f (x1 ) < f (x2 )
i.e. f (x) is an increasing function.
Note that f (x) is a strictly increasing function.
Example 7.42
f (x) = x2 is a strictly decreasing function in I = (− ∞, 0).
Solution
Let x1 , x2 ∈ I s. t x1 < x2. Multiplying by x1 ∈ I, i.e. x1 is negative then we have
x12 > x1 x2 .

Similarly x1 x2 > x22 (Multiplying x1 < x2 by x2)

i.e. x12 > x22

i.e. f (x1 ) > f (x2 )
∴ f is a strictly decreasing function.
Theorem 8
A differentiable real function f (x) is strictly increasing on an open interval I if
f ′ ( x ) > 0 for all x in I.
56
Explanation Differential Calculus

If f ′ (x) is positive then f (x + h) − f (x) and h have the same sign for small
values of h. When h is +ve, then x + h > x ⇒ f (x + h) > f ( x ) and when h is
– ve, then x + h < x ⇒ f (x + h) < f ( x) . This means f (x) is strictly increasing
function as shown in Figure 7.30.

Figure 7.30
On similar lines, we have that a differentiable real function is strictly decreasing on
an interval I if f ′ (x ) < 0 for all x in I.
Remark
When the interval is not mentioned, we must prove it for its domain, i.e. R.
Example 7.43
⎛ π⎞
Prove that the function sin x is strictly increasing in the interval ⎜ 0, ⎟ and strictly
⎝ 2⎠
⎛π ⎞
decreasing in the interval ⎜ , π ⎟ .
⎝2 ⎠
Solution
Let f (x) = sin x
Then f ′ (x) = cos x
⎛ π⎞ ⎛π ⎞
We know that cos x is +ve in ⎜ 0, ⎟ and –ve in ⎜ , π ⎟ .
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
⎛ π⎞ ⎛π ⎞
∴ sin x is strictly increasing in ⎜ 0, ⎟ and strictly decreasing in ⎜ , π ⎟ .
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
Example 7.44
Find the intervals in which the function f ( x ) = 2 x 3 − 3 x 2 − 36 x + 7 is
(a) strictly increasing (b) strictly decreasing.
Solution
f ( x ) = 2 x 3 − 3 x 2 − 36 x + 7

f ′ ( x) = 6 x 2 − 6 x − 36 = 6 ( x 2 − x − 6)
= 6 ( x − 3) ( x + 2)
∴ f′ (x) = 0 if x = 3 or x = − 2
The points x = − 2 and x = 3 divide the real line in the disjoint intervals.
I1 = ( − ∞, − 2), I 2 = ( − 2, 3) and I 3 = (3, ∞ )
In I1 , f ′ ( x) is +ve.
In I 2 , f ′ ( x) is –ve.
In I 3 , f ( x) is +ve. 57
Calculus Hence f (x) is strictly increasing in I1 and I3 and strictly decreasing in I2.
SAQ 10
1
(a) Prove that the function x + is strictly increasing on (− 1, 1).
x
⎛ π⎞
(b) Which of the functions are strictly decreasing on ⎜ 0, ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
(i) cos x,
(ii) tan x.

7.10 MAXIMA AND MINIMA

We shall study how to locate the points where a differentiable function has its maximum
or minimum.
We shall also consider some practical problems involving the theory of maximum and
minimum of a function.
Definition 14
A function f has a maximum at a point x = c, if for all x in a sufficiently small
neighbourhood of c,
f (x ) ≤ f (c)
Definition 15
A function f has a minimum at a point x = d, if for all x in a sufficiently small
neighbourhood of d,
f (x ) ≥ f (d)
Example 7.45

In Figure 7.31, the graph of some function f in the interval [a, b] is shown.
Let A be the point x = c. As you see, at this point f has a maximum because at x = c
the value f (c) of the function (the ordinate AP) is greater than the value of the
function f (x) for all values of x in a small neighbourhood of A.

Figure 7.31
The dotted line near the ordinate AP indicates that all other ordinates at points near
58 to A are smaller than AP.
 Similarly the point B, where x = d, the function f has a minimum because in the Differential Calculus
neighbourhood of x = d the value of the function is greater than f (d). The ordinate
BQ is smaller than any other ordinates at points in a small neighbourhood of B.
This is indicated by the dotted lines.
From the figure, it is clear that A is not the only point where there is a maximum
and B is not the only point where there is a minimum. The function has maximum
at A1, A2 and it has minimum at B1, B2. Also note that the value of the function at
B B

A1 (which is a maximum) is less than the value of the function at B (which is a

minimum).
Thus there can be several maxima and minima in an interval.
In ordinary language, the expression maximum and minimum are used to mean the
greatest value and the least value respectively. For us the meaning of maximum (or
minimum) is not the same. All we need for a function f to have a maximum at
x = c is that f at x = c should be greater than all other values of f in some small
neighbourhood of x = c.
Note that the greatest value is automatically a maximum but a maximum need not
be the greatest value of the function in its domain. Similarly, a minimum is not
necessarily the smallest value of the function in its domain.
In order to distinguish from the greatest value, the maximum is sometimes called a
relative or local maximum and the greatest value is called absolute or global
maximum. Similarly, a minimum is called relative or local minimum and the least
value is called the absolute or global minimum. The term extremum (plural
extrema) or extreme value is used to mean both maximum and minimum.
Example 7.46

Let f ( x) = x 2 , − 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 . The graph of f is a parabola (Figure 7.32). Since

f (x) ≥ 0 for all x in − 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 and f (0) = 0 , we conclude that f has a minimum
at x = 0. Since this is the only minimum, x = 0 is the absolute minimum. The
function has maxima at the two end points x = − 1 and x = 2. At the point x = 2,
there is an absolute maximum.

Figure 7.32

7.10.1 Necessary Condition for a Maximum and Minimum

We give a method for finding possible points of the maxima and minima of a function.
We have the following theorem which we state without proof.
Theorem 9
If f is differentiable at x = x1 and if f has a maximum or a minimum at
x = x1 then f ′ ( x1 ) = 0 .

Note

59
Calculus The theorem does not say that if f ′ ( x1 ) = 0 then f has a maximum or minimum at
x = x1. In fact, even f ′ ( x1 ) = 0 , there may not be any maximum or minimum as
the following example will show.
Example 7.47

Let f ( x) = x 3

Then f ′ ( x) = 3 x 2 and f ′ (0) = 0

But f (x) < 0 if x < 0 and f (x) > 0 if x > 0.

Therefore, we cannot find any neighbourhood of x = 0 where
f (0) ≥ f ( x) or f (0) ≤ f ( x)

Hence x = 0 is neither a maximum nor a minimum even though f ′ (0) = 0. Thus

f ′ ( x1 ) = 0 is a necessary condition for f to have a maximum or a minimum at
x = x1 but it is not sufficient.
dy
We know from Section 7.7 that if = 0 at a point x = x1 then the tangent to the
dx
curve y = f (x) is parallel to the x-axis. We also know that if f has a maximum or a
minimum at a point x = x1 and if f ′ ( x1 ) exists, then f ′ ( x1 ) = 0 . Combining these
two results, we get the following obvious geometric fact :
If f is differentiable at a point x = x1 and if f has a maximum or a minimum at
x = x1, then the tangent to the curve y = f (x) at x = x1 is parallel to the x-axis.

7.10.2 Rule for Finding Maxima and Minima

The derivative f ′ (x) gives us the points of local minima or points of local maxima. How
do we distinguish whether the point x0 satisfying f ′ ( x) = 0 is a point of local maximum
or a point of local minima? We have seen that if x0 is a point of local maximum then
f ′ ( x) > 0 at a nearby point to the left of x0 and < 0 at a nearby point to the right of x0.
On the other hand, if x0 is a point of local minimum, then f ′ ( x ) < 0 at a nearby point of
the left of x0 and > 0 at a nearby point to the right of x0. Thus, we have the following
working rule for finding the points of local maxima or local minima.
Theorem 10 : First Derivative Test
Let f (x) be a differentiable function on I. Then
(a) x0 is a point of local maximum of f (x) if
(i) f ′ ( x0 ) = 0

(ii) f ′ ( x 0 ) > 0 at every point close to the left of x0 and f ′ ( x 0 ) < 0 at

every point close to the right of x0.
(b) x0 is a point of local minimum of f (x) if
(i) f ′ ( x0 ) = 0

(ii) f ′ ( x 0 ) < 0 at every point close to the left of x0 and f ′ ( x 0 ) > 0 at

every point close to the right of x0.
(c) If f ′ ( x 0 ) = 0 but f ′ ( x ) does not change sign as x increases through
x0, then x0 is neither a point of local maxima nor local minima. Such a
point is called the point of inflection.

60
The First Derivative Test helps us in finding the points of local maximum or local Differential Calculus
minimum. But it takes time to verify how f ′ (x) is changing sign as x passes through the
points given by f ′ ( x) = 0 . We have another test known as the second derivative test
which enables us to find the points of local maxima or local minima.
Consider a point x0 such that f ′ ( x0 ) = 0 and f ′′ ( x0 ) < 0 . It being assumed that the
second derivative exists at x0. This suggests that f ′ is strictly decreasing at x0 as its
derivative is negative. Therefore f ′ (x) is positive to the left of x0 and negative to the
right of x0 in a small interval around x0. This in turn implies that f (x) is strictly increasing
upto x0 and then decreasing in this small interval, i.e. x0 is a point of local maximum.

Figure 7.33
Thus if f ′ ( x0 ) = 0 and f ′′ ( x0 ) < 0 , x0 is a point of local maximum.
Similarly, if f ′ ( x0 ) = 0 and f ′′ ( x0 ) > 0 , x0 is a point of local minimum.
Theorem 11 : Second Derivative Test
Let f (x) be a differentiable function on an interval I and x0 ∈ I and f ′′ ( x ) be
continuous at x0. Then
x0 is a point of local maximum if both f ′ ( x 0 ) = 0 and f ′′ ( x 0 ) < 0 .
x0 is a point of local minimum if both f ′ ( x 0 ) = 0 and f ′′ ( x 0 ) > 0 .
So we have the following rule for finding points of local maximum or local minimum.
Step 1
Find all the points where f ′ is zero.
Step 2
At each of these points find the sign of f ′′.
Step 3
If f ′′ is –ve, the point is a point of local maximum. If f ′′ is +ve, then the point is a
point of local minimum.
Note : This test fails if f ′′ ( x0 ) is also zero. In that case, we go back to the first
derivative test.
Example 7.48

Find the maximum and minimum of f ( x ) = x 2 − x with the help of the first
derivative test.
Solution
To solve this problem, we follow the steps discussed above.
Step 1
We observe that f is differentiable at all points.
Step 2 61
Calculus 1
f ′ ( x) = 2 x − 1, f ′ ( x) = 0 gives x =
2
Step 3
1
So the only critical point is x = .
2
1
Hence, if f has any maximum or minimum, it must be at x = .
2
Step 4
1
We test the change of sign of f ′′ (x ) while crossing x = from left to
2
⎛ 1⎞
right. We have f ′ ( x) = 2 x − 1 = 2 ⎜ x − ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
1
(i) f ′ ( x) < 0 if x < , and
2
1
(ii) f ′ ( x) > 0 if x > .
2
1
Therefore, f has a minimum at x = .
2
Example 7.49

Investigate the maximum and minimum of the function f (x) = x 5 − 5 x 4 + 5 x 3 − 1

with the help of the first derivative test.
Solution
(i) The function is differentiable at all points.
(ii) f ′ (x) = 5 x 4 − 20 x 3 + 15 x 2

= 5 x 2 ( x 2 − 4 x + 3)

= 5 x 2 ( x − 3) ( x − 1)
(iii) The critical points are given by f ′ ( x ) = 0 .

or 5 x 2 ( x − 1) ( x − 3) = 0
or x = 0, x = 1, x = 3
(iv) We now test the critical points,
The critical point x = 0.
When x < 0, we have
x 2 > 0, x − 1 < 0 and x − 3 < 0

Hence f ′ ( x) = 5 x 2 ( x − 1) ( x − 3) > 0 . . . (1)

(+) (−) (−)

When x crosses over x = 0 but remains very near x = 0, we have x > 0, x < 1,
and x2 > 0, x – 1 < 0 and x – 3 < 0.

So f ′ ( x) = 5 x 2 ( x − 1) ( x − 3) > 0 . . . . (2)

62
 From Eqs. (1) and (2), we see that f ′′ (x ) remains positive when x goes Differential Calculus

from left to the right of the critical point x = 0 and does not change its sign.
Hence, at x = 0, the function has neither a maximum or minimum. The
function increases at x = 0.
Critical point x = 1.

When x < 1, x 2 > 0, x − 1 < 0, x − 3 < 0

Hence f ′ ( x) = 5 x 2 ( x − 1) ( x − 3) > 0 . . . (3)

(+) (−) (−)

When x crosses over x = 1 but remains very near x = 1, we have

x 2 > 0, x − 1 > 0, x − 3 < 0

so that f ′ ( x) = x 2 ( x − 1) ( x − 3) < 0 . . . (4)

Thus, from Eqs. (3) and (4), f ′′ (x ) changes its sign from positive to
negative. Hence, at x = 1 there is a maximum.
Similarly, it can be seen that x = 3, the function has a minimum.
Example 7.50

Find the points of maximum and minimum for the function of Example 7.49 by
using second derivative test.
Solution
We have
f (x) = x 5 − 5 x 4 + 5 x 3 − 1

f ′ (x) = 5 x 4 − 20 x 3 + 15 x 2

= 5 x 2 ( x − 1) ( x − 3)
The critical points are x = 0, x = 1, x = 3.
f ′′ (x) = 20 x 3 − 60 x 2 + 30 x
x = 1, f ′′ (1) = 20 − 60 + 30 = − 10 < 0
Therefore, at x = 1, the function f has a maximum.
At x = 3, f ′′ (3) = 20.33 − 60.32 + 30.3 = 540 − 540 + 90 = 90 > 0
Therefore, at x = 3, the function f has a minimum. At x = 0, f′′ (0) = 0. (However, by
observing the change of sign of f ′ (x) at x = 0 , we have seen in Example 1.49 that
at x = 0, there is neither a maximum nor a minimum.)
7.10.3 Greatest and Least Values of a Function in a Closed Interval
Let f be continuous in a closed interval [a, b]. Then we know that f always has a greatest
value and a least value in this interval [a, b]. The greatest (or least) value may be attained
either at an interior point of the interval or at the end points x = a (or x = b) of the
interval.
It is easy to verify that
(i) f has a maximum at x = a if f ′ (a + ) < 0 .
(ii) f has a minimum at x = a if f ′ (a + ) > 0 .
(iii) f has a minimum at x = b if f ′ (b −) < 0 .
(iv) f has a maximum at x = b if f ′ (b −) > 0 .
63
Calculus Therefore, if we are required to find the greatest (or least) value of a continuous function
in a closed interval [a, b], we should consider the following steps :
(i) Find all the maxima (or minima) in the open interval a < x < b. To do this
we follow the procedure described in Sub-section 7.10.2. Find the values of
the function at the maximum (or minimum) points so obtained.
(ii) Find the value f (a) and f (b) of the function at the end points x = a and x = b
of the interval [a, b].
(iii) Now pick the greatest (or least) of all the values of the function so obtained.
This value will be the greatest value (or the least value) of the function in
the closed interval [a, b].
Example 7.51

Determine the greatest and the least value of the function

f (x) = x 5 − 5 x 4 + 5 x 3 − 1
in the interval [0. 2].
Solution
In Example 7.50, we saw that the critical points of this function are
x = 0, x = 1 and x = 3
Since x = 3 is outside the given interval [0, 2] and x = 0 is an end point, thus the
only critical point in the open interval 0 < x < 2 is at x = 1.
Now f (1) = 1 – 5 + 5 – 1 = 0.
The values of the function at the end points are
f (0) = − 1

f ( 2) = 25 − 5.2 4 + 5.23 − 1
= 32 − 80 + 40 − 1

=−9
Thus the greatest value of f (x) in [0. 2] is 0 and the least value is – 9.
7.10.4 Maxima and Minima : Problems
The theory of maxima and minima developed in the previous sections provides a
powerful tool for solving problems that require minimizing or maximizing certain
functions. In this section, we illustrate how this is done by solving some problems. We
shall summarise the technique at the end.
Example 7.52

Find two positive numbers such that their sum is 10 and their product is as large as
possible.
Solution
Let one of the numbers be x. Then the other number must be 10 – x. The product of
the two numbers is

f (x) = x (10 − x) = 10 x − x 2 . . . (1)

Since both the numbers are positive, we have
x > 0 and 10 – x > 0 or x < 10.
We have to choose x in such a way that f (x) is maximum.
64
 From Eq. (1), we find Differential Calculus

f ′ (x) = 10 − 2 x = 2 (5 − x)

Therefore f ′ (x) = 0 at x = 5

Now f ′ (x) > 0 if x < 5

and f ′ (x) < 0 if x > 5

Hence f (x) has a maximum at x = 5.

Hence the two required numbers are x = 5 and 10 – x = 5.
Example 7.53

A cylindrical container is to be made with capacity 1000 cubic metre. The material
for the side costs Rs. 200/- per square metre and for the ends Rs. 150/- per square
metre. Find the radius of the base so that the cost of material for making the
container is least.
Solution
Let the cylinder be of radius r and height h,
Its volume is

V = π r 2 h = 1000 (given)

1000
or h= . . . (1)
πr2

The area of the side is

A1 = 2 π r h

Cost of the material for side = Rs. 200. A1 = 2 π r h . 200 . . . (2)

Area of top end = π r 2

Area of bottom end = π r 2

So that sum of the areas of the two ends = 2π r 2

Cost of material of the two ends = 2π r 2 . 150 . . . (3)

Hence total cost [adding Eqs. (2) and (3)]

C = 2π r 2 . 150 + 2π r h . 200

= 300 π r 2 + 400 π r h

1000
= 300 π r 2 + 400 π r .
π r2

(Substituting the value of h from Eq. (1))

400000
= 300 π r 2 +
r
dC 400000
Hence = 600 π r −
dr r2
= 0 (when C is minimum)
65
Calculus 400000 2000
This gives r3 = =
600 π 3π
r = 5.96
So radius of the base is 5.96 cm. . . . (4)
d 2C 800000
Note that 2
= 600 π + > 0 for the value of r. Hence the cost C is
dr r3
minimum.
Example 7.54

The cost of running an engine is proportional to the square of its speed and is
Rs. 48/- per hour for a speed of 16 m.p.h. Other expenses amount to
Rs. 300/- per hour. What is the most economical speed?
Solution
Let v km.p.h be the speed. If C is the cost of running the engine then C = Kv2,
where K is a constant. Now C = 48 when v = 16. Therefore
C 48 3
K= = =
v 2 16 × 16 16

⎛ 3 ⎞
The running cost per hour is = ⎜ 300 + v 2 ⎟ .
⎝ 16 ⎠
s
If the distance travelled is s km, then number of hours the engine run is .
v
Hence the total cost of running is
s⎛ 3 2⎞
y= ⎜ 300 + v ⎟ .
v⎝ 16 ⎠
For the most economical speed, we must have
dy d2y
= 0 and > 0.
dv dv 2
dy ⎛ 300 3 ⎞
Now = s ⎜− 2 + ⎟ = 0
dv ⎝ v 16 ⎠
gives v = 40
d2y 600 s
Again 2
= > 0 for v = 40 .
dv v3
Hence, the most economical speed is 40 km.p.h.
SAQ 11
(a) Find the maximum and minimum of
4
(i) x+ .
x+2

⎡ 3⎤
(ii) x 3 − 3 x + 3 on the interval ⎢− 3, .
⎣ 2 ⎥⎦

(iii) y = ( x − 1) ( x − 2) 2 .
π
(b) Show that f (x) = sin x (1 + cos x) has a maximum at x = .
3
66
 (c) Find the extreme values of f (x) = sin 2x for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π. Differential Calculus

(d) Show that the maximum rectangle that can be inscribed in a circle is a
square.
(e) Show that of all the rectangles of given area the square has the smallest
perimeter.

7.11 MEAN-VALUE THEOREMS

We shall now discuss about some fundamental theorems of differential calculus. They
are of central importance in the development and applications of calculus. The theorem
known as Rolle’s theorem is basic and is used to prove most of the results in this unit.
The theorems of this unit are very useful in understanding and deriving many results of
this unit.
7.11.1 Rolle’s Theorem
Consider the function sin x. It takes the value zero at the points 0, ± π, ± 2π, . . . Its
π 3π
derivative is cos x which vanishes at the points ± , ± , . . . We note that between any
2 2
two points where sin x vanishes, there is a point where its derivative vanishes.
Consider another function x 2 − 4 x + 3 . This vanishes at the points x = 1 and x = 3. The
derivative of this function is 2x – 4 which vanishes at x = 2. Hence, again x = 2 is a point
lying in between 1 and 3.
In the above two examples, we have observed that between any two points where a
function vanishes, there is a point where its derivative is also zero. Rolles theorem asserts
that the observed result is a general truth which is as follows :
Rolle’s Theorem
Let f be a real function defined in a closed interval [a, b] such that
(i) f (a) = f (b)
(ii) f is continuous in the closed interval [a, b].
(iii) f is differentiable in the open interval (a, b),
then there is a point c ∈ (a, b) such that f ′ (c) = 0.
The conclusion of Rolle’s theorem also holds true if we replace the condition
f (a) = f (b) by the condition f (a) = f (b) = 0 keeping other conditions the same.
Rolle’s theorem has a very simple geometrical interpretation. If the graph of a
function is an unbroken curve intersecting the x-axis at the points a and b and if the
curve has a tangent at every point except, possibly, at the end points, then there
must be at least one point (c, f (c)) on the curve different from the end points at
which the tangent is parallel to the x-axis [Figures 7.34(a) and (b)].

(a) (b)
Figure 7.34 67
Calculus Example 7.55

The polynomial function f (x) = x 3 − x is continuous and differentiable for all

real x. If we take a = − 1 and b = 1, we have f ( − 1) = 0 = f (1) . Therefore, the
conditions of Rolle’s theorem are satisfied on [− 1, 1]. Thus, there must be at least
a number c such that – 1 < c < 1 and f ′ (c) = 3c 2 − 1 = 0 . In fact we have two
values

⎛1⎞
c = ± ⎜ ⎟ , where f ′ (c) = 0
⎝3⎠
Both the roots are between – 1 and 1.
Example 7.56

The function

⎧ x, if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
y=⎨
⎩ 0, if x = 1
dy
is zero at x = 0 and x = 1 and exists on the open interval (0, 1). But the
dx
function is not continuous on [0, 1]. The end point x = 1 is a point of discontinuity.
Therefore, Rolle’s theorem is not applicable on the interval [0, 1]. You can observe
dy ⎛ dy ⎞
that is different from zero ⎜ = 1⎟ on (0, 1).
dx ⎝ dx ⎠
SAQ 12
(a) Show that the conical tent of given capacity will require the least amount of
canvas if its height is 2 times its base radius.
(b) An open storage bin with square base and vertical sides is to be constructed
from a given amount of material. Determine its dimensions if its volume is
to be maximum neglecting the thickness of material and waste in
constructing it.
(c) Find the height of a right cylinder with greatest lateral surface area that may
be inscribed in a given sphere of radius R.

(d) Given a point on the axis of the parabola y 2 = 2 px at a distance a from the
vertex, find the abscissa of the point of the curve closest to it.
(e) Can Rolle’s theorem be applied to each of the following functions? Find ‘c’
in case it can be applied.

(i) f (x) = sin 2 x on the interval [0, π].

(ii) f (x) = x 2 + 4 on [− 2, 2].

⎡ π⎤
(iii) f (x) = sin x + cos x on ⎢0, ⎥ .
⎣ 2⎦

(iv) f (x) = x 3 − 2 x on [0, 1].

68
7.11.2 Lagrange’s Mean-Value Theorem Differential Calculus

Let us consider a function f (x) which satisfies all the conditions of Rolle’s theorem
except the condition, f (a) = f (b). Then the conclusion of the theorem need not hold true.
That is, there need not be a point (c, f (c)) on the graph where the tangent is parallel to the
x-axis. However, there appears to be a point where the tangent is parallel to the chord that
joins the points (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)) of the graph y = f (x). A generalization of Rolle’s
theorem, called the Mean-value Theorem, says that this will always happen, if the curve y
= f (x) is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b).

Figure 7.35
Theorem 12 : The Mean Value Theorem
Let f be a real function defined in a closed interval [a, b] such that
(i) f is continuous on [a, b]
(ii) f is differentiable on (a, b).
then there exists at least one point c ∈ (a, b) such that
f (b) − f (a )
f ′ (c ) =
b−a

Example 7.57

Let y = x 3 and − 2 ≤ x ≤ 2 .
Find a number c such that the tangent to the curve at the point P : (c, f (c)) is
parallel to the chord joining A : (−2, − 8) and B : (2, 8).
Solution

We see that y = x 3 satisfies the conditions of Mean-value theorem.

dy
The slope of the tangent to y = x 3 is = 3x 2 .
dx
The slope of AB is
f (2) − f ( − 2) 8 + 8
= =4
2 − (− 2) 4
By Mean-value theorem we have a point ‘c’ such that – 2 < c < 2 and
2
f ′ (c) = 3c 2 = 4 which implies that c = ± . There are two values of c between
3
– 2 and 2 where the tangent to the curve y = x 3 is parallel to the chord AB.
Example 7.58 69
Calculus 2
Check whether Mean value theorem is applicable to the function y = 1 − x3 over
the interval [− 1, 1].

Figure 7.36
Solution
The function is continuous in [– 1, 1].
1
2 −
The derivative y ′ (x) = − x 3 exists at all non-zero points of [– 1, 1] and does
3
not exist at x = 0. Moreover, the slope of AB is
f (1) − f ( − 1)
=0
1+1
1
2 −
and y ′ (c) = − (c) 3 ≠ 0 for any finite c.
3
Mean value theorem does not hold in this case because the derivative f ′ (x) fails to
exist at a point of (– 1, 1), y = f (x) does not have a tangent at x = 0.
SAQ 13
Verify the condition of mean value theorem in the following examples. In each
case, find c in the interval as stated by the mean value theorem
⎡ π 5π ⎤
(i) sin x on ⎢ , ⎥
⎣2 2 ⎦
(ii) x 3 − 2 x 2 − x + 3 on [0, 1] .

7.11.3 Cauchy’s Mean-value Theorem

This theorem is also called generlised mean-value theorem for derivatives and is useful in
evaluating indeterminate forms.
Theorem 13
If f (x) and g (x) are continuous functions over [a, b] and differentiable over
(a, b) and for x ∈ (a, b), g′ (x) ≠ 0 then there exists a number c such that
a < c < b.

70
 f ′ (c ) f (b ) − f (a ) Differential Calculus
and =
g ′ (c ) g (b) − g (a )
Proof
First of all we shall show that
g (a) ≠ g (b) if g ′ (x) ≠ 0 for x ∈ ( a, b) .
If we suppose g (a) = g (b) then by Rolle’s theorem we shall have at least one point
c ∈ (a, b) such that g′ (c) = 0. But it cannot happen since g′ (x) ≠ 0 for every x ∈
(a, b). Thus g (a) ≠ g (b).
We next consider the function
f (b) − f (a)
h ( x) = f ( x) − f (a) − [ g ( x) − g (a)] .
g (b) − g (a)
You can check that h (x) satisfies all the conditions of Rolle’s theorem. Therefore,
there exists a point c ∈ (a, b) such that h′ (c) = 0.
f (b) − f (a)
⇒ 0 = f ′ (c) − g ′ (c )
g (b) − g (a)

f ′ (c) f (b) − f (a)

⇒ =
g ′ (c) g (b) − g (a)
You can note the following :
(i) If g (x) = x, then Cauchy’s theorem reduces to Lagrange’s theorem.
(ii) We cannot prove the Cauchy’s theorem by applying Lagrange’s theorem to
f (b) − f (a)
the numerator and denominator of the fraction separately
g (b) − g (a)
because by Lagrange’s theorem we shall get
f (b) − f (a)
f (b) − f (a) b−a f ′ (c1)
= =
g (b) − g (a) g (b) − g (a) g ′ (c2 )
b−a
where a < c1 < b and a < c2 < b and c1 need not be equal to c2. This result is
not that of Cauchy.
Example 7.59
x2
Do the functions f (x) = ex and g (x) = satisfy the conditions of Cauchy’s
1 + x2
theorem in the interval [− 3, 3]?
Solution
One of the conditions of the Cauchy’s theorem is g ′ (x) ≠ 0 for x ∈ ( a, b) . Here
x2
g (x) = , a = − 3 and b = 3 . We note that g (− 3) = g (3), g (x) is continuous
1 + x2
over [− 3, 3] and g ′ (x) exists over (− 3, 3). Therefore, by Rolle’s theorem there is
a number c such that – 3 < c < 3 and g ′ (x) = 0 and the condition g ′ (x) ≠ 0 for
x ∈ (− 3, 3) does not hold. Cauchy’s theorem is not applicable here.
Example 7.60
Use Caychy’s theorem to show that 1 + x < ex.
71
Calculus Solution

Let f (x) = e x , g ( x) = 1 + x . Then f ′ (x) = e x and g ′ ( x) = 1 . The functions f (x)

and g (x) satisfy the conditions of Cauchy’s theorem on the interval [0, x] for any
finite x. Therefore, there exists a point c such that 0 < c < x and
f ′ (c) f (x) − f (0) ex − 1 ex − 1
= , i.e. e c = or e c =
g ′ (c) g (x) − g (0) 1+ x −1 x

ex − 1
Since ec > 1 for c > 0 we get > 1 , implying ex > 1 + x.
x
SAQ 14
Find all values of c that satisfy the conclusion of the Cauchy’s mean-value
theorem for the functions and intervals given, if applicable.
x3 − x 2
(i) f (x) = , g (x) = x 2 , a = 0 and b = 3 .
2

(ii) f (x) = x1 / 2 , g (x) = x 2 , a, b ∈ R .

7.11.4 Taylor’s Theorem

An important problem of applied mathematics is to approximate a given function by
means of a suitable polynomial function, because polynomials are comparatively easy to
handle. For example, you can easily find the approximate numerical value of a function
by expanding it into a power series and evaluating the first few terms. In fact this is
sometimes the only method of computing the function. It is also possible to estimate the
error involved by such an approximation, so that you can improve the result by adding
more and more terms of the power series until the approximation is satisfactory. The
general method for expanding functions into power series is by means of Taylor’s
formula. We formulate thee problem as follows. We assume that the function y = f (x) has
derivative up to (n + 1)th order, inclusive, in some neighbourhood of the point x = a. We
shall find a polynomial Pn (x) of degree ≤ n such that
dpn ( x)
Pn (a ) = f (a), x=a = f ′ (a) . . .
dx

d n Pn ( x)
n x=a = f (n) (a )
dx
It is reasonable to accept that such a polynomial, in some sense, is close to the
function f (x).

Let, Pn ( x) = c0 + c1 ( x − a ) + c2 ( x − a ) 2 + . . . + cn ( x − a ) n .
We shall determine the constants c0, c1, c2, . . . cn so that the conditions (5) will be
satisfied.

72 Then we obtain
 f ( a ) = Pn ( a ) = c0 Differential Calculus

dPn ( x)
f ′ (a) = x=a = c1
dx
d 2 Pn ( x)
f ′′ (a) = x=a = 2 .1 c 2
dx 2
d n Pn ( x)
f (n) = x=a = n . ( n − 1) . . . 2.1 cn
dx n
f ′ (a) f ′′ (a ) f (n) (a )
Therefore, c0 = f (a ), c1 = , c2 = , cn =
1! 2! n!

( x − a) ( x − a) 2 ( x − a ) n f n (a)
and Pn ( x) = f (a ) + f ′ (a) + f ′′ (a ) + . . . + . . . (1)
1! 2! n!
Let Rn (x) be the difference of values of the function f (x) and the corresponding
polynomial constructed Pn (x) (Figure 7.37).

Figure 7.37

For those value of x for which Rn (x) is small, Pn (x) is a good approximation for f (x).
Here Rn (x) is called remainder. We shall try now to find a suitable form of Rn (x) in
terms of some higher order derivative of f (x) so that we can estimate the error involved
in the polymial approximation of a function. The result is given in the following theorem
which is called Taylor’s Formula with a remainder.
Theorem 14 : Taylor’s Theorem with Remainder

If f ( x ), f ′ ( x ), f ′′ ( x ), . . . , f n ( x ) are continuous on the closed interval [a, b]

and if f n + 1 ( x ) exists in the open interval (a, b) then there exists a point c,
a < c < b such that
(b − a ) 2
f (b ) = f (a ) + (b − a ) f ′ (a ) + f ′′ (a ) + . . .
2!

(b − a ) ( n ) (b − a )( n + 1) ( n + 1)
+ f (a ) + f (c ) . . . (2)
n! ( n + 1) !
Proof
We construct a polynomial Pn (x) of degree ≤ n such that
d dn
P(n) (a) = f (a), Pn ( x) x=a = f ′ (a) . . . n
Pn ( x) x=a = f (n) (a).
dx dx
As you have already seen, such a polynomial is Eq. (1), i.e.
73
Calculus ( x − a) 2 ( x − a) n n
Pn ( x) = f (a ) + ( x − a ) f ′ (a ) + f ′′ (a ) + . . . + f (a ).
2! n!
The remainder Rn (x) is defined by Rn (x) = f (x) – Pn (x).
Let us write it in the form
( x − a) n +1
Rn ( x) = K ( x).
(n + 1)!
The function K (x) is to be determined.
If x = b, we can write
(b − a ) 2
f (b) = f ( a ) + (b − a ) f ′ (a ) + f ′′ (a ) + . . . +
2!

(b − a ) n (n) (b − a ) n + 1
f (a) + K (b). . . . (3)
n! (n + 1)!
We now consider the auxiliary function
(b − x ) 2
Q ( x) = f (b) − f ( x) − (b − x) f ′ ( x) − f ′′ ( x) . . .
2!

(b − x) n (n) (b − x ) n + 1
− f ( x) − K (b).
n! (n + 1)!
In constructing Q (x) we have taken the difference of f (b) and the right side
expression of Eq. (3) by replacing a by x. You can check that Q (x) satisfies the
conditions of Rolle’s theorem on [a, b]. Therefore, there exists at least a number
c ∈ (a, b) such that Q′ (c) = 0.
2(b − x)
Since Q′ ( x) = − f ′ ( x) + f ′ ( x) − (b − x) f ′′ ( x) + f ′′ ( x) . . . +
2!

(b − x) n (n + 1) ( n + 1) (b − x ) n
... − f ( x) + K (b).
n! n + 1!

(b − c) n (n + 1) (b − c) n
We get Q ′ (c ) = 0 = − f (c ) + K (b)
n! n!

Therefore K (b) = f (n + 1) (c ),

(b − a ) 2
and we get f (b) = f (a ) + (b − a ) f ′ (a ) + f ′′ (a ) + . . .
2!

(b − a ) n (n) (b − a ) n + 1 n + 1
+ f (a) + f (c )
n! (n + 1) !
for some c between a and b.
The theorem is proved.
Cor. 1
It follows from the Taylor’s theorem that :
If f (x) has derivatives of all orders in a neighbourhood I of the point x = a, then for
each positive integer n and for each x ∈ I
( x − a) 2
f ( x) = f (a ) + ( x − a ) f ′ (a ) + f ′′ (a ) + . . . +
2!
74
 ( x − a ) n (n) ( x − a ) n + 1 (n + 1) Differential Calculus
f (a) + f (c ) . . . (4)
n! (n + 1)!

for some c between a and x.

We can write c = a + θ (x – a) where 0 < θ < 1.
The above Eq. (4) is called Taylor’s formula of the function f (x) with remainder.
Cor. 2
When the remainder
( x − a ) n + 1 (n + 1)
Rn ( x) = f (c ) → 0
(n + 1)!

as n → ∞ for all x in a neighbourhood of a, we say the Taylor-series expansion for

f (x) converges to f (x) on that interval and write
∞ ( x − a ) n (n )
f ( x) = ∑ f (a) . . . (5)
n=0 (n + 1)!

The right side of Eq. (5) is also called the power series expansion of f (x) in powers
of (x – a).
Cor. 3
If in Taylor’s formula Eq. (4), we put a = 0, we will have
x2
f ( x) = f (0) + x f ′ (0) + f ′′ (0) + . . . +
2!

x n (n ) x n +1
+ f (0) + f (n + 1) (θ k ) where 0 < θ < 1 . . . (6)
n! (n + 1)!

This special case is known as Maclaurin’s formula.

Example 7.61
Write the Taylor’s formula for the function y = sin x about the point x = 0 with
remainder Rn (x).
Solution
y = sin x y (0) = 0
⎛π ⎞ π
y′ = cos x = sin ⎜ + x ⎟, y ′ (0) = sin = 1
⎝2 ⎠ 2

⎛ π ⎞
y′′ = − sin x = sin ⎜ 2 . + x ⎟, y′′ (0) = sin π = 0
⎝ 2 ⎠
.
.
.
⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ π⎞
y (n) = sin ⎜ n . + x ⎟, y (n) (0) = sin ⎜ n ⎟.
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
Then the Taylor’s formula for sin x about x = 0 is
2
⎛π⎞ x
sin x = sin (0) + x sin ⎜ ⎟ + sin π + . . . +
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2!
75
Calculus xn ⎛ π⎞ x n +1 π
sin ⎜ n ⎟ + sin [(n + 1) c]
n! ⎝ 2 ⎠ (n + 1) ! 2
where 0 < c < x.
We note that if the function sin x is approximated by the polynomial
x3 x5 xn ⎛ π⎞
x− + − ... + sin ⎜ n . ⎟
3! 5! n! ⎝ 2⎠
the error involved is
x n +1 π
Rn ( x) = sin [(n +1) + (c)],
(n + 1)! 2
for some c between 0 and x.
x n +1 π x n +1
Then | Rn ( x) | = sin [(n + 1) + (c)] ≤
(n + 1) ! 2 (n + 1) !

To obtain the above inequality we have used the fact

| sin θ | ≤ 1.
In the limit, as n → ∞ we get
x n +1
lim | Rn | ≤ lim = 0 for all finite x.
n→∞ n→∞ (n + 1)!

Therefore we can make the error as small as we like by taking sufficiently large n.
Such kind of approximate polynomials are generally used to find approximate
values of sin θ fixed.
The graphs of the function sin x and first three approximations :
x3 x3 x5
P1 (x) = x, P3 (x) = x − , P5 (x) = x − +
3! 3! 5!
are shown in Figure 7.38.

Figure 7.38
We observe that the approximation improves, if n is increased.
Example 7.62
Use Maclaurin’s formula and expand the function y = loge (1 + x), defined in
[0. 1], in powers of x. Estimate the absolute error due to deleting the remainder
R9 (x).
Solution
f (0) = loge 1 = 0
76
 1 Differential Calculus
f ′ ( x) = , f ′ (0) = 1
x +1
−1
f ′′ ( x) = , f ′′ (0) = − 1
(x + 1) 2
2!
f (3) ( x) = , f (3) (0) = 2!
(x + 1)3
( n − 1)!
f (n) ( x) = (− 1) n −1 , f (n) (0) = ( − 1) n −1 ( n − 1)!
(x + 1) n

n!
f (n + 1) (c) = (− 1) n
(c + 1) n + 1
Therefore the Maclaruin formula for loge (1 + x) is
x 2 x3 1
log e (1 + x) = x − + + . . . + ( − 1) n −1 x n
2 3 n
x n +1 1
+ (− 1) n
n + 1 (1 + c) n +1
where 0 < c < x.
The error term when loge (1 + x) is approximated by a polynomial of degree n = 9
is
x10 1
R9 (x) = (− 1)9
10 (1 + c)10
The absolute error is
x10 1
| R9 (x) | = 10
< = 0.1
10 (1 + c) 10

1
because 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 and < 1.
1+ c
Example 7.63
Expand the polynomial
p (x) = x 5 − 2 x 4 + x 3 − x 2 + 2 x − 1 in powers of (x – 1).
Solution
By Taylor’s formula in powers of (x – 1)
( x − 1) 2
p (x) = p (1) + ( x − 1) p′ (1) + + p′′ (1)
(2!)

( x − 1) 3 (3) ( x − 1) 4 ( 4)
+ p (1) + p (1)
3! 4!

( x − 1)5 (5) ( x − 1) 6 ( 6) ( x − 1) n ( n )
+ p (1) + p (1) + . . . + p (1)
5! 6! n!

( x − 1) n + 1 ( n )
+ p (c )
( n + 1)!
where c is between 1 and x.
We obtain p (1) = 0, p ′ (1) = 0, p ′′ (1) = 0 77
Calculus
p (3) (1) = 18, p ( 4 ) (1) = 72, p (5) (1) = 120

p ( 6 ) ( x) = 0, p ( 7 ) (x) = 0, . . .

18 72 120
Therefore, p ( x) = ( x − 1)3 + ( x − 1) 4 + ( x − 1)5
3! 4! 5!

= 3 ( x − 1) 3 + 3 ( x − 1) 4 + ( x − 1) 5 .

SAQ 15
(a) Use Maclaruin’s formula to establish the inequality cos x ≥ 1 – x2/2.
(b) Write Taylor’s formula of the function y = x about the point a = 1 with
remainder R3 (x).
1
(c) Verify the quadratic approximations ≈1 + x + x 2 near x = 0 and
1− x
determine its accuracy for | x | ≤ 0.1.
⎡ ( x − a) 2 ⎤
(d) Show that e x = e a ⎢1 + ( x − 1) + + . . .⎥ .
⎢⎣ 2! ⎥⎦

7.12 CURVE SKETCHING

In this section, we use the results of differential calculus to sketch some curves. Then
results will be used to find
(i) in which intervals is the curve increasing.
(ii) in which intervals is the curve decreasing.
(iii) at which points the curve takes turn.
We can use these points together with the observations of symmetry to sketch the curve.
Example 7.64
Draw the graph of the curve f (x) = x 2 − 4 x .
Solution
f (x) = x 2 − 4 x
f being a polynomial function is differentiable for all values of R so the curve is
continuous.
f ′ (x ) = 2 x − 4 = 2 ( x − 2 )
For x ≥ 2, f is an increasing function and for x ≤ 2, f is a decreasing function. Also
f ′ (x) = 0 for x = 2, i.e. the tangent to the curve is parallel to x-axis for
x = 2. We construct a table of values of x only as under
78
 Differential Calculus
x −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5

y 12 5 0 −3 −4 −3 0 5

Plot the points and the graph as shown in Figure 7.39.

Figure 7.39

Example 7.65

Draw the graph of the curve y = sin 2 x .

Solution
The function is continuous and differentiable for all value of x ∈ R. Also, it is
symmetrical about y-axis as the equation remains unchanged when x is changed
to – x.
f ′ (x) = 2 sin x cos x = sin 2 x

Hence f ′ (x) > 0

π 3π 5π
when 0< x< , π< x< , 2π < x < ,...
2 2 2
and f ′ (x) < 0

π 3π
when < x < π, < x < 2π, . . .
2 2

⎡ π ⎤ ⎡ 3π ⎤ ⎡ 5π ⎤
i.e. f (x) is increasing in the intervals ⎢0, ⎥, ⎢π, ⎥, ⎢2π, ⎥, . . . and decreasing
⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ 2⎦
⎡ π ⎤ ⎡ 3π ⎤
in ⎢ , π⎥, ⎢ , 2π⎥, . . . .
⎣2 ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦

Also, f ′ (x) = 0

When 2 x = 0, π, 2π, 3π, . . .

π 3π
i.e. x = 0, , π, ,...
2 2

A sketch of the curve is as follows :

79
Calculus

Figure 7.40

7.13 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have covered the following points :
• The absolute value of a real number x, written as | x |, is defined as

⎧ x if x ≥ 0
| x| = ⎨
⎩− x if x < 0
• Various types of intervals in R are :
open : (a, b) {x ∈ R : a < x < b}
closed : [a, b] = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b}
semi-open : (a, b] = {x ∈ R : a < x ≤ b}
semi-closed : [a, b) = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x < b}
• A function of f : x → y is said to be onto (or surgective) if range
of f = y.
• A function of f : x → y is said to be one-one (or injective) if
f (x1) = f (x2) ⇒ x1 = x2.
• A function f is said to be even if f (− x) = f (x), and odd if
f (− x) = − f (x).
• lim f ( x) = l , if and only if, lim+ f ( x) = l = lim− f ( x) .
x→a x→a x→a

• f is continuous at x = a if, and only if, lim f ( x) = f (a) .

x→a

f ( x + Δx) − f (x)
• f (x) has the derivative at x if lim exists.
x →0 Δx

d d d
• [α f ( x) + β g ( x)] = α f ( x) + β g ( x) .
dx dx dx
d d d
• [ f ( x) g ( x)] = f ( x) g ( x) + g ( x) f ( x) .
dx dx dx
d d
g ( x) f ( x) − f ( x) g ( x)
d ⎡ f ( x) ⎤ dx dx
• ⎢ ⎥ = .
dx ⎣ g ( x) ⎦ [ g ( x)]2

dy dy du
• If y = f (u ) and u = g ( x ) , then = . .
dx du dx
d dy
• ( y n ) = ny n −1 .
dx dx
80
 dy g ′ (t) Differential Calculus
• If x = f (t ), y = g (t ), = .
dx f ′ (t)
• If f (x) is differentiable at x = c, then it is continuous at x = c.
dy
• Given the curve y = f (x), represents the slope of the tangent to the curve at
dx
the point (x, y).
• The equation of the tangent to the curve y = f (x) at the point (x1, y1) is
⎛ dy ⎞
y − y1 = ⎜ ⎟ ( x − x1 ) .
⎝ dx ⎠ ( x1 , y1 )
• The equation of the normal to the curve y = f (x) at the point (x1, y1) is
⎛ dy ⎞
(x − x1 ) + (y − y1 ) ⎜ ⎟ = 0.
⎝ dx ⎠ ( x1 , y1 )
• The time rate of change of displacement is called velocity. The time rate of change
ds dv d 2 s
of velocity is called acceleration, i.e. v = , a = = .
dt dt dt 2
• Let f be a real function and I be a subset of R, then f is called an increasing
(decreasing) function on I iff x1, x2 ∈ I,
x1 < x2 ⇒ f ( x1 ) ≤ f ( x2 ) ( f ( x1 ) ≥ f ( x2 )) .
• If x1 < x2 ⇒ f ( x1 ) < f ( x2 ) ( f ( x1 ) > f ( x2 )) then f is called a strictly increasing
(strictly decreasing) function on I.
• f (x) has a maximum at x = x0 if f ′ ( x0 ) = 0 and f ′′ ( x0 ) < 0 .
• f (x) has a minimum at x = x0 if f ′ ( x0 ) = 0 and f ′′ ( x0 ) > 0 .
• We have studied Rolles theorem and learned the geometrical meaning of it.
• Learned the Lagrange’s mean value theorem and its applications.
• Derived the Taylor’s formula with remainder for functions satisfying certain
conditions and used it to write polynomial approximations for given functions and
estimated the error involved in such approximations.

7.14 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
(b) (i) False
(ii) True
(iii) True
(iv) False
SAQ 2
(b) (ii) and (iii).
(c) (i) and (iv).
y +1
(d) x= is the inverse.
y −1
SAQ 3
(c) (i) even
(ii) even
(iii) even 81
Calculus (iv) even
(v) neither even nor odd.
SAQ 4
x2 − x − 6 (x − 3) ( x + 2) x−3
(i) = = , so the limit does not exist.
(x + 2) 2
(x + 2) 2 x+2
(ii) The limit does not exist.
(x 2 + x − 12) 2
(iii) Limit is 0 as = (x − 3) (x + 4) 2 .
x−3
tan x sin x 1
(iv) Limit is 1 as = . .
x x cos x
2
(v) Limit = − .
3
(vi) Limit does not exist.
(vii) Limit does not exist.
1
(viii) Limit = .
2 3
α
(ix) Limit = .
β
SAQ 5
(a) (i) Not continuous at x = 0 and continuous at all other points.
(ii) Not continuous.
(b) b = 4.
SAQ 6
(c) (i) 2x
(ii) 6x + 5
SAQ 7
− 17
(a) (i)
(2 x − 5) 2

3x 2 + 3
(ii) −
( x 3 + 3x − 8) 2
(iii) (x2 + x + 6) cos x − (2x + 1) sin x
(iv) x2 + 1 + 2x (x + 1) – sin x
− 2 x 2 − 6 x − 10
(b) (i)
( x 2 − 5) 2
(ii) sec2 x
− cos x (1 + cos 2 x) − (1 − sin x) (− 2 cos x sin x)
(iii)
(1 + cos 2 x) 2

(c) (i) 2 (sin 2 x − cos 2 x )

(ii) 6ax + 2b
SAQ 8
82
 (a) Velocity = 128 Differential Calculus

Acceleration = 64
dy 4 x − 3 y
(b) =
dx 3x − 8 y

⎛2 ⎞
(c) (i) x 2 e x sin x = ⎜ + 1 + cot x ⎟
⎝x ⎠
⎡ 2 3 4 ⎤
(ii) ( x + 1) 2 ( x + 2) 3 ( x + 3) 4 = ⎢ + + ⎥
⎣ x + 1 x + 2 x + 3⎦
2
(iii)
1 + x2
2
(iv)
1 + x2
SAQ 9
xx1 yy1
(a) Equation of the tangent is 2
+ = 1.
a b2
xy1 yx1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
and equation of the normal is 2
− 2
= x1 y1 ⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟ .
b a ⎝b a ⎠
4 32
(b) Tangent is parallel to x-axis at x = ,y= .
3 3
21
(d) tan α = − at the point (5, 2).
20
SAQ 11
(a) Local minimum value f (0) = 2 .

Local maximum value f (− 4) = − 6 .

(b) (i) Minimum = − 15

Maximum = 5
(ii) x = 2 is minima.
4
x= is a maxima.
3
(c) Extreme values are 1, − 1.
SAQ 12
a
(b) h= , where h is the vertical side and a is the side of the square base.
2
(c) h = 2 r, where h is the height and r is the radius of the base.

(d) (a, 2 pa ), (a, − 2 pa ) .

π
(e) (i) Yes. Rolle’s theorem is applicable, c = .
2
(ii) Yes, c = 0.
π
(iii) Yes, c = . 83
4
Calculus (iv) No.
SAQ 13

⎛ 3π ⎞
(i) c = cos −1 ⎜ ⎟ .
⎝ 2 ⎠
1
(ii) c= .
3
SAQ 14
3 2
(i) Cauchy’s MVT conditions are satisfied, f ′ ( x) = x − x, g ′ ( x ) = 2 x ≠ 0
2
3 2 3 2 − 32
c −c
f (b ) − f ( a ) 3 −1
for (0, 3). Then 2 = = 22 = = 1 , i.e.
2c g (b ) − g ( a ) 3 −0 2
1
(3c − 2) = 1 , i.e. 3c – 2 = 4, i.e. 3c = 6, i.e. c = 2. Note that c can be
4
cancelled since c ≠ 0.
1
(ii) f ′ ( x) = , g ′ ( x) = 2 x so at x = 0 the conditions are not satisfied. Now
2 x
1
2/3
1/ 2
2 =b −a
1/ 2
1 b− a ⎡ 1 b2 − a2 ⎤
gives 3 / 2 = 2 so c = ⎢ ⎥ .
2c b2 − a2 4c b − a2 ⎣⎢ 4 4 b − a ⎦⎥
SAQ 15
x2 x2
(a) cos x = 1 − = R3 ( x) by Maclaurin’s theorem so cos x ≥ 1 − .
2! 2

(b) Let f ( x) = x.

( x − a) 2
Then f ( x) = f (a ) + ( x − a) f ′ (a ) + f ′′ ( x) + R3 ( x) so
2!
1 ( x − 1) 2 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ( x − 1) 3 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞
x = 1 + ( x − 1) .1 + . . ⎜ − ⎟ . ( x) − 3 / 2 + . ⎜− ⎟ ⎜− ⎟
2 2! 2 ⎝ 2⎠ 3! 2 ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
x (c ) − 5 / 2 , where c = 1 + θ (x – 1) for some θ, 0 < θ < 1.

1
(c) Let f ( x) = .
1− x

1 2 6
Then f ′ ( x) = + 2
, f ′′ ( x) = + 3
, f ′′′ ( x) = +
(1 − x) (1 − x) (1 − x) 4

6
So f ( x) + 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 .
(1 − c) 4

where c = θ x for some θ, 0 < θ < 1.

Therefore, f ( x) ≅ 1 + x + x 2 .

84
 (0.1)3 Differential Calculus
Now if | x | ≤ 0.1 then | R3 ( x) | = 6 × . For near 0.1, we have
(1 − c) 4
6 1 10
1 − θ (0.1) > ⇒ < and
10 1 − θ (0.1) 6
10
| R3 ( x) | ≤ 6 × (0.1)3 × ≤ (0.1)3 × 10 = (0.1) 2 .
6
( x − a)
(d) e x = f ( x) = f (a) + ( x − a) f ′ (a) = + f ′′ ( a) + . . . Note that
2!
f (n) ( x) = e x for all n and substitutes.

85