Fuel 90 (2011) 886–897

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Fuel
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Experimental investigation of diesel engine performance and emission

characteristics using jojoba/diesel blend and sunflower oil
M.S. Shehata a,⇑, S.M. Abdel Razek b
a
Mechanical Engineering Technology Department, Higher Institute of Technology, Benha University, Egypt
b
Industrial Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Miser University for Science and Technology, 6th October City, Egypt

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Experimental study has been carried out to investigate performance parameters, emissions, cylinder
Received 29 December 2008 pressure, exhaust gas temperature (Texhaust) and engine wall temperatures (Twall) for direct injection die-
Received in revised form 25 July 2010 sel engine. Tests were conducted for sunflower oil (S100) and 20% jojoba oil + 80% pure diesel fuel (B20)
Accepted 9 September 2010
in comparison to pure diesel fuel with different engine speeds. S100 and B20 were selected for the study
Available online 29 September 2010
because of its being widely used in Egypt and in the world. Also, series of tests are conducted at same
previous conditions with different percentage of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) from 0% to 12% of inlet
Keywords:
mass of air fresh charge. Results indicate that S100 or B20 gives lower brake thermal efficiency (gB), brake
Biodiesel fuel
Performance
power (BP), brake mean effective pressure (BMEP), and higher brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) due
Emission to lower heating value compared to pure diesel fuel. S100 or B20 gives lower NOX concentration due to
EGR lower gas temperature. S100 or B20 gives higher Twall and Texhaust due to incomplete combustion inside
engine cylinder. S100 or B20 gives higher CO and CO2 concentrations due to higher carbon/hydrogen
ratio. The position of maximum pressure (Pmax) change for pure diesel fuel is earlier than for S100 or
B20. The results show that S100 or B20 are promising as alternative fuel for diesel engine. The utilization
of vegetable oils does not require a significant modification of existing engines. This can be seen as the
main advantage of vegetable oils. The main disadvantages of biodiesel fuels are high viscosity, drying
with time, thickening in cold conditions, flow and atomization characteristics.
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction fuel into the lubricating oil. Selim et al. [5] carried out an experi-
mental study to improve performance of dual engines running on
Biodiesel is a renewable fuel, which can reduce the use of petro- natural gas/LPG using pilot fuel derived from jojoba seeds. Results
leum based fuels and possibly lower the overall greenhouse gas showed that using the jojoba fuel with its improved properties has
emissions of internal combustion engines. Therefore, to reduce improved the dual fuel engine performance, reduced the combus-
emissions, research scientists have focused their interest in the tion noise, extended knocking limits and reduced the cyclic vari-
areas of vegetable oils as alternative fuel for diesel engine [1,2]. ability of the combustion. Rakopoulos and Antonopoulos [6],
For diesel engines, a great deal of research effort has been imple- Rakopoulos et al. [7] carried out an experimental study to evaluate
mented towards using vegetable oils and their derivatives as alter- and compare the use of cottonseed oil, soybean oil, sunflower oil
native fuels. Often, the vegetable oils investigated for their and their corresponding methyl esters. There conclusion is that,
suitability as diesel engine fuels. Short term engine performance all tested biodiesel or vegetable oil blends, can be used safely.
tests have indicated good potential for most vegetable oils [3]. Venkateswara et al. [8] carried out an experimental study to exam-
However, long term endurance tests show that there are some ine properties, performance and emissions of different blends (B10,
problems such as injector cocking, ring sticking, gum formation B20, and B40) of Methyl ester of Pongamia (PME), Jatropha (JME)
and lubricating oil thickening. These problems have been related and Neem (NME) in comparison to pure diesel. Results indicated
to the high viscosity and non-volatility of vegetable oils [4]. Poor that pure diesel blends showed reasonable efficiencies, lower
atomization patterns associated with high fuel viscosity results in smoke, CO and HC. Ravi Kumar et al. [9] carried out an experimen-
decreasing the combustion quality. This may result in an increase tal study to investigate performance of diesel engine using blends
in combustion chamber deposits and the introduction of unburned of methyl esters of palm oil with diesel fuel. Acceptable brake ther-
mal efficiencies and BSFC were achieved with the blends contain-
ing up to 50% methyl esters of palm oils.
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +20 0133243055; fax: +20 0133230297. The search for alternative fuels has lead researchers to investi-
E-mail address: M3ohamed4@yahoo.com (M.S. Shehata). gate more sustainable sources such as, jojoba oils. This oil is rare

0016-2361/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2010.09.011
 M.S. Shehata, S.M.A. Razek / Fuel 90 (2011) 886–897 887

Nomenclature

ABDC after bottom dead center J100 pure jojoba oil

ATDC after top dead center N engine speed, rpm
BBDC before bottom dead center NAE natural aspirated engine
BTDC before top dead center NOX nitric oxides, ppm
BP brake power, kW O2 oxygen, %
BMEP brake mean effective pressure, kPa P pressure, kPa
BSFC brake specific fuel consumption, kg/kW h Pmax maximum cylinder pressure, kPa
B20 20% Jojoba oil + 80% pure diesel, by volume S100 pure sunflower oil
CAD crank angle degree, deg. T exhaust exhaust gas temperature, °C
CO carbon monoxide, % T wall wall temperature, °C
CO2 carbon dioxide, %
D100 pure diesel fuel Greek letters
DI direct Injection gBth Brake thermal efficiency, %
EGR rexhaust gas recirculation, % gV volumetric efficiency, %

in that is an extremely long (C36–C46) straight chain wax ester, 2. Experimental setup
and not a triglyceride, making jojoba and its derivative jojoba es-
ters more similar to sebum and whale oil than traditional vegeta- The present study is conducted on an engine installed in the re-
ble oils [10]. Since 2003, arable farmers in Egypt have already search lab of Higher Institute of Technology at Banha University.
started planting jojoba shrubs specifically to use the nut oil as The experimental setup is shown in Fig. 1. The engine is a single
fuel [11]. Jojoba oil has potential use as both a biodiesel fuel for cylinder, four strokes direct injection diesel engine has a compres-
cars and trucks as well as a biodegradable lubricant. Jojoba sion ratio of 17:1, a bore of 100 mm and a stroke of 105 mm. The
methyl ester preparation and properties are found in [12,13]. Jo- engine specifications are shown in Table 1. Tests were held on a
joba methyl ester has been used for the first time as a pure diesel laboratory test bench which includes an electrical dynamometer,
fuel and blended with gas oil [14]. Silem’s team reveals that the coupled to the engine output shaft. It is a DC electric generator type
jojoba fuel matched pure diesel for torque and power and the MEZ-BURNO with maximum electric power output 10.5 kW. The
jojoba combustion gas took slightly longer to reach maximum technical specifications of the electrical generator are listed in
pressure in the cylinder, which explain why the engine runs more Table 2. An external excitation of electric circuit is used to generate
quietly on the nut oil over the engine speeds they tested. Pure the generator magnetic field. This circuit consists of an AC auto-
jojoba oil has been also used and its blends with diesel fuel for transformer and a rectifier bridge. The DC generator excitation
diesel engines [15], the results indicated a negligible loss of voltage is controlled and adjusted by the autotransformer. The va-
engine power, a slight increase in brake specific fuel consumption lue of excitation voltage is measured using a digital AC voltamme-
and a reduction in engine NOX, and soot emissions using blends ter (Radio-Shack) of 190 V measuring range and 1 V resolution. The
of jojoba oil with pure diesel fuel as compared to pure diesel fuel. electric power output from the DC electric generator is consumed
Radwan et al. [16] carried out an experimental study for measur- in heating water flowing through a water tank. The present system
ing the thermal ignition delay of jojoba methyl ester and its provides a facility to conduct engine performance tests at different
blends with pure diesel fuel and methanol. The results have values of engine load. The load values are chosen and defined by
shown that, jojoba methyl ester has superior ignition characteris- selecting the generator excitation voltage values. Similarly, the en-
tics compared to pure diesel fuel, methanol and their blends. gine is said to be working at a certain load when the excitation field
Osayed [17] compared the values of the laminar burning velocity voltage applied on the DC generator is adjusted to produce a ratio
of pure diesel oil and iso-octane with values of two grades of of engine output power to full load power at certain engine speed.
jojoba methyl ester, and the results reveal that the laminar burn- The values of the excitation field voltage corresponding to certain
ing velocity was lower in case of jojoba methyl ester than those of engine load have been maintained constant over the entire engine
diesel oil and iso-octane. speed range during a single experiment. A water cooling system
Also, an effective way for reducing emissions may be accom- has been installed to maintain a constant water temperature of
plished by using EGR technology. The presence of inert molecules 25 °C during all the experiments. This cooling system has been
reduces the temperature and the combustion pressure inhibiting found essential to avoid the effect of generator internal losses on
the formation of NOX by the thermal mechanism, as well as in- the accuracy of engine power measurements.
creases the detonation tolerance [18]. This method, while effective Instrumentations for measuring engine power, cylinder pres-
in reducing NOX emissions, may lead to considerable losses in en- sure, fuel consumption, intake air flow rate, engine speed, wall
gine performance. Abd-Alla, [19] found that adding EGR to fresh and exhaust temperatures at selected points are included in the
air entering diesel engine, appears to be a more beneficial way of test rig. Measurements of engine brake power have been per-
utilizing EGR. This way may allow exhaust NOX emissions to be formed by measuring the output DC voltage and current of the
reduced substantially. From lectures review of the previous re- DC generator using an analogue voltammeter (0–300 V range and
searches works there is lack in the data of EGR effects on engine 1 V resolution) and ammeter (0–30) ampere range and 0.1 a reso-
performance, emission, Twall and Texhaust when using biodiesel fuel lution. The engine fuel system is modified by adding a custom
as alternative fuel for diesel engine. So, the aim of the present work made tank, and a flow metering system which used for fuel con-
is to study performance, emission, cylinder pressure, Twall and sumption measurement. A two glass burette of known volume
Texhaust of a single cylinder DI diesel engine using S100 and B20 and one 3-ways hand operated control valve are used to switch be-
as alternate fuels at different engine speeds and also at different tween the base fuel and the test fuel. The time is measured for
percentage of EGR. The results are compared with conventional complete evacuation of the glass burette to calculate fuel con-
pure diesel fuel. sumption rate for each experiment. For each fuel change, the fuel
888 M.S. Shehata, S.M.A. Razek / Fuel 90 (2011) 886–897

Fig. 1. Experimental setup.

Table 1 for every 0.1 CAD and the acquisition process covered 50 com-
Technical specification of the test diesel engine. pleted cycles. The average value of these 50 cycles is outputted
Type DEUTZ F1L511 to the pressure data used for calculation of combustion parame-
Cooling type Air cooled
ters. The brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) is calculated from
Number of cylinders 1 engine power, speed and configuration specification. The emission
Number of cycles 4 measuring system consists of a water cooled exhaust gas sampler
Bore, mm 100 and an ANAPOLE EU200 self calibration exhaust gas analyzer. The
Stroke, mm 105
exhaust gas sample is sucked by a membrane pump and distrib-
Compression ratio 17:1
Rated brake power, kW 5.775 At 1500 rpm uted to different built in electrochemical sensing cells through a
Fuel injection angle 45° BTDC water separator. The outgoing signals of the cells are manipulated
Injection pressure, bar 175 and digitized by a built in A/D converter. Digital readouts of CO2,
Number of nozzle holes 1 CO, and NOX are available through the analyzer screen. The effect
CAM profile Constant velocity
of biodiesel on PM/soot/smoke is not included in the present study
due to no facility for measuring these parameters.
Part of the exhaust gas is to be recirculated and put back to en-
Table 2 gine cylinder along with the intake air. Exhaust gas recirculation
Technical specification of DC electrical dynamotor. (EGR) was accomplished by direct link between the exhaust and
the intake surge tank. Therefore, the exhaust back pressure is
Type Mez-burno
maintained slightly above the intake manifold pressure such that
Output power, kW 0–10.5
exhaust gas recirculation could occur. The quantity of this EGR
Output Voltage, volt 0–400
Operating s peed, rpm 0–2100 was measured and controlled accurately; hence a by-pass for the
Output current, ampere 0–30 exhaust gas is provided along with the manually controlled EGR
Excitation voltage, volt 0–190 valve in the circulation line between the exhaust gas manifold
Excitation current, ampere 0–18 and the intake surge tank. The exhaust gas comes out of the engine
during the exhaust stroke at high pressure. It is pulsating in nature.
It is desirable to remove these pulses in order to make the volu-
lines are cleaned and the engine left to run for at least 30 min to
metric flow rate measurements of the recirculating gas possible.
stabilize on the new conditions. A large air box fitted with an ori-
For this purpose, EGR was directed to air box line before entering
fice plate is used for measuring air consumption rate using differ-
engine cylinder to improve mixing process with fresh air. An orifice
ential pressure transducer model Setra 239 having differential
plate was used for measuring EGR flow rate using differential pres-
pressure range of 0–12.7 cm water column with accuracy of 1%.
sure transducer model Setra 239 having differential pressure range
Texhaust is measured using calibrated K type thermocouple with
of 0–12.7 cm water column with accuracy of 1%. The detailed sche-
accuracy of ±0.5%. Ambient air temperature, intake air temperature
matic line drawing of the experimental EGR system is shown in
is measured using calibrated K type thermocouple probes. The in-
Fig. 1. Thermocouples are provided at the intake manifold, exhaust
cylinder pressure is measured using piezoelectric pressure trans-
manifold and along the EGR route. This work studies the interac-
ducer model Kistler 6123, which has a gauge pressure range of
tion resulting from the application and control of EGR level and
0–200 bar with a sensitivity of 16.5 pc/bar and an accuracy of
its effectiveness on the development of gaseous emissions as well
1.118%. A slotted disk is fitted to the end of the crankshaft and
as engine performance parameters.
an optical sensor for measuring engine speed and crankshaft angle
position. The signals from the pressure transducers, optical sen-
sors, and thermocouples are digitised and recorded in PC with 3. Fuel properties
the help of LabView software for later analysis using a data acqui-
sition card model CIO-DAS1602/12, 12-bit, 32 channel single- The conventional pure diesel fuel (No. 2 D) is supplied by a local
ended 16 differentials. The signal of cylinder pressure is acquired petroleum company formed the baseline fuel of the present study.
 M.S. Shehata, S.M.A. Razek / Fuel 90 (2011) 886–897 889

Table 3 Table 4
Fuel properties. Test matrix of engine operating conditions for different fuels.

Properties S100 D100 J100 Parameter Range Parameter Range

Heating value, MJ/kg 39.575 48.600 39.862 Engine speed RPM 900–1700 Tinlet manifold 25 °C
Viscosity, at 40 °C cSt 34.2 3.3 52 Engine load % 0–100 Tfuel 25 °C
Density, at 15 °C, kg/m3 923.1 835.4 920 Injection timing BTDC 24 CAD EGR% 0–11
Flash point, °C 274 69 186
Pour point, °C 15 6 6
Cloud point, °C 7.2 2.2 16
Distillation range (K) 523–643 460–620 370–400 effective pressure (load). Test matrix of engine operating condi-
Iodine value (IV), g lodine/100 g of 139–145 <6 81–88 tions for different fuels is shown in Table 4. In each test, volumetric
oil
fuel consumption, and volumetric dry exhaust gases emissions of
Cetane number 58 50.0 55
Sulfur content, w/w% 0.0047 0.22 0.02 CO, CO2 and NOX are measured. The analyzer has accuracy of
Saponification value (SV), (mg 188–194 00 92–97 ±1%. From the first measurement, BSFC, brake thermal efficiency
KOH/g of oil) (gBth), brake mean effective pressure (BMEP), brake power (BP)
Fatty acid composition (%) and volumetric efficiency (gV), are computed. The experimental
(1) Palmitic acid C16:0 6.4 0.0 16 work started with a preliminary investigation of the engine run-
(2) Stearic acid C18:0 2.9 0.0 6.5 ning on pure diesel fuel to determine the engine performance
(3) Oleic acid C18:1 17.7 0.0 43.5
(4) Linoleic acid 18:2 72.9 0.0 34.4
parameters characteristics, exhaust emissions, cylinder pressure,
(5) Linoleic acid 18:3 0.0 0.0 0.0 Twall and Texhaust constituting the baseline. The same procedures
(6) Others 0.0 0.0 0.0 were repeated for each fuel at the same operating conditions. For
Molecular Weight 294.58 210.7 560.98 every fuel change, the fuel lines are cleaned and the engine is left
C/H ratio, (by weight) 6.47 6.53 6.29
to operate for about 30 min to stabilize at its new conditions.
Average No. double bonds 1.53 0.0 1.55
Aromatic content (%w) 0.0 37.23 0.0 The differences in the measured performance parameters, exhaust
Elemental analysis C18.94H34.82O2 C15.27H27.33 C38H72O2 emissions, cylinder pressure, Twall and Texhaust from the base pure
(%W/W) 77.15 80.33 81.36 diesel fuel and two other fuels are determined and compared at
C 11.93 12.3 12.94 different operating conditions and various amount of EGR rate
H 10.86 1.19 5.7
O 0.0 1.76 0.0
from 0% to 12%.
N 0.0047 0.25 0.02
S
5. Results and discussion

Experimental study of engine performance parameters and

S100 used in this work is obtained from a local oil factory, it is re-
emission characteristics, of a single cylinder, naturally aspirated,
fined, no additives are used, nor the sample subjected to any fur- direct injection diesel engine at different engine loads and different
ther refining processes. Jojoba oil extracted from jojoba seeds
engine speeds have been performed. The engine is fueled with pure
grown in the Egyptian desert was refined, no additives are used diesel fuel which represents a base fuel for comparison with S100
nor did it subject to any further chemical treatment. B20 has been
and B20. The results of this investigation give also insight into the
prepared in the chemical laboratory of the Egypt national research effect of the EGR on the development of gaseous emissions as well
center. Fuel properties of S100 and B20 are determined according
as engine performance parameters. The test results are summa-
to standard ASTM and IP methods and the results given in Table rized and discussed in the following sections.
3. The expected viscosities of fuels in accordance with ASTM D
445 are converted to the unit cSt. As observed, S100 and B20 have
a higher viscosity when compared to pure diesel fuel. The viscosity 5.1. Performance parameters and emission characteristics without EGR
of S100 and B20 at 40 °C is 34.2 and 5.023 cSt, respectively,
whereas the viscosity of the pure diesel fuel is 3.24 cSt. S100 and BSFC at 1500 rpm versus BP for different fuels is shown in Fig. 2.
B20 is approximately 11 and 1.5 times more viscous than pure die- Engine fuel consumption depends on the engine speed and load.
sel fuel. Excluding viscosity, fuel density of S100 and B20 is very For low engine load, BSFC for three fuels have maximum values.
near to the density of pure diesel fuel. S100 and B20 have flash There is low difference in BSFC for the three fuels. On the contrary,
point higher than pure diesel fuel, and this is a very important
safety increasing factor in its transport and storage for S100 and
B20. S100 and B20 do not contain any sulfur water and the quan- 500
tity of precipitate established by the extraction method is much D100
lower than that obtained from pure diesel fuel, these properties af- B20
BSFC (g/kW hr)

fect fuel quality positively. S100 and B20 gave similar corrosion S100
test results in comparison with pure diesel fuel, heating value of 400
S100 and B20 is lower by nearly 18.7% and 4.3% respectively, these
differences affect engine combustion characteristics.

300
4. Conditions and parameters studied

The series of tests were conducted using each of the above fuels
at different engine speeds at injection timing of 24 CAD BTDC. The
200
tests were also conducted at same conditions with changing EGR 0 1 2 3 4 5
from 0% to 12% of inlet air fresh charge. Owing to the differences Brake Power (kW)
among the heating values and oxygen contents of the fuels tested,
the comparison must be affected at the same engine brake mean Fig. 2. BSFC versus brake power for different fuels without EGR.
890 M.S. Shehata, S.M.A. Razek / Fuel 90 (2011) 886–897

for high load cases, there is a high difference in gBth for B20 or S100 S100 and B20 comparing to the pure diesel fuel increases with
comparing to pure diesel fuel. Engine torques produced by pure increasing BP. For low engine loads the difference in brake thermal
diesel fuel is higher than for B20 and S100, respectively. This is efficiency for B20 or S100 and pure diesel fuel are small. On the
due to the higher cylinder pressure in the case of pure diesel fuel contrary, for high load case, there is high difference in the brake
compared to those run by B20 and S100, respectively. The higher thermal efficiency for B20 or S100 comparing to pure diesel fuel.
densities and the lower heating values of B20 and S100 compared BSFC and gBth curves are inverses of each other, and show maxi-
to pure diesel fuel are also main reasons for decreasing BP and gBth. mum efficiency at engine speed around 1500 rpm for different
So, the difference in fuels densities affects BSFC and BP. All the fuels.
other conditions remaining the same in the spray, this should lead Engine torque for different fuels is shown in Fig. 5. Engine tor-
to approximately the same average in-cylinder temperature during que produces for diesel fuel is higher than for B20 and S100,
the cycle. The delicate distribution of the fuel/air ‘‘packets” inside respectively. This is due to the cylinder pressure in the case of die-
the sprays may be higher for S100 and B20 than pure diesel fuel sel fuel is higher than for B20 and sunflower, respectively. The BP
and this increases the required fuel per cycle. and brake torque decrease more rapidly for increasing engine
Engine brake power (BP) for different fuels at 75% load is shown speed due to the increase of the mechanical friction.
in the Fig. 3. Maximum BP for B20 and S100 are less than that for Engine brake mean effect pressure (BMEP) for the three test
pure diesel fuel. This is due to combined effects of high relative fuel fuels is shown in Fig. 6. BMEP for pure diesel fuel is higher than
density, viscosity and lower heating value. BP, gBth and brake tor- for B20 and S100. This is due to high heating value which increases
que decrease more rapidly as the engine speed increases due to heat release for pure diesel fuel and consequently increasing BP
the increasing value of the higher mechanical frictions. The general and BMEP. Also, BMEP for different fuels increase with the increase
trend of decrease gBth for S100 and B20 is attributed to their poor of BP to certain engine speed. After that, BMEP remains nearly con-
spray characteristics, which is due to higher viscosity and surface stant. All these results are consistent with reported results for sim-
tension than pure diesel fuel. The poor spray pattern for S100 ilar automotive engines. This means that, the using measuring
and B20 affects the homogeneity of air/fuel mixture which in turn system is accurate and suitable for obtaining many other data.
decreases BP. Good mixture formation is the key factor for good diesel engine
The brake thermal efficiency for different fuels is shown in performance. This factor is highly influenced by viscosity, density,
Fig. 4. At all operating conditions, gBth for pure diesel fuel is higher volatility and fuel heating value. Therefore B20 or S100 is good
than for S100 and B20 due to the higher heating value of pure die- alternative fuels for diesel engine. Also the flash points of S100
sel fuel. For the medial and the high loads the difference in gBth for

20
5 D100
D100 B20
B20
S100 16
S100 4

Torque (Nm)
Brake Power (kW)

3
12

2
8
1

800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

0 Engine Speed (RPM)
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Engine Speed (RPM) Fig. 5. Engine torque versus engine speed for different fuels without EGR.

Fig. 3. Brake power versus speed for different fuels without EGR.

10
35
D100 D100
B20 B20
η Brake Thermal (%)

30 9
S100 S100
BMEP (bar)

25
8
20
7
15

10 6
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Brake Power (kW) Brake Power (kW)
Fig. 4. Brake thermal efficiency versus brake power for different fuels without EGR. Fig. 6. BMEP versus brake power for different fuels without EGR.
 M.S. Shehata, S.M.A. Razek / Fuel 90 (2011) 886–897 891

500
D100 500 D100
B20 450 B20
S100 S100
400

CO (PPM)
NO x (PPM)
400
350

300 300

250

200
200 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 1 2 3 4 5
Brake Power (kW)
Brake Power (kW)
Fig. 8. CO concentrations versus brake power for different fuels without EGR.
Fig. 7. NOx concentrations versus brake power for different fuels without EGR.

absence of aromatics tend to contribute to less NOX production,

and B20 are higher than pure diesel fuel. So, it can be used as fuels
which seems to more than offset the possible increase caused by
without any fire accidents.
the presence of the fuel bound oxygen even in locally rich zones
NOX concentrations for different fuels versus engine brake
(more zones nearer to stoichiometric). The most significant factor
power are shown in Fig. 7. For all the three fuels, the NOX concen-
that causes NOX formation is the maximum gas temperatures.
tration rises with the higher brake power values due to increased
Since injection particles of S100 and B20 are greater than those
gas cylinder temperatures. The NOX emissions are reduced by
of pure diesel fuel, the combustion efficiency and maximum gas
using S100 and B20. The reason is the higher cetane numbers of
temperatures with each fuel is lower and NOX emissions are less.
S100 and B20 compared to the pure diesel fuel [20,21]. Increasing
CO emissions for three tests fuels versus engine brake power is
cetane number reduces the size of the premixed combustion by
shown in Fig. 8. CO concentration rate reduces with load due to in-
reducing the ignition delay. This result in lower NOX formation
crease cylinder gas temperature which increases oxidization rate
rates since the combustion pressure rises more slowly, giving more
of CO to CO2. CO emitted by S100 and B20 are higher than for pure
time for cooling through heat transfer and dilution which leads to
diesel fuel. This is due to a high carbon content, which affects the
lower localized gas temperatures [22]. Research work has broken
combustion efficiency and decreasing the reaction rate. Also, the
the inter-correlations of aromatic content with other fuel proper-
high viscosity and density of S100 and jojoba oils delay the com-
ties. Heilweil [23], proving that aromatic and Poly-aromatic hydro-
pletion of combustion cycle compared to those systems run on
carbons are responsible for high NOX emissions. This is probably
pure diesel fuels. This means that pure diesel injected systems
due to the higher flame temperatures associated with aromatic
have a higher combustion quality than those, which utilize bio-
compounds. By reducing aromatics the flame temperature will
diesel. Logically we can conclude that CO emitted by S100 and
drop leading to a lower NOX production rate. As a result, the addi-
B20 are higher than pure diesel fuel. Conclusively, CO follows the
tion of bio-diesel as jojoba to pure diesel fuel or burning S100
same behavior as soot, a fact collectively attributed to the same
alone, which does not contain the above classes of aromatic com-
physical and chemical mechanisms.
pounds, reduces the NOX emissions from the engines. The reason
CO2 concentrations for different fuels are shown in Fig. 9. High
for NOX decreasing or increasing with bio-diesel blends is still un-
cylinder gas temperature and excess oxygen concentrations leads
der debate. Some of the possible hypotheses include: (i) bio-diesel
to increase CO2 concentrations. CO2 concentrations increase with
reduces the insoluble (soot) fraction of PM emissions. While oxy-
the increase of BP due to increase gas temperature and rate of reac-
genated fuels have a lower adiabatic flame temperature, the soot
tions of different species. So, CO2 concentrations have maximum
particles are good heat absorbers. The reduction in soot particles
values at the maximum brake power for the three fuels. In case
contributes to increase gas temperature and consequently in-
creases NOX emissions. (ii) During the combustion process, the
double bonds in biodiesel break down into smaller hydrocarbon
molecules. How these molecules behave in terms of changing the 3.0
ignition delay and burning rate is not known. (iii) The differences D100
in the viscosity, surface tension and boiling point for the biodiesel B20
2.8
can change the spray characteristics and burn pattern. This may S100
lead to different relative duration of the premixed versus diffusion
CO2 (%)

burn regimes, and thus may have different pollutant formation 2.6
characteristics. The conditions which have the highest peak pres-
sure and rate of pressure rise at a given load and timing tend to
have the highest concentration of NOX. The differences in NOX 2.4
emissions for the three fuels are attributable to changes in ignition
delay and burning rate. Based on a recent study from the South- 2.2
west Research Institute (Starr, 1997), it seems that modern diesel
engines with electronic controls may not show NOX increase with
biodiesel blends. One can observe that the NOX emitted by S100 or 2.0
0 1 2 3 4 5
B20 are slightly lower than for pure diesel fuel. The higher cetane Brake Power (kW)
number (relatively shorter ignition delay and thus, shorter pre-
mixed combustion during which NOX is mainly formed) and the Fig. 9. CO2 concentrations versus brake power for different fuels without EGR.
892 M.S. Shehata, S.M.A. Razek / Fuel 90 (2011) 886–897

of diesel fuel it is seen that CO2 concentration is lower at all engine 80

brake power due to lower O2 concentration than B20 and S100
respectively. One can also observe that sunflower oil produces

Volumetric Efficiency (%)

higher CO2 concentrations than the B20 blend. The carbon residue
75
of S100 and B20 is higher than the limit specified for pure diesel
and this increases the chances of carbon deposition in the combus-
tion chamber and CO2 formation. Higher carbon residue is due to
difference in chemical composition and molecular structure of 70
S100 and jojoba oils.

D100 65
5.2. Performance Parameters and Emission Characteristics with EGR
B20
BSFC for different fuels versus EGR are shown in Fig. 10. At part S100
load, diesel engine operates with excess air. If part of intake air is 60
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
replaced by exhaust gas, the oxygen concentration decreases
EGR (%.)
delaying the oxidation of the fuel during combustion process.
The specific heat of exhaust gas is greater than air due to H2O pres- Fig. 11. Volumetric efficiency versus EGR for different fuels with 65% load.
ent in the products of combustion which aiding in reducing com-
bustion temperature. Without EGR, S100 and B20 have higher
BSFC than pure diesel fuel. For all values of EGR, the difference in the volumetric efficiency increases first for a while, due to the im-
BSFC for S100 or B20 comparing to pure diesel fuel increases with proved combustion efficiency. The effect of EGR on S100 is higher
the increase of EGR. In contrast to an engine operation with pure than B20 due to high viscosity. So, at high EGR rate the difference
diesel, S100 or B20 utilizations result in higher BSFC with the in gV between S100 and B20 is less than at low EGR rate. This is
requirement to increase the EGR level. In connection with S100 also noticed in BSFC comparison. EGR flow rate increases as ex-
and B20 operation, EGR seems to affect the BSFC rate more signif- haust/intake pressure difference increases. Boost pressure increase
icantly than an operation on pure diesel. At low percentage of EGR, is significantly smaller than exhaust back pressure increase, so
BSFC decreases with the increase of EGR due to many reasons: (1) trapped mass decreases with the increase of EGR and consequently
Reduced pumping work. (2) Reduced heat loss to the cylinder gV decreases.
walls. (3) A reduction in the degree of dissociation in the high tem- The effect of EGR on BP for different fuel is shown in Fig. 12. At
perature burned gases. At high percentage of EGR, BSFC increases high EGR, BP increases with the increase of EGR due to increase
as EGR increases due to many factors: (1) Misfiring and flame pumping work required for the exhaust stroke. At low EGR, BP in-
instability contribute to the loss of fuel in exhaust gases. (2) The creases with the increase of EGR due to increase intake tempera-
reduction of oxygen concentration slows down the reaction rate ture which improves fuel atomization, increase both of peak
of different constituents in the fuel. (3) The EGR rate enhancement cylinder pressure and heat release rate and decreases ignition de-
serves as a heat sink due to the increase of water concentrations. lay [24,25]. Pure diesel fuel has high heating value than other fuels
This condition reduces the gas temperature. The previous factors so, BP of pure diesel fuel is higher than B20 and S100. At high EGR
lead to the drop of combustion efficiency and consequently to a rate, effect of fuel type on BP is higher than at low EGR rate.
higher BSFC level. They also decrease the brake power rate and The effect of EGR on gBth for different fuels is shown in Fig. 13.
the brake thermal efficiency. gBth for different fuels have the same trends as BP due to gBth
The effect of EGR on volumetric efficiency for different fuels is mainly depends on BP. At low EGR, gBth improves due to increase
shown in Fig. 11. Since there is no EGR cooling between the ex- intake temperature and reburning of the unburned fuel in the
haust manifold and intake tank, the intake temperature rises with recirculated gas. High EGR rate increases combustion instability
the increase of EGR. Moreover, because the intake pressure is held and consequently decreases gBth. Pure diesel fuel has higher gBth
constant during runs, the intake mass flow rate decreases with the than S100 and B20 fuels due to its higher BP and heating value.
increase of intake temperature. Consequently, the volumetric effi- At high EGR the effect of fuel type on BP is lower than at low
ciency decreases with high EGR rates. With the initial rise of EGR, EGR. Clearly, the deterioration of BP with the increase of EGR is

300 4.0

3.8
Brake Power (kW)
BSFC (g/kW hr)

275
3.6

3.4
250
D100 D100
3.2 B20
B20
S100 S100
225 3.0
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
EGR (%.) EGR (%.)
Fig. 10. BSFC versus EGR for different fuels with 65% load. Fig. 12. Brake power versus EGR for different fuels with 65% load.
 M.S. Shehata, S.M.A. Razek / Fuel 90 (2011) 886–897 893

30 40

η Brake Thermal Eff. (%)

28

Air/Fuel Ratio
35

26

30

D100 24 D100
B20 B20
S100 S100
22 25
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
EGR (%.) EGR (%.)
Fig. 15. Air/fuel ratio versus EGR for different fuels with 65% load.
Fig. 13. Brake thermal efficiency versus EGR for different fuels with 65% load.

not negligible and it is more pronounced at low and mid load con- 400
ditions. The main reasons for decreasing gBth are attributed to de-
350
crease indicate work and increase pumping work (assuming that
the friction remains constant). The decrease of indicate work is 300

NO x (PPM)
the consequence of combustion degradation due to low combus-
tion temperature and decreases air/fuel ratio. High EGR reduces 250
the concentration of oxygen, hence directly affecting air/fuel mix-
200
ture composition and decreasing heat release rate.
The effect of EGR on BMEP for different fuels with different EGR 150
D100
is shown in Fig. 14. For different EGR S100 and B20 have lower B20
BMEP than pure diesel fuel. For different fuels, BMEP decreases 100 S100
with the increase of EGR due to decrease BP, heat release rate
and cylinder gas temperature based on increasing inert gases 50
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
(CO2 and H2O). The difference in BMEP increases with the increase
of EGR due to the high difference in heat release rate.
EGR (%.)
The effect of EGR on air/fuel ratio for different fuels with differ- Fig. 16. NOx concentration versus EGR for different fuels with 65% load.
ent EGR is shown in Fig. 15. For the same power output, S100 and
B20 have lower air/fuel ratio than pure diesel fuel due to increase
in BSFC. For different fuels the decrease in air/fuel with the in- duration can lower NOX formation. Consequently most NOX emis-
crease of EGR is due to decrease oxygen concentrations. BMEP stea- sion control technologies that are discussed will reduce NOX emis-
dily decreases with the increase of EGR indicating an increase in sion by reducing the peak combustion temperature [26]. EGR is a
pumping losses. useful technique for reducing NOX formation. For internal combus-
The effect of EGR on NOX concentration for different fuels is tion engine, exhaust mainly consists of CO2, N2 and H2O. When a
shown in Fig. 16. NOX formation rate has a strong exponential rela- part of this exhaust gas is recirculated to engine cylinder, it acts
tionship to gas temperature. Any change to engine design that can as diluents to the combustion mixture. This also reduces O2 concen-
lower the peak temperature realized during combustion, the partial tration in the engine cylinder. The specific heat of EGR is much
pressure of dissociated nitrogen and oxygen or peak temperature higher than fresh air, hence EGR increases the heat capacity (spe-
cific heat) of the intake charge, thus decreasing the temperature rise
for the same heat release in the engine cylinder. EGR reduces NOX
formation due to increase of ignition delay, heat capacity and dilu-
8.0 tion of the intake charge with inert gases. The ignition delay
hypothesis asserts that because EGR causes an increase in ignition
7.6 delay, it has the same effect as retarding the injection timing. The
heat capacity hypothesis states that the addition of the inert
7.2 exhaust gas into the intake increases the heat capacity (specific
BMEP (bar)

heat) of the non reacting matter present during the combustion.

6.8
The increased heat capacity has the effect of lowering peak gas tem-
6.4 perature. The effect of EGR on NOX is caused by increasing amounts
of inert gases in the mixture which reduces the adiabatic flame
6.0 temperature. The change in oxygen concentration causes change
D100
in the structure of the flame and hence changes the duration of
5.6 B20 combustion. It is suggested that flame temperature reduction is
S100 the most important factor influencing NOX formation. The peak
5.2 NOX formations rate occurs at the same time as the peak of local
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
EGR (%.) temperatures. It is clearly that local temperature is a dominant
parameter in determining the effectiveness of NOX control with
Fig. 14. BMEP versus EGR for different fuels at 65% load. EGR.
894 M.S. Shehata, S.M.A. Razek / Fuel 90 (2011) 886–897

The high temperature and oxygen concentration give the higher carbon deposits inside the engine, as well as negative impacts of
NOX formation rate. NOX concentration decreases with the increase SVO on the engine lubricant. Both carbon deposits and excessive
of EGR for three fuels used due to decrease oxygen concentration buildup of SVO in the lubricant are caused by the very high boiling
and cylinder gas temperature. Pure diesel fuel produces higher point and viscosity of SVO relative to the required boiling range for
NOX than B20 and S100 due to high air/fuel ratio for pure diesel pure diesel fuel. Fuel structure and characteristics have great influ-
fuel which increases oxygen concentration in engine cylinder. Add- ence on engine performance and emission behavior. One of the
ing EGR to air flow rate, rather than displacing some of the inlet air, most important parameters is the spectrum of fatty acids. Length
appears to be a more beneficial way of utilizing EGR in diesel en- of carbon chains and number of double bonds in the fuel molecules
gines. This way may allow exhaust NOX emission to be reduced affect low temperature suitability, spray formation and carbon res-
substantially. idue. Net heating value and density also affect the energy content
The effect of EGR on CO concentration for different fuels is of cylinder charge. Short-chained coconut and palm kernel oil
shown in the Fig. 17. For different fuels, CO concentration increases methyl ester have distinct emission advantages in terms of hydro-
with the increase of EGR due to decrease cylinder gas temperature, carbons, carbon monoxide, particulate matter and polycyclic aro-
which decreases oxidation rate of CO to CO2, and also negative ef- matic hydrocarbons, but disadvantages as far as nitric oxides are
fects of active radicals species. The difference in CO concentration concerned. Because of their lower heating values they show low
between pure diesel fuel and B20, S100 decreases as EGR increases. engine power and high fuel consumption.
There is slight increased in CO emission level in case of S100 and
B20 compared to pure diesel fuel. Also, EGR increases CO emission
5.3. Cylinder Pressure and Wall/Exhaust Temperatures
due to increase ignition delay based on the decrease of oxygen
concentration.
Cylinder pressure for different fuels at engine speed of 1500 rpm
The effect of EGR on CO2 for different fuels is shown in Fig. 18.
is shown in Fig. 19. From the figure it can be seen that the maximum
CO2 concentration decreases with the increase of EGR due to in-
cylinder pressure for different fuels are arranged in descending
crease inert gases inside constant stroke volume cylinder. CO2 con-
order as B20, S100 and pure diesel respectively. The reason is
centration decreases with the increase of EGR due to decrease each
S100 cetane number is higher than B20 and pure diesel fuels which
of: rate of reaction of different species, oxygen concentration and
decreases ignition delay period. The decrease of ignition delay
gas temperature.
decreases the amount of fuel being injected into the cylinder prior
The use of 100% straight vegetable oil (SVO) will lead to reduce
to ignition [25]. On contrast viscosity of S100 is higher than B20
engine life. The reduction in engine life is caused by the buildup of
and pure diesel which abuse fuel atomization and consequently
decreases heat release rate and cylinder pressure. Also, mass of fuel
400 injected increases with the increase of fuel viscosity. Maximum cyl-
inder pressure of S100 is lower than B20 due to B20 has a higher
D100 360 heating value and better combustion characteristics than S100. Also
B20 the peak pressure of B20 is slightly higher than pure diesel fuel. The
320
S100 combustion process of different fuels is affected by: (1) Fuel viscos-
CO (PPM)

280 ity where fuel atomization improves as fuel viscosity decreases. On

240 contrast mass of fuel injected per cycle increases with the increase
of fuel viscosity (2) Cetane number where ignition delay decreases
200 with the increase of cetane number. (3) Fuel heating value where
heat release rate increases as fuel heating value increases. (4) Fuel
160
structure, where chain structure or single bond has good combus-
120 tion characteristics than ring or double bound. (5) Oxygen content
in fuel molecules, where oxygen atoms improve combustion quality
80
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 of fuel. On contrast its decreases fuel heating value. Measuring
cylinder pressure gives the net effect all these parameters.
EGR (%.)
Maximum cylinder pressure for different fuels at different en-
Fig. 17. CO concentration versus EGR for different fuels with 65% load. gine speeds are shown in Fig. 20. For low engine speed, maximum

60
2.6
50
Pressure (kPa)

2.4 40
CO2 (%)

30
2.2
20
D100 D100
2.0
B20 B20 10
S100 S100
1.8 0
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 300 330 360 390 420
EGR (%.) Crank Angle ATDC (Deg.)
Fig. 18. CO2 concentration versus EGR for different fuels with 65% load. Fig. 19. Cylinder pressure for different fuels at 1500 rpm and 50% load without EGR.
 M.S. Shehata, S.M.A. Razek / Fuel 90 (2011) 886–897 895

but with different numerical values. The position of maximum cyl-

58 inder pressure ATDC for S100 is more delayed than the one for B20
and for pure diesel due to the high viscosity effect. For all the three
56 fuel types, the position of Pmax decreases with the increase in en-
gine speed due to mixing and combustion process improvements
P max (kPa)

as a result of higher turbulence intensities. As the engine speed in-

54 creases, the delay period decreases, combustion starts earlier and
Pmax and pressure rise rate occur earlier. The position of Pmax for
52 pure diesel fuel is earlier than B20 and S100 respectively. This is
attributed to high viscosity and density values in the contrast to
50 D100 lower atomization rates of the heavy fuel. Also, S100 and B20 have
B20 higher self-ignition temperature than pure diesel fuel. Therefore,
S100 S100 and B20 exhibit longer ignition delay. In contrast the lower
48 self-ignition temperature of pure diesel fuel increases the rate of
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
pressure rise and accelerates the combustion process.
Engine Speed (RPM) The instantaneous Texhaust and Twall, for different fuels are
Fig. 20. Pmax using different fuels at 50% load without EGR. measured versus engine crank angle as shown in Figs. 22 and 23.
Texhaust for S100 is higher than B20 and pure diesel fuel respectively
cylinder Pressure (Pmax.) for pure diesel fuel is higher than B20 due to delay of combustion resulting from slower combustion
and S100 respectively due to low turbulence intensity, where the characteristics of vegetable oil. In the case of S100 and B20, the lack
combustion characteristics tends to improve with decreasing fuel of complete fuel combustion is due to many reasons. Some are
viscosity. At around 1500 rpm, B20 has the maximum cylinder listed as follows:
pressure compared to S100 and pure diesel.
The addition of jojoba to pure diesel fuel improves combustion (I) High viscosity, surface tension and boiling point of the fuel
characteristics. At high engine speed, Pmax. for S100 is higher than change the spray characteristics and burn patterns.
B20 and pure diesel fuel respectively. The reason is due to in- (II) S100 and B20 have low heat release rate due to low heating
creased turbulence intensities and due to improved mixing condi- value compared to pure diesel fuel.
tions of burnt and unburnt gases which accelerate the combustion (III) S100 and B20 have high double bonds.
process and increases the maximum cylinder pressure. The fuel
injection at high pressures improves the fuel atomization process.
As the atomized fuel is injected into the chamber, the periphery of
700
each jet mixes with the hot air already present. After a brief period B20
known as the ignition delay, this mixture ignites. In the premixed 650 S100
burning phase the fuel/air mixture formed during the ignition de- D100
lay period burns very rapidly causing a rapid rise in-cylinder pres- 600
TExhaust (C)

sure. The subsequent rate of burning is controlled by the rate of

mixing between the remaining fuel and air, with combustion al- 550
ways occurring at the interface between the two. Most of the fuel
injected is burned in diffusion phase, except under very high loads. 500
The peak pressure for B20, S100 and pure diesel fuels are measured
for different engine speeds and engine loads. The results indicated 450
the engine stilled in the safely conditions up to 80 bar as maximum
cylinder pressure [27].
400
The position of maximum cylinder pressure after top dead cen- 420 480 540 600 660 720
ter (TDC) for different fuels versus engine speeds are shown in
Crank Angle ATDC (Deg.)
Fig. 21. The three fuels have the same trends with the engine speed
Fig. 22. Instantaneous exhaust temperature at 50% load and speed of 1700 rpm.

20
Position of Pmax ATDC (Deg.)

D100
D100
B20 130
S100 18 B20
S100
120
TWall (C)

16
110

14 100

12 90
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Engine Speed (RPM) 120 240 360 480 600
Crank Angle ATDC (Deg.)
Fig. 21. Position of maximum pressure for different fuels with 50% load without
EGR. Fig. 23. Instantaneous wall temperature at 50% load and speed of 1700 rpm.
896 M.S. Shehata, S.M.A. Razek / Fuel 90 (2011) 886–897

For the above-mentioned reasons, the combustion of S100 and with catalyst (base or acid) or without catalyst by using primary
B20 are completed in the exhaust process leading to an increased or secondary monohydric aliphatic alcohols, where the glycerol
Texhaust. Also, S100 and B20 have higher soot formation than pure based triesters (or triacyl glycerides) that make up the fats and oils
diesel fuel and soot is considered as a heat sink in engine cylinder are converted into monoesters yielding free glycerol as a by prod-
causing a heat loss through the exhaust. One can conclude that, the uct. Most studies show that power and fuel cost of diesel engine is
high percentage of heat loss with the exhaust gas is one of the ma- proportional to the reduction in heat of combustion of the vegeta-
jor factors for reducing BP, in cylinder gas temperature and NOX ble fuels. Finally from the present work, the effects of using biodie-
concentrations in cases of S100 and B20 than pure diesel fuel. Also, sel fuel as alternative fuel for diesel engine on engine performance
Twall and Texhaust for S100 and B20 are higher than pure diesel fuel and emission characteristics are summarized in Table 5.
for many reasons:
6. Conclusions
(i) Longer duration of combustion due to high viscosity effects.
(ii) The lack of complete fuel combustion increases the gas tem- 1. Using S100 or B20 as a fuel for diesel engine decreases BP, gBth
perature in the exhaust gas contributing to a higher heat loss and BMEP. In contrast, S100 and B20 give higher cylinder pres-
to the cylinder wall. sures, BSFC, Twall and Texhaust than pure diesel at high engine
(iii) Higher BSCF as a result of increased heat lost to the cylinder speed.
wall. 2. CO concentration with pure diesel fuel is less than for S100 and
B20. On contrast NOX concentrations with pure diesel fuel is
Also, one can notice that, the variation in Texhaust and Twall for higher than for S100 and B20.
S100 is higher than for pure diesel fuel. This reflects the high var- 3. Without EGR at low engine speed S100 or B20 gives cylinder
iation of combustion process and high combustion noise for S100 pressure lower than pure diesel fuel. On contrast at high engine
than pure diesel fuel case. On contrast the variation in Texhaust speed S100 or B20 gives cylinder pressure higher than pure die-
and Twall for B20 is less than pure diesel fuel and S100, respectively. sel fuel. Maximum cylinder pressure position for pure diesel
This also reflects the low variation of combustion process and low fuel is earlier than S100 and B20.
combustion noise for B20 than S100 and pure diesel fuel cases. The 4. EGR in connection with the studied fuel types reduces the
operation of a single-cylinder engine affects the heat transfer more engine BP as well as gBth and NOX emissions. In contrast, EGR
significantly than multiple-engine operation leading to a high var- increases BSFC, gV, air/fuel ratio and CO emission. The use of
iation in Texhaust and Twall. The major problem with S100 and jojoba EGR is therefore one of the most effective methods for improv-
oils is associated with their high viscosities 10 times greater than ing exhaust emissions.
pure diesel fuel. 5. The main advantages of the use of vegetable oils as alternative
The high viscosity is due to large molecular mass and chemical fuel for pure diesel engines are as follows: (i) Vegetable oils are
structure of vegetable oils. The high viscosity leads to problems in independently on the raw material used for the production
pumping, combustion and atomization in the injection system of (biodiesel can be produced from blended oils, independently
diesel engine. Thus, although short term tests using vegetable oils of their composition, source, and degree of fat saturation). (ii)
showed promising results, problems appeared after the engine had Blending of vegetable oils with pure diesel fuel improves engine
been operated for long term operation. Vegetable oils normally emissions, (iii) It is not require significant modification of exist-
introduce the development of gumming, the formation of injector ing engine hardware.
deposits and coking with trumpet formation, more carbon deposits 6. A total evaluation of the results suggests that B20 and S100 can
and piston oil ring sticking, as well as thickening and gelling of the be used safely and advantageously as pure diesel fuel alterna-
engine lubricating oil. To solve the problems associated with high tives on a short term basis. Further performance tests on other
viscosity of vegetable oils, the following usual methods are types of the engines and long term engine tests need to be per-
adopted: (1) Blending in small blend ratios with pure diesel fuel, formed to improve combustion characteristics of vegetable oils.
(2) micro-emulsification with methanol or ethanol, such as pre- 7. Vegetable oils have some unfavorable properties as fuel, such as
heating the oils, (3) transetherification and thermal cracking or high density, drying with time and gumming. Fuel combustion
pyrolysis and conversion into biodiesel fuels. The latter are manu- characteristics of vegetable oils should be improved. Also, at
factured from their corresponding vegetable oils, in batch or con- present, vegetable oils are more expensive than pure diesel fuel
tinuous systems, mainly through the transetherification process, and their annual harvesting values are not stable. As vegetable
where one ester is converted into another. This reaction proceeds oil fuel consumption increases, production yield can be
increased relatively, and the cost can be decreased by more
mechanized farming.
Table 5
Effect of bio-diesel fuel on engine performance parameters and emission
characteristics.
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