The Mariner 6 and 7 Pictures of Mars

THE MARINER 6 AND 7
PICTURES OF MARS
This color picture of Mars shows greater detail than any Earth-based photo-
graphs could provide. It was made by combining three black-and-white frames
that were taken by Mariner 7 through color filters.
NASA SP-263
THE MARINER 6 AND 7

PICTURES OF MARS
BY
Stewart A. Collins
Prepared at Jet Propulsion Laboratory

Pasadena, California
Srrentlfic and Terh~licalI n f o r n ~ a t ~ oOffice

w 1971
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402
Price $4.25 Stock Number 3300-0367
Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 78-610670
Foreword
Mars, the fourth planet, is a subject of romance and mystery in human
culture. Astronomers, over the past century, have revealed that this
close neighbor of Earth is in many respects its twin among the satellites
of the Sun. Its transparent atmosphere permits observation of the sea-
sonal variation of its surface markings that long ago gave rise to specu-
lations that Mars also harbors life as does Earth. The meager informa-
tion we have had about Mars has stimulated a whole literature of
imaginative conjecture about the planet, which engendered and sus-
tained the wide public interest in the scientific exploration of Mars by
astronomical observation and space flight.
Mars is the planet most accessible for study from Earth, and most
amenable for research by modern space-flight techniques. It also poses
scientific questions most likely to better our understanding of our home
planet's origin, evolution, and fundamental processes, and thus to pro-
vide knowledge potentially as beneficial to human affairs as it is inter-
esting in an absolute sense. For these reasons the study of Mars has
been ranked top priority by the scientific community, as for instance
in the recommendations of the Space Science Board of the National
Academy of Sciences. The National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
tration early in its history embarked on a progressive series of missions
to enlarge our knowledge of Mars. The initial reconnaissance of Mars
was carried out in 1964 by the Mariner IV spacecraft, which transmitted
to Earth close-up television pictures of the lunarlike, cratered, moun-
tainous surface, and reported on the condition of the planet's atmos-
phere and space environment. Mariner VI and VII in 1969 extended
this reconnaissance in both detail and diversity of observations. The
planned succeeding phases of investigating Mars will continue with
Mariner Mars Orbiter missions, to be launched in 1971, whose task is
to lay the groundwork for atmospheric entry and soft landers on the
surface by the Viking program in 1976. The present volume presents
the results of the Mariner VI and VII missions, in a more finished form
that has been issued hitherto. Greatest interest attaches to the 200-odd
television images which the world first viewed in their crude form as
they were received on Earth. This book tells the story of the teamwork
that produced this splendid result, and provides to the reading public
the fruits of a venture that well characterizes the age of space ex-
ploration.
HENRY J . SMITH
Deputy Associate Administrator (Science)
Ofice of Space Science and Applications
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Preface
This book presents a comprehensive set of the television pictures
taken of Mars by the Mariner 6 and 7 spacecraft. These pictures are
the final results from the ambitious and complex television experiment
of the Mariner Mars 1969 Project, a project managed by the Jet
Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) of the California Institute of Technology
for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. To most fully
utilize this television data, NASA has sponsored extensive post-flyby
computer processing and analysis of these pictures.
The purpose of this book is to make available high-quality repro-
ductions of the final, computer-processed pictures. The text serves
only to explain the genesis and unique characteristics of the pictures,
to point out interesting features in them, and to provide some indica-
tion of their significance in the history of Mars investigations.
Detailed analysis has been avoided in this volume. Such interpreta-
tion is the subject of the special supplenlent "The Mariner 6 and 7
Pictures of Mars" in the January 1971 issue of the Journal of Geo-
physical Research, a supplement which presents the observations and
conclusions of the Television Experiment Team under the leadership
of Dr. Robert B. Leighton. The television team has not participated
directly in writing this book.
The Mariner pictures are not copyrighted and may be obtained
through the National Space Science Data Center, Goddard Space
Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland 20771 .
The author is indebted to the JPL Image Processing Laboratory,
which prepared all the hlariner pictures used in this book, and to
Jaines K. Campbell, who provided the trajectory and viewing data.
The valuable assistance of Mary Frail Buehler, Patricia B. Conklin,
Patricia Shutts, David Thiessen, and Jaines H. Wilson is gratefully
acknowledged. The administrative and scientific judgment of Dr. A.
Bruce Whitehead has also been essential to the preparation of this vol-
ume. Chapters 1, 3, and 4 are based in part on material prepared by
Claude M. Michaux, who also made the drawings. Finally, Drs. Robert
B. Leighton, Bruce C. Murray, and Robert P. Sharp, all of the Tele-
vision Experiinent Team, and G. Edward Danielson, Television Experi-
ment Representative, have been very helpful in reviewing portions of
this manuscript, correcting inisstatements, and helping the author
clarify the expression of many ideas.
December 1970
JETPROPULSION
LABORATORY
CALIFORNIA OF TECHNOLOGY
INSTITUTE
PASADENA,
CALIFOI~NIA Stewart A. Collins
vii
Contents
Chapter 1
Previous Investigat'ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter 2
The Spacecraft and the Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Chapter 3
The Far Encounter Pictures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Chapter 4
The Near Encounter Pictures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
Chapter 5
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Appendix
Far Encounter Photoreference Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Near Encounter Photoreference Table . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
NASA Mars Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
CHAPTER 1
Previous Investigations
For thousands of years, Mars has intrigued man, for it has stood
apart as an unusual heavenly body. The ancients identified it as a
"star7' which wandered about the sky and periodically varied in bright-
ness. The early Greeks recognized that Mars was a "neighbor" of the
Earth and first called it a planet.
Modern Martian exploration began during the seventeenth century

when Francesco Fontana first studied Mars with a telescope, identi-
fied its gibbous phase, and thus found that Mars shone by light re-
flected from the Sun. Fontana also saw on Mars a marking which he
believed to be permanent, probably the dark, triangular Syrtis Major.
In 1659, Christian Huygens sketched this feature and, by timing its
passage across the Martian disk, concluded: ". . . . the rotation of Mars
seems to take place like that of Earth in 24 of our hours." In 1672,
Huygens and J. D. Cassini observed the white area known as the
South Polar Cap. In the early eighteenth century, Giacomo Maraldi
noted that the polar caps changed size with seasons and that the
small summertime southern cap was slightly offset from the South
Pole, a fact not then known to be true of the Earth's polar caps. He
was also the first to observe changes in the location and size of surface
markings and remarked that some of these changes might be due to
clouds.
About 1780, Sir William Herschel, continuing the work of Mdraldi,

sought to correlate the color and size changes of features with the
Martian seasons. In doing so, he located the Martian spring in the
planet's solar orbit. Herschel concluded that the polar white areas
were ice caps, the dark areas were oceans, the light areas were conti-
nents, and that Mars had an atmosphere "so that its inhabitants
probably enjoy conditions analogous to ours in several respects." These
statements, from such a respected authority, influenced subsequent
investigators for over one hundred years.
The nineteenth century brought a host of Martian map makers. Two

of these men, Wilhelm Beer and Johann von Madler, established a
Martian longitude-latitude system much like that accepted today and
more accurately defined the Martian rotation period to be 24 hours,
37 minutes, 23.7 seconds. Giovanni Schiaparelli, starting in 1878, pub-
lished a series of maps identifying features with Latin names, most of
which are still in use today. His maps' greatest significance, however,
was not the settlement of international naming feuds. Rather, his maps
showed many dark lines-he called them "canali" ( channels)-inter-
connecting the dark areas in a strange-looking network. "Canali" was
soon mis-translated into "canals," and intelligent life on Mars was sud-
denly an intriguing popular concept.
As the idea of Martian life took firm root in public thought, another
astronomer, Asaph Hall, discovered two small moons of Mars and
named them Phobos and Deirnos. Phobos was found to revolve around
Mars three times faster than the planet rotates and would, therefore,
The maps of Giovanni Schiaparelli were the first to use Latin nomenclature
for Martian features. This map, drawn in 1888, was made from visual, not photo-
graphic, observations. I t shows many features visible in the Mariner pictures and
also many "canali" (channels), which later caused excitement about the possibility
of Martian life.
appear to rise in the west and set in the east twice daily. Deimos, with
a period slightly longer than the rotation of Mars, would rise in the
east and travel slowly across the sky before setting in the west three
days later.
In 1892, as astronomers began to study canals more carefully,

William Pickering discovered a canal crossing the dark area of Mare
Erythraeum. This finding refuted the theory, surviving from Herschel
one hundred years earlier, that the dark areas were oceans.
A new explanation of the changing sizes and colors of the dark areas
was then proposed: that these were land areas covered with a vegeta-
tion that flourished in the spring and dried in the autumn. This theory
remained popular through the 1950's.
As Martian exploration entered the twentieth century, Martian life

found its most ardent defender, Percival Lowell. Enthusiastic over
Schiaparelli's canali, Lowell devoted his life and a fully staffed obser-
vatory to the study of Mars. The canals, he proposed, were constructed
by intelligent Mars inhabitants seeking to survive on a dry and for-
bidding planet. As the polar caps melted during their summer seasons,
the canals carried the melt-water away to the drier equatorial regions
to irrigate the life-sustaining crops there. Canals sketched by Lowell
were thin, straight lines so precisely arranged as to require an intelli-
gent origin. During the ensuing debate, E. M. Antoniadi announced
he had identified canals as an alignment of spots or ragged edges, not
straight, continuous lines. While many of Lowell's canals disappeared
from later maps, they were erased much more slowly from the minds
of observers and the public. By 1930, Mars had been fastidiously
mapped within the limitations of visual observation.
The improvement of photography at the turn of the century intro-

duced a new capability with which astronomers could compare obser-
vations made many years apart. Thus began a systematic study of
seasonal variations, like the "wave of darkening7'-a progressive dark-
ening from pole to equator of the dark areas in the hemisphere of the
melting polar cap, and daily variations, such as the reported appear-
ance of blue, white, and yellow clouds.
This century also introduced the use of new analysis instruments,

such as spectroscopes, thermocouples (infrared radiometers ) , polar-
irneters, and photometers, to planetary study.
This Earth-based photograph was
taken in 1956 by Dr. Robert B. Leighton
at the Mount Wilson Observatory. Just
appearing near the western limb is Syrtis
Major, and just disappearing at the east-
ern terminator is Cerberus. Bordering
the South Polar Cap is the light area
Ausonia. North is at the top.
Using a spectrometer, G. P. Kuiper discovered carbon dioxide in the

Martian atmosphere in 1947. Similar ground-based studies later dis-
closed small amounts of water and carbon monoxide and indicated
that the Martian atmospheric pressure might be as low as 10-15 milli-
bars, roughly 1%of that on Earth. With a thermocouple it was deter-
mined that the surface of Mars was very cold, with temperatures
above freezing only during summer days in the tropical latitudes.
Polarimeters, measuring polarization, and photometers, measuring
brightness, suggested the bright areas included finely divided material
containing at least some ferric iron.
In 1965, more than 350 years after Galileo sought the first close-up
view of Mars, the Mariner 4 spacecraft flew close enough to the planet
to make a number of new measurements and acquire 22 television
pictures. Mariner 4 found an extremely thin (5-10 millibars) carbon
dioxide atmosphere and sent pictures revealing Mars to be extensively
cratered.
Mariner 4 provided man's first close-up
ctures of Mars. Frame 4N1 showed the
'artian limb and the area Phlegra.
rame 4N11, taken farther south, pre-
' n t e d a crater 175 kilometers in
ameter.
CHAPTER 2
The Spacecraft and the Mission
Shortly after the successful Mariner 4 mission, NASA authorized the

Mariner Mars 1969 Project. Mariners 6 and 7, launched by the more
powerful Atlas-Centaur rocket, were to greatly increase and improve
the observations made by Mariiier 4 and by Earth-based investigators.
Thus scientists and engineers began to design a more ambitious ex-
ploratory mission and to build larger, more sophisticated spacecraft to
complete this mission.
The Mariner 1969 spacecraft were larger (5.8 meters or 19 feet) across the sola;
panels and heavier (380 kilograms or 840 pounds) than any previous NASA
planetary spacecraft.
This Atlas-Centaur, a massive vehicle of 145 metric tons, successfully launched
Mariner 7 on March 27, 1969. Mariner 6 had been launched by a similar vehicle
a month earlier, on February 24,1969.
After more than 3 years of preparation, Mariner 6 was perched atop

its Atlas-Centaur rocket 10 days before its scheduled launch toward
Mars. Unexpectedly, a faulty switch opened the main valves on the
Atlas stage, and the rocket, as tall as a 12-story building, began to
collapse like a punctured tire. As the air roared out, two ground crew-
men ran into the vehicle, started the pressurizing pumps, and thus
prevented further "deflation" of the launch vehicle. While NASA pre-
pared Exceptional Bravery Medals for these two crewmen, engineers
began a thorough inspection of the complex Mariner 6 spacecraft and
determined that it had sustained no damage during the mishap. The
spacecraft was removed from the wrinkled rocket and was placed
upon another Atlas-Centaur. So successful was this switch that
Mariner 6 was launched, on schedule, 10 days later toward its Mars
encounter.
This ingenuity and flexibility of operation typified the entire

Mariner Mars 1969 Project. The two spacecraft, Mariners 6 and 7,
incorporated two major improvements over previous planetary probes,
improvements that encouraged adaptive operation. The first was the
use of programmable computers aboard the craft. In previous plane-
tary missions, most of the sequences and other spacecraft instructions
had been read into the on-board computer prior to launch, and it was
difficult or impossible to modify these instructions after launch. The
Mariner 6 and 7 computers could be reprogrammed from the ground
at any time during the mission. The second advance was the experi-
mental high-rate telemetry system. This system, due in part to the new
64-meter-diameter receiving antenna at Goldstone, California, enabled
Mariners 6 and 7 both followed a long solar orbit that carried them gradually
out t o Mars. Mariner 7 was launched a ntonth later than Mariner 6 but arrived
only 5 days later because of the "inside track" taken b y Mariner 7. At the time
of encounter, Mars was 96 million kilometers (60 million miles) from Earth, and
radio signals, traveling at the speed of light, from the spacecraft were received
at Earth 5 minutes later.
\ \\ 96 m i l l i o n k i l o m e t e r s --
/f ,
-
the Mariners to communicate 2000 times faster than Mariner 4. These
two advances figured prominently in many after-launch decisions
aimed at increasing the quality or quantity of data or at correcting
problems that had arisen on the spacecraft.
The giant antenna, 64 meters (210 feet) in diameter, at the Deep Space Net-
work's Goldstone, California, station toas an essential element of the high-rate
telemetry system. Other stations located around the world used antennas 26 me-
ters (85 feet) in diameter.
The science instrument scan platform
was mounted beneath the spacecraft, as
shown in the photograph. The platform
was movable so that the instruments
could be pointed at different regions on
Mars. Unlike previous Mariners, these
spacecraft carried n o instruments t o
gather interplanetary data during the
Earth-Mars cruise. The entire mission
was focused on obtaining information
about the Martian surface and atmo-
sphere. Instruments are: (a) infrared
radiometer, ( b ) wide-angle television,
(c) ultraviolet spectrometer, ( d ) narrow-
angle television, and ( e ) infrared spec-
trometer.
Picture-taking activities for both Mariners were divided into two

sequences: far encounter sequence and near encounter sequence. Tbe
far encounter sequence took place during several days prior to flyby
when all of Mars appeared as a disk in the television pictures. Near
encounter included the 30 minutes during flyby when detailed pic-
tures were taken of small areas on Mars. The pictures are identified
by 'spacecraft, sequence, and picture number within that sequence.
Thus 6F38 is the thirty-eighth picture taken by Mariner 6 during its
far encounter, while 7N13 is the thirteenth Mariner 7 near encounter
picture. An abbreviated account of operations during encounter week
is given below.
Encounter Events
T u e s d a y , J u l y 29. Throughout Tuesday, Mariner 6 records 33 far
encounter pictures on its tape recorder. The tape is played back and
the pictures are transmitted to Earth that evening. Originally, Mariner 6
was to take only eight far encounter pictures, but the experimental
high-rate telemetry system has proved so successful that 50 such pic-
tures will be returned by this spacecraft.
Wednesday, July 30. Mariner 6 records an additional 16-1/5 pic-
tures and transmits them back late in the afternoon. As flight con-
trollers prepare for the complex Mariner 6 near ellcounter sequence, to
occur Wednesday night, contact is suddenly lost with Mariner 7. Most
personnel continue to prepare Mariner 6 while a smaller team concen-
trates on solving the Mariner 7 problems. Both efforts climax at the
same time. While Mariner 6 begins recording its 25 near encounter
pictures, a cheer goes up at the announcement that Mariner 7 com-
munication has been re-established after a 7-hour silence. The day
ends as Mariner 6 passes behind Mars.
Thursday, July 31. Spacecraft engineers analyze the data now being
received from Mariner 7 and determine that several problems still
exist. Post-encounter study will reveal that the Mariner 7 battery
probably ruptured and vented its contents into the spacecraft. This in
turn caused electrical transients that induced the spacecraft to spin
like a pinwheel and to lose contact with Earth. Now, however, the
most serious consequence appears to be damage to the equipment that
reports the pointing direction of the television cameras. Since the
Mariner 7 cameras cannot be pointed properly without this informa-
tion, work is begun t~ find a solution. On Thursday night, the
25 Mariner 6 near encounter pictures, recorded a day earlier, are
played back.
Friday, August 1. A scheme has been devised to calibrate the point-

ing indicator for the Mariner 7 cameras. The cameras are turned on
and begin transmitting pictures of black space. They are then moved
around in a search which climaxes when Mars appears in the corner
of one frame. Several additional corrections center Mars in the frame
and provide the needed calibration. This operation, essential before any
television pictures can be acquired by Mariner 4, is possible because of
the high-rate telemetry system which sends an entire picture in 42 sec-
onds instead of the 35 minutes required by the standard system.
Saturday, August 2. Properly oriented once again, Mariner 7 records

33 far encounter pictures and plays them back during the evening.
Sunday, August 3. Mariner 7 records and transmits an additional 33

far encounter pictures. Analysis of the Mariner 6 data continues in an
effort to determine whether Mariner 7's plan should be altered in any
way to study interesting features seen by Mariner 6.
Monday, August 4. Mariner 7 records its final 25 far encounter pic-
tures and plays them back. Mariner 7 now has taken a total of 91 far
encounter pictures, quite a contrast to the eight originally planned.
Mission planners have completed their study of Mariner 6 data and
have decided to assign to the still-limping Mariner 7 a more ambitious
job than that performed by its sister craft. Far encounter data will be
sent back until one hour before near encounter-Mariner 6 stopped
6 hours prior to encounter. Also, Mariner 7's near encounter coverage
is increased to 33 pictures. This aggressive, last-minute plan is exe-
cuted perfectly; and Mariner 7, following its sister's path, passes
behind Mars.
Tuesday, August 5. Mariner 7 plays back its 33 near encounter pic-

tures, and both spacecraft continue in orbit around the Sun.
Postscript. At this writing 16 months later, both spacecraft are

operational and in regular radio contact with NASA's ground stations.
As the spacecraft passed behind the Sun, the radio signal was used in
the most sensitive test yet made of Einstein's General Theory of
Relativity.
The Television System

Mariners 6 and 7 each carried two television cameras to photograph
Mars. At the near encounter distances from Mars, Camera A, with a
wide-angle lens, showed large areas of the planet (approximately
1000 x 1000 kilometers, about the size of Alaska) and details as small
as 3 kilometers ( 2 miles). Camera B, using a telephoto lens, at the
same distance from Mars, showed smaller areas (100 x 100 kilome-
ters, about the size of the Los Angeles basin) and details as small as
300 meters (300 yards). The fields of view and shutter sequence were
planned so that the A frames, taken sequentially through blue, green,
and red filters, would overlap, and the B frames, taken through a
minus-blue filter, would be located in the overlap area of two A frames.
Most far encounter pictures were taken using the B camera.
A television picture taken by Mariners 6 and 7 is actually an array

of points, each of which has a numerical value from zero to 255, rep-
resenting the brightness at that point. Zero represents black, 255 indi-
cates white, and the 254 intermediate numbers correspond to the
intermediate shades of grey. Each picture is composed of 704 lines
The two cameras carried by each spacecraft differed only in their optical
systems. The wide-angle Camera A (top) used a 50-millimeter focal length Zeiss
planar lens with blue, green, and red filters, while the high-resolution Camera B
(bottom) used a large (508-millimeter focal length) Cassegrain telephoto lens.
with 945 points, or pixels (picture elements) per line (665,280 pixels
per picture ) .
This numerical information was received in the telemetry from the

spacecraft, stored on magnetic tape, and readily processed as numeri-
cal data by computers. Through the use of a system roughly similar to
a home television set, pictures were read off these tapes and were
photographed as they appeared on an electronic display screen.
Shou;n here are the actual
numerical values of the points
in a small portion of this pic-
ture. In this large array of
numbers, it is possible to iden-
tify a crater b y the low data
numbers of its dark slopes
and the high data numbers
of the bright, sunlit slopes.
ANALOG
CAMERA
A
- AUTOMATIC
GAIN - CUBING
CIRCUIT
TAPE
CONTROL RECORDER
- RADIO 4
-
P
CAMERA
B
_, SAMPLER - BIT
CLIPPER
- DIGITAL
TAPE
RECORDER
This block diagram shows the television system in its near encounter mode
and indicates the on-board processing of the television signal.
The Mariner 4 television experiment had shown Mars to have a very

low-contrast surface with only subtle detail. For this reason, during
near encounter the electronic television signal was processed on the
spacecraft into two forms of data: analog video and digital video.
The primary data form, the analog video, was processed (high-pass
filtered) to emphasize small-scale details. This signal was nonlinearly
amplified to enhance high-frequency detail while sacrificing the fidelity
of large-scale brightness variations. If such pictures had been taken of
Earth, small detail such as mountains, valleys, rivers, and coastlines
would have been enhanced, but differences between large deserts,
oceans, and forests, for instance, would have been minimized.
The secondary data form, the digital video, was not enhanced and
therefore accurately preserved the large light-to-dark variations. Digi-
tal video, however, was taken for only selected picture elements and
required extensive computer processing before it could be used. In the
far encounter sequence, there was only one data type, a form of analog
video to which the enhancement technique had not been applied and
which therefore more accurately represented the actual scene.
Obtaining and transmitting the pictures to Earth was only half the
job. Remaining was the task of computer processing the pictures so
that they most accurately represented Mars. Eventually two versions
of pictures were produced-a maximum-definition version using only
the analog video and a photometric version combining the analog and
digital video. The maximum-definition pictures showed maximum fine
surface detail and the photometric version portrayed Mars as it actu-
ally appeared, revealing fewer details but better showing the large-scale
variations.
Finally, several effects had beell introduced into the pictures by the
television system and had to be removed by the Jet Propulsion Labora-
tory's Image Processing Laboratory, the computer facility designed for
and devoted to processing television data. The primary unwanted fea-
ture of the pictures was the coherent, or periodic, noise, which
appears as a basket weave pattern overlying the picture. Through the
use of computers it was possible to extract this and other patterns.
A second uninvited feature in the pictures was the residual image

of previous pictures. Because vidicon television tubes do not entirely
erase the previous picture before they record the next scene, a faint
image of the previous picture can be seen in most pictures. This effect
was especially pronounced in limb pictures. Using computers, the
image processor removed this residual in the photometric pictures.
Because of the effects of the enhancen~enttechnique used, such re-
moval was impossible in the maximum-definition pictures in this vol-
ume. Finally, the slightly nonrectangular shape of the pictures is due
to a geometric correction applied to them to compensate for optical
and electronic distortions.
Thus the pictures shown here are the final output from a long and
complex sequence of operations both on the spacecraft and on Earth.
Opposite: A comparison between the maximum-definition and photometric

versions of 6N13 is presented here. The top figure is a maximum-definition ver-
sion, and the bottom slzows the photometric version of the same picture, after the
analog and digital data have been recombined. In the bottom figure, the dark
eastern point of Meridiani Sinus appears prominently as the dark area in the
center of the picture, contrasting mitlz the lighter desert to the right. In the
maximum-definition version, this light-dark contrast, which actually appears on
Mars, has been removed, and both areas are about the same shade of gray. How-
ever, in the maximum-definition version, craters are much more clearly visible in
both the light and dark regions.
This sequence illustrates the way in
which computer processing was able to
remove coherent noise from the pictures.
Notice the "basket weaue" pattern over-
lying the picture information (top). The
computer analyzed such a picture and
separated the repeating pattern (center)
from the random scene. This pattern was
then subtracted from the original pic-
ture, leaving only the noise-free picture
(bottom).
ULTRAVIOLET WAVELENGTHS
DETECTED BY SENSORS 7 DIFFRACTION MIRROR
ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT
EMITTED BY GASES
IN MARS UPPER
ATMOSPHERE
FOCUSING MIRROR!
!
The Mariner 1969 ultraviolet spectrometer was designed to study the upper
atmosphere of Mars.
Other Scientific Experiments

In addition to the television investigations, Mariners 6 and 7 per-
formed several other experiments designed to improve our understand-
ing of Mars and the solar system.
Ultraviolet Spectrometer
Atoms, ions, and simple molecules of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
and such compounds as carbon monoxide and cyanogen were sought
in the upper atmospheres of Mars by the dual-channel ultraviolet
spectrometer. Prototype Mariner instruments were flown aboard
sounding rockets before the Mars launch, providing comparison spec-
tral surveys of Earth's atmosphere. One channel covered the range of
1050-1900 11 and the other covered the 1900-4350 A spectrum.
The ultraviolet spectrometer experiment found no ozone in the

atmosphere of Mars and indicated that solar ultraviolet light was
reaching the highly reflective South Polar Cap virtually unimpeded
by the atmosphere. Nitrogen, the major constituent of Earth's atrno-
sphere, was conspicuously absent. Hydrogen and oxygen, both ionized
and neutral, were detected in small quantities, possibly the result of
the breakup of water vapor and carbon dioxide by solar energy.
Infrared Spectrometer
The infrared spectrometer was designed to detect a wide variety of
possible atmospheric species, including oxides and other compounds
of hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur. In addition the instrument
provided a measure of surface temperature and offered the possibility
of obtaining reflection spectra identifying surface constituents.
The instrument used two semiconductor detectors, one cooled to

165"K by radiation, the other to 22OK by a two-stage Joule-Thompson
cryostat using N, and H,. Rotating filters provided a spectral scan
from 1.9 to 6.0 microns on the first channel and from 4.0 to 14.3 mi-
crons on the cryogenic channel. Most of the chemical species sought
were not present at the detection limit; however, clouds of solid car-
bon dioxide and of water ice were observed, and solid carbon dioxide
was detected in the vicinity of the South Polar Cap. In addition,
reflection spectra indicative of silica or silicates were detected above
the limb, suggesting either dust clouds or finely divided surface
material. Surface topography could be inferred from varying carbon
dioxide abundance (corresponding to the height of the atmosphere).
Infrared Radiometer
The infrared radiometer measured the surface temperature along
the path viewed by the television cameras. It consisted of an optical
This spectrum of the South

Polar Cap, obtained by the
infrared spectrometer, con-
tains features (labeled X and
Y ) indicating solid carbon di-
oxide is present either on the
cap or in the atmosphere
above the cap.
WAVELENGTH, microns
SPACE NIGHT SPACE
\ HELLAS
POLAR CAP
Since the infrared radiometer was aligned parallel to the television cameras,
this infrared temperature data acquired by Mariner 7 shows the temperature
at the centers of television pictures and along lines connecting these centers.
Notice the temperature of the Polar Cap, approximately as cold as frozen carbon
dioxide would be at the prevailing Martian conditions.
system with dual thermopile detectors which sensed the thermal radia-
tion in the 8- to 12-micron and 18- to 25-micron bands from a tiny
region along the track of the centers of the television pictures.
Temperatures as warm as the 280-290°K range were observed in

the equatorial latitudes, and a value approximating the frost point of
carbon dioxide at prevailing conditions was reached near the South
Pole. Few thermal anomalies were observed; generally the sunlit dark
regions were warmer than corresponding bright deserts, and the tem-
perature declined as expected as the field of view approached and
crossed the evening terminator. The darkest classical feature on Mars,
Syrtis Major, was observed beyond the terminator and appeared still
to be warmer than the surrounding terrain.
S-Band Occultation
Four times during the Mariner Mars 1969 encounters, the radio signal
between the spacecraft and Earth passed through the atmosphere of
Mars. Each spacecraft trajectory was designed so that the Mariner
passed behind Mars as seen from Earth, permitting the occultation
analysis at four widely separated points above Mars. The coherent
radio signal was bent and retarded by the intervening atmosphere, and
the physical properties of the air were investigated. The four locations
and the planetary radius and atmospheric pressure and temperature at
the surface are given below:
Radius, Pressure, Temperature,

Location kilometers millibars O F
Meridiani Sinus, 4"N, 4"W 3393 6.6 37
North Polar, 7g0N,276"W 3373 6.4 - 172
Hellespontus, 58"S, 330"W 3383 3.8 - 79
Amazonis, 38"N, 148" W 3378 7.0 - 99
Celestial Mechanics
The accuracy with which the Mariner spacecraft were tracked per-
mitted investigators to infer the masses, positions, and motions of
those celestial bodies whose gravitational fields influence the space-
craft. These include the Sun, the Earth and Moon, Mars, and to a
lesser extent, Jupiter and other planets. Data obtained from Mariner 6
and 7 confirmed calculations based on previous flights.
FAR ENCOUNTER PICTURES
CHAPTER 3
The Far Encounter Pictures
Earth-based investigators were unable to photograph details smaller

than about 100 kilometers (62 miles) on Mars. The Mariner 4 tele-
vision experiment, therefore, was a significant advance, for it showed
detail as small as about 3 kilometers. However, the area covered by an
entire Mariner 4 picture was comparable to the smallest "point" seen
from Earth, and thus it was not possible to confidently relate the
"microscopic" Mariner 4 views to the telescopic Earth-based views. To
compensate for this resolution disparity, Mariners 6 and 7 took a far
encounter sequence of pictures showing the entire Martian disk at
much higher resolution than was possible from Earth. These far en-
counter pictures permitted more reliable interpretation of the later
near encounter pictures. Moreover, since the near encounter pictures
show only about 20% of the Martian surface, the far encounter pic-
tures, providing coverage of almost the entire planet, contain much
data that is independently interesting.
Two days before its closest encounter with Mars, Mariner 6 began
taking telephoto pictures of the approaching planet. Mariner 7, start-
ing 4 days later, took such pictures during 3 days prior to encounter.
Both spacecraft approached Mars from slightly south of the equator,
so that the South Pole was always tilted about 5 deg toward the cam-
era and the North Pole was out of view just over the northern horizon.
As Mars rotated, features emerged from the western morning termi-

nator, moved to the right (north is at the top) across the planet's disk,
and disappeared behind the eastern late afternoon limb. Because the
sun was not directly behind the spacecraft, a portion of the disk was
not illuminated. It should be remembered, also, that the automatic
gain control, described in Chapter 2, was not used during far encoun-
ter, and thus the pictures closely represent the actual appearance
of Mars.
During the 3 days of Mariner 7's far encounter, the spacecraft's distance from
Mars changed from approximately 1,840,000 t o 130,000 kilometers, causing a corre-
sponding increase in the apparent size of Mars.
NORTH POLAR HOOD
MARGARITIFER SINUS
MARE AClDAtlUM
JWENTAE FONS
TRACTUS ALBUS MERIDIAN1 SlNUS
TITHONIUS LACUS
AURORAE SINUS
MARE ERYTHRAEUM
AONIUS SINUS
SOUTH POLAR CAP
NORTH POLAR HOOD

MARE AClDALlUM
TITHONIUS LACUS
N I X OLYMPICA
AMAZONIS
)PRATES
PHAETHONTIS
SOUTH POLAR CAP
7F0, the last picture taken to calibrate the camera pointing direc-
tion, is interesting because it was one of the few taken of this area
of Mars. Normally during this segment of Mars' rotation, the tape
recorders were being played back to Earth and thus no pictures were
acquired.
In 7F0, the dark features in the center are Aurorae Sinus and
Margaritifer Sinus (see sketch simulating 7FO). Protruding from the
eastern limb is Meridiani Sinus, and just emerging from the western
terminator is the Earth-observed "canal," Coprates. Frame 7F1, taken
almost 5 hours later, shows that Coprates has rotated to the extreme
eastern side of the disk (see sketch simulating 7F1). Also visible, just
southwest of Coprates, is the prominent dark feature Solis Lacus.
Across the center of the disk stretches the desert Amazonis, whose
mottled and streaked appearance suggests that greater detail is present
than can be seen in this very early view. The dark area between
Amazonis and the South Polar Cap is Mare Sirenum and Aonius Sinus.
NORTH POUR H O O D 7
/--NIX OLYMPICA
PROPONTIS -
ELYSIUM -.,;... -./
-- .. .
---
-4 9
CERBERUS
C.
i . "W" CLOUD
AMAZONIS -
....,.-- ------
MARE ClMMERlUM MARE SIRENUM
PHAETHONTIS
SOUTH POUR CAP
From these far encounter pictures, it has been determined that the
South Polar Cap extended northward to about 60 degrees south lati-
tude. This is within a degree of the seasonal location predicted by
astronomers and illustrates the regularity with which the cap advances
and recedes. Just visible near the terminator in 7F9 are two small dark
spots: Cerberus and Propontis (see sketch simulating 7F9). These
features border the eastern part of the desert Elysium. Also, near the
limb of 7F9, there is a bright area which becomes brighter in the later
afternoon pictures, 7F10-11, climaxing as a very bright spot right at
the limb in 7F12 and 7F13. This afternoon brightening correlates with
Earth observations of this region but remains unexplained. Release of
water vapor from the soil is an interesting possibility.
NORTH POLAR HOOD
NODUS LAOCOONTIS
MARE TYRRHENUM
MARE ClMMERlUM
SOUTH POLAR CAP
As Cerberus and Propontis continue across the disk, the Polar Cap
begins to show ragged detail along its northern edge, as in 7F15.
Similarly: in 7F16, it becomes evident that the boundary between the
dark Mare Cimmerium and the light Aeolis is ragged and broken, not
smooth and regular. Also, light and dark variations become prominent
near the North Pole (see sketch simulating 7F17).
NORTH POLAR HOOD-
TRIVIUM CHARONTIS
MARE TYRRHENUM
MARE ClMMERlUM
SOUTH POLAR CAP
Syrtis Major, a large, dark, triangular-shaped feature, appears in the

morning sunlight in 7F23. Midway between Syrtis Major and Cerberus
is the dark spot Nodus Laocoontis. Also more apparent in these pic-
tures is the bright "hood around the North Pole. This hood appears
to consist of a haze which had formed over the north polar region at
the time of encounter.
NORTH POLAR HOOD
-7
NODUS LAOCOONTIS
SYRTIS MAJOR
MARE TYRRHENUM
MARE SERPENTIS
SOUTH POLAR CAP
The circular desert Hellas is very apparent south of Syrtis Major and
just north of the South Polar Cap (see sketch simulating 7F25).
Hellas, like the regions in Amazonis, brightens as it approaches the
limb. However, unlike the Amazonis features, Hellas is plainly visible
from the early morning terminator throughout the day.
NORTH POLAR HOOD
7
SABAEUS SlNUS
SYRTlS MAJOR
MERlDlANl SlNUS
DEUCALIONIS REGlO
SOUTH POLAR CAP
MARGARITIFER SlNUS
MARE AClDALlUM
JWENTAE FONS
TRACTUS ALBUS MERIDIAN1 SINUS
TlTHONlUS LACUS
AURORAE SlNUS
MARE ERYTHRAEUM
AONIUS SlNUS
SOUTH POLAR CAP
Extending to the west of Syrtis Major is the long dark Sabaeus Sinus,
culminating in the two-pronged Meridiani Sinus (see sketch simulat-
ing 7F33). Meridiani Sinus marks the zero point of the Martian longi-
tude system.
7F33 was the last picture to be recorded on the first Mariner 7 tape
load. During the next 6 hours, these 33 pictures were read from the
recorder and transmitted to earth. Also, during this time Mars rotated
so that Meridiani Sinus was on the eastern limb when the next picture,
7F35, was taken. Frame 7F35, showing much the same view of Mars
as 7F0, now reveals greater detail. The northern boundary of
Aurorae Sinus is seen to be ragged with several disconnected small
markings in the lighter area. Another dark spot, Oxia Palus, is now
visible just north of the tip of Margaritifer Sinus. North of Coprates is
an additional marking, Juventae Fons.
NORTH POLAR HOOD
r cHRysE
MARGARITIFER SINUS
MARE AClDALlUM
JWENTAE FONS
TRACTUS ALBUS MERIDIAN1 SINUS
TlTHONlUS LACUS
AURORAE SINUS
MARE ERYTHRAEUM
SOLIS LACUS
AONIUS SINUS
This page begins the side-by-side comparison of similar Mariner 6

and 7 far encounter pictures. For both spacecraft, these pictures were
taken between 48 and 24 hours prior to flyby. Each Mariner 6 picture
was taken 5 days before the corresponding Mariner 7 picture. After
extensive analysis and computer correction, there remains a significant
difference between the appearance of pictures from the two space-
craft, a difference that is still unexplained, but is probably due to the
television system, not to Mars.
These pictures show more clearly the irregularity of the South Polar
Cap edge and the dark Mare Acidalium, in the northern latitudes.
NORTH POLAR H O O D 7
MARE AClDALlUM
TlTHONlUS LACUS
NIX OLYMPICA
AMAZONIS
PHOENlClS LACUS COPRATES

SOLIS LACUS
MARE SIRENUM ,-.--'-'-* AONIUS SINUS

PHAETHONTIS
SOUTH POLAR CAP
As Solis Lacus and Coprates move towards the limb, it becomes

evident that Amazonis, long thought to be an uninteresting area of
Mars, exhibits a great deal of fine detail. Apparent in 7F44 is the
circular feature Nix Olyrnpica, which had been known from Earth as
an area that often showed seasonal variations in brightness. There
appears to be a very complex and interesting arrangement of light
features on this face of Mars.
NORTH POLAR HOOD-
TlTHONlUS LACUS
NIX OLYMPICA
AMAZONIS
MARE SIRENUM AONIUS SINUS

PHAETHONTIS
SOUTH POLAR CAP
Both 6F8 and 7F47 show Cerberus and Propontis once again emerg-
ing from nighttime. They also reveal the gradual brightening of the
features in Amazonis as these features nioved toward afternoon.
NORTH POLAR HOOD---\
.-.:
PROPONTIS ,=-
ELYSIUM
,.---,
CERBERUS
AMAZONIS

PHAETHONTIS
SOUTH POLAR CAP
The brightening of the Amazonis features climaxes in 6Fll and

7F50, where several of the spots are seen right at the limb. The bright
region seen in 7F9 can now be identified as several smaller spots,
Another bright region, Phaethontis, does not brighten appreciably as
it moves toward the afternoon limb. Rather, like Hellas, it appears to
remain fairly constant in brightness.
NORTH POUR HOOD-
TRIVIUM CHARONTIS
NODUS LAOCOONTIS
MARE TYRRHENUM
p
MARE ClMMERlUM
PHAETHONTIS
SOUTH POLAR CAP

7F17
Careful conlparison of the Mariner 6 pictures with those from

hfariner 7 suggests that the Polar Cap edge had changed very little if
at all during the 5 days between observations. Comparing these pic-
tures with those taken farther from the planet, e.g., 7F15, one notices
that these pictures show much greater detail in the northern boundary
of Mare Cimmerium. Particularly prominent is the linear projection
Cyclopia, pointing toward the circular Elysium. Also, the northern
polar "hood" is more clearly defined than in the earlier pictures.
NORTH POLAR HOOD-
TRNIUM CHARONTIS
MARE TYRRHENUM
MARE ClMMERlUM
w SOUTH POLAR CAP
In these pictures, Nodus Laocoontis is seen more clearly to be a

diffuse dark region in Aethiopis. Also, there now appears to be a fairly
definite western boundary or gap in the north polar "hood."
NORTH POLAR HOOD-
NODUS LAOCOONTIS
SYRTlS MAJOR
MARE TYRRHENUM
MARE SERPENTIS
SOUTH POLAR CAP
The region between Syrtis Major and Nodus Laocoontis is now seen
in greater detail and reveals a mottled appearance. Compare these
pictures with the Earth-based photograph in Chapter 1.
NORTH POLAR H O O D 7
NODUS LAOCOONTIS
SYRTIS MAJOR
AERlA
IAPYGIA MARE TYRRHENUM
/--.. ..
MARE SERPENTIS
AUSONIA
HELLAS
SOUTH POLAR CAP
At this distance, a small dark feature may be identified just west of

the tip of Syrtis Major. The resolution of these pictures is substantially
better than that attainable from the best Earth-based observations.
NORTH POLAR HOOD 7
MERIDIAN1 SlNU
DEUCALIONIS REG1
SOUTH POLAR CAP
The pictures from both spacecraft show a definite darkening over

the southern limb. This could be either a surface property or a haze
that had accumulated over the Polar Cap.
NORTH POLAR HOOD 7
ISMENIUS LACUS
THYMIAMATA
MARE AClDALlUM
MERIDIAN1 SINUS
OXlA PALUS
SYRTIS MAJOR
MARGARITIFER SINUS
SABAEUS SINUS
DEUCALlONlS REGlO
MARE ERMHRAEUM
MARE SERPENTIS
SOUTH POLAR CAP
7F66 and 7F67 reveal clearly that the feature Edom, in the notch
at the junction of Meridiani Sinus and Sabaeus Sinus, is actually an
oval crater approximately 600 kilometers in diameter. Notice also the
definite brightening of Syrtis Major as it approaches the limb. This
effect contrasts with the relatively constant brightness of another dark
feature, Solis Lacus, as can be seen in 7F4345.
NORTH POLAR HOOD -7
THYMIAMATA
MARE AClDALlUM
MERlDlANl SINUS
OXlA PALUS
SYRTIS MAJOR
MARGARITIFER SINUS
SABAEUS SINUS
DEUCALlONlS REGlO
MARE ERYTHRAEUM
MARE SERPENTIS
NOACHIS
SOUTH POLAR CAP
NORTH POLAR HOOD 7 rCHRYSE

MARGARITIFER SINUS
MARE AClDALlUM OXlA PALUS
JWENTAE FONS
TRACTUS ALBUS
MERlDlANl SINUS
TlTHONlUS MCUS
AURORAE SINUS
MARE ERYTHRAEUM
AONIUS SINUS
SOUTH POLAR CAP
The pictures on this page are arranged sequentially because the

Mariner 6 and 7 pictures of this region do not correspond. Frame 6F33
was being recorded when the Mariner 6 tape recorder reached the end
of its tape after the first day of far encounter, and 7F69 was the first
picture to be taken by Mariner 7 during its third day of far encounter.
The remaining far encounter pictures, starting with 71769, are printed
at half the scale of the previous pictures.
These Mariner 6 pictures provide the best far encounter coverage

obtained of the Margaritifer Sinus region and show very clearly Oxia
Palus and the definite mottling north of Aurorae Sinus (see sketch
simulating 6F30). Frames 7F69 and 70 show this same Aurorae Sinus
region farther along toward the limb. Notice in these two pictures the
three dark north-south streaks in this mottled area. Notice also that
the "canal" Coprates can now be identified as a sequence of separate
dark features aligned roughly east-west.
NORTH POLAR HOOD-
MARE AClDALlUM
TlTHONlUS LACUS

SOLIS LACUS
AONIUS SINUS
SOUTH POLAR CAP
6F34 is the first picture taken during the final day of the Mariner 6
far encounter. These views clearly show the abundant Amazonis detail
promised by the previous day's pictures (e.g., 7F42). Nix Olympica is
seen as two bright concentric rings, possibly a very large crater; and
other similar, circular features appear throughout the "scrambled
area northwest of Coprates. In addition, several bright linear "wisps"
appear in these pictures near the North Pole. They too brighten
noticeably as they move toward afternoon. It has been suggested that
they are clouds, but their identical position after 5 days tends to refute
this possibility. Another interesting feature now visible is the dark area
with an "M" shape, Phoenicis Lacus.
NORTH POLAR HOOD-
MARE AClDALlUM
TlTHONlUS LACUS

SOLIS LACUS
MARE SIRENUM AONIUS SINUS
SOUTH POLAR CAP
As the Amazonis region moves toward the limb, many of the briglit
"
markings become less distinct while the northern wisps" continue to
brighten. The South Polar Cap edge now reveals a crater due south of
Nix Olyrnpica in 6F36 and 7F75. Such apparent topographic detail
suggests that some of the ground underlying the snow is cratered,
similar to other Martian areas.
NORTH POLAR HOOD-
PROPONTIS
-.
: ...... --.-
! Q, -:-.
ELYSIUM \ ' ..A- ..
CERBERUS
AMAZONIS
..-.&.*...-"-,.,.-./
I.. --"
PHAETHONTIS
SOUTH POLAR CAP
As Cerberus emerges from night and assumes a distinctive "fish7'

shape, parts of Amazonis, which were not identifiable at the center of
the disk, become brilliant spots near the limb. Frame 7F79 is iiiterest-
ing, for it shows the larger of the two Martian moons, Phobos, as a
small dot just east of Cerberus. From this and other pictures showing
Phobos, its location has been defined more accurately than Earth-
based data had permitted.
NORTH POLAR HOOD
TRIVIUM CHARONTIS
NODUS LAOCOONTlS
MARE TYRRHENUM
a MARE ClMMERlUM
u
I
PHAETHONTIS
SOUTH POLAR CAP
As the spacecraft continues to approach Mars, the ragged northern

boundary of Mare Cimmerium becomes still more diffuse and ill-
defined. In the Mariner 7 pictures, the dark mottled areas now begin
to reveal numerous craters, and a distinct crater is now visible at the
northern tip of Cyclopia. Frames 7F81 and 7F82 show an interesting
"lump7' on the southeastern limb. Subsequent analysis has shown
this "lump" to be a detached haze layer in the atmosphere above
the Martian surface. The Mariner 6 pictures show a bright area,
Phaethontis, southeast of Mare Cimmeriuin.
NORTH POLAR HOOD
NODUS LACXO
MARE TYRRHENUM
MARE ClMMERlUM
SOUTH POLAR CAP
Closer views continually reveal more craters in the dark areas. Also,
in 7F83 there are two very bright spots in the northern half of
Elysium. These pictures correspond roughly to the Earth-based view
in Chapter 1.
N O R T H POLAR H O O D
7
NODUS LAOCOONTIS
AMRE TYF!RHENUM
SABAEUS S I N U S
MARE SERPENTIS
S O U T H POLAR C A P
A large crater (about 500 kilometers in diameter) appears in

Iapygia, near Sabaeus Sinus.
NORTH POLAR HOOD 7
SABAEUS SINUS
SYRTlS MAJOR
MERlDIANl SINUS
DEUCALlONlS REGlO
SOUTH POLAR CAP
These pictures show a multitude of craters in Syrtis Major. Like

7F82, Frame 6F49 shows a definite layer of haze off the eastern limb.
From a study of the far encounter limb data, it has been determined
that there are definite haze layers in the Martian atmosphere but that
these layers are not uniformly distributed over the whole planet.
Playback of the final 25 Mariner 7 far encounter pictures was com-
pleted about 3 hours before the spacecraft was to fly by Mars. During
the remaining time, the cameras were once again turned toward Mars
to acquire the closest far encounter pictures of the mission (down to
42,000 kilometers from the surface). These pictures were not recorded
on the tape recorder, soon to be needed during near encounter; instead,
the digital video form of these pictures was transmitted directly to
Earth as the pictures were taken. In the digital video format, a column,
known as the "jail bar," in the central area of the picture is blocked out
and only every seventh pixel is transmitted for the remaining four-
fifths of the picture. (Three of these pictures were combined to make
the color picture in the Frontispiece of this atlas.)
This close to the planet, it was possible to begin using the wide-
angle Camera A with its four color filters: red, blue, and two greens.
In these pictures, the blacked-out "jail bar" obscured the eastern por-
tion of the planet. As observed froill Earth, the Martian surface shows
greatest contrast in red light and least in blue. Near the North Pole
in the blue picture there is a conspicuous bright feature which does
not appear so prominently in the red and green. This evidence sug-
gests that there was a blue-colored haze in the polar region at the
time of Mariner encounter.
BLUE GREEN
RED GREEN
77
This narrow-angle picture shows the southeast limb of the planet.
Visible just beyond the limb is evidence of an atillospheric haze layer.
NEAR ENCOUNTER PICTURES
CHAPTER
The Near Encounter Pictures
The near encounter pictures are presented here in chronological

order. The total set of 57 pictures has been divided into five groups,
each corresponding to a contiguous series of pictures taken while the
cameras were pointed in a specific direction. The odd-numbered
frames, e.g., 6N9, were taken with the wide-angle camera and are
called "A" frames; the even-numbered pictures, taken with the narrow-
angle camera, are called "B" frames. The five picture groups are:
6N1-8, Aurorae Sinus

6N9-25, Meridiani Sinus
7NlO-20, South Polar Cap
7N21-32, Noachis-Mellas
Opposite: Mariner 6 (top) took pictures of the equatorial region of Mars;

Mariner 7 (bottom) flew by farther south, taking pictures primarily of the south-
erly latitudes and the South Polar Cap. The picture outlines have been super-
imposed upon a globe made from Earth-based observations.
Aurorae Sinus
As Mars appeared in the television field-of-view, Mariner 6 began
to record pictures on its tape recorders. The first eight pictures, taken
of the limb, Aurorae Sinus, and Pyrrhae Regio, revealed two significant
features: evidence of atmospheric haze at the limb and a previously
unidentified, uncratered type of "chaotic" terrain. Far encounter pic-
tures of this area, such as 7F69, showed several dark north-south
streaks and a very mottled texture. Although it is not positively iden-
tifiabre, there appears to be a haze layer just beyond the limb in 6N1.
This would corroborate the thin haze layers seen in some of the far
encounter pictures.
High resolution frames 6N6, 8, and 14 show a jumbled, broken type

of terrain which has been labelled "chaotic." Careful study of both
the narrow- and wide-angle frames suggests that chaotic terrain covers
a substantial portion of 6N5, 7, and 9, and that it does not clearly
resemble any areas on either the Earth or Moon. In the B frames this
terrain appears to be topographically depressed, lower than the sur-
rounding cratered areas. Since there are few if any recognizable cra-
ters in this chaotic area, it is inferred that chaotic terrain is younger
than the surrounding cratered terrain and, perhaps, is presently devel-
oping and expanding into cratered areas. (Frame 6N14, which for-
tuitously overlapped this group of pictures, is discussed in the
Meridiani Sinus group. )
Enhanced photometric version
6N1 (opposite), of the Martian limb over the Candor region, shows
evidence of an atmospheric haze layer just beyond the limb. At bottom
is an enhanced photometric version of 6Nl.
Beginning with 6N1, a photometric version of each wide-angle pic-

ture will be included ( except for 6N23 and 6N25 ). This version, which
has been contrast-enhanced, provides an indication of the actual ap-
pearance of Mars.
6N2 (above) is a highly foreshortened, high-resolution picture of

the region very close to the limb.
6N3 (opposite), including northern Aurorae Sinus, shows some of
the dark streaks that were prominent in 7F69. The dark band down
the center of the picture is due to the residual image (an instrumental
defect described in Chapter 2) of 6N1 and does not actually appear
on the Martian surface. At bottom is an enhanced photometric version
of 6N3.
6N4 (above) hints at topographic detail, but no features have yet

been positively identified.
6N5 (opposite) provides a panorama of territory in which chaotic
terrain has been located. At the moderate resolution of this wide-angle
view, it is not possible to identify this terrain's small tell-tale detail-
such identification depends on use of the narrow-angle frames located
within these A frames. At bottom is an enhanced photometric version
of 6N5.
6N6 (above) is a narrow-angle frame that clearly shows the jum-

bled, broken, and blocky terrain. There is a definite boundary, down
the center of this picture, between the chaotic terrain in the western
half and the smoother, cratered terrain to the east.
6N7 (opposite) is the only A frame sharp enough to allow direct
discrimination between chaotic and cratered areas on the basis of topo-
graphic texture. It also contains all three B frames, 6N6, 8, and 14,
which show these boundaries at higher resolution. At bottom is an
enhanced photometric version of 6N7.
6N8 (above) shows another example, in the lower right corner, of

a boundary between cratered and chaotic areas. Notice the fissures
apparently extending from this boundary into the cratered terrain.
Such fissures add to evidence that chaotic terrain is probably younger
than and encroaching upon the cratered terrain.
After recording 6N8, the Mariner 6 computer "slewed the television
cameras to point farther north and photograph the dark feature
Meridiani Sinus. Later, after 6N13, a second slew directed the cam-
eras southward again to s t ~ ~ dthey boundary between the dark
Sabaeus Sinus and lighter Deucalionis Regio. In far encounter,
Meridiani Sinus and Sabaeus Sinus appeared as very we11 defined
dark features extending to the west of Syrtis Major (7F67, 6F30). In lo0
trying to identify such albedo variations in these near encounter pic-
tures, it is important to remember the on-board processing explained
in Chapter 2, which served to minimize the visibility of such large
albedo variations. Careful comparison of light and dark areas has not
yielded any sure explanation of the difference between them. The
tentative conclusion has been offered, however, that some light areas
are areas of lower elevation onto which light dust has been trans-
ported, possibly by winds.
These 17 pictures also offer the most extensive and comprehensive

coverage of Martian cratered terrain and thus lend themselves to
comparison with pictures of the Earth's moon. Such analysis has re-
vealed that, unlike the Moon, Mars has two distinct crater classes:
small, young, bowl-shaped craters and larger, older, flat-bottomed
craters, which have been strongly modified by unknown processes.
E~lllaiicedphoto~netricversion
6N9 (opposite) is a somewhat oblique view of the western side of
Meridiani Sinus. There are perhaps some areas of chaotic terrain in
the lower left corner. At bottom is an enhanced photometric version
of 6N9.
6N10 (above) shows several of the small bowl-shaped craters that

are believed to be relative newcomers to the Martian landscape. Their
youth is inferred from the lack of extensive erosion evident in the
larger craters. The two faint, dark annular features in the upper center
of 6N10 are defects of the Mariner 6 B camera, characteristic of all
pictures taken with this camera; they are not markings on Mars.
6 N l l (opposite), another view of the Meridiani Sinus area, shows
an abundance of the older, flat-bottomed craters. At bottom is an en-
hanced photometric version of 6 N l l .
6 N l 2 (above) provides another high-resolution view of the

Meridiani Sinus area.
6N13 is the best Mariner 6 picture of Meridiani Sinus. An enhanced
photometric version, with the albedo variations apparent, is shown in
Chapter 2 and should be studied to better identify the large dark
shape apparent earlier in far encounter pictures. This version, how-
ever, shows clearly the very definite and intricate eastern boundary of
Meridiani Sinus. At the far right of the picture is the western portion
of the large crater Edom, seen in far encounter, 7F67. Notice that the
floors of many craters within Meridiani Sinus appear to be covered
partially with light material and partially with dark material. This
observation has led some geologists to surmise that a light-colored
material, such as dust, has been transported from the light areas into
the depressed crater bottoms.
6N14 is the first picture taken after the cameras were slewed back
to the original track and tilted westward. This is a highly foreshort-
ened view of chaotic terrain; and, fortuitously, this picture overlaps
6N6, taken more than 4 minutes earlier. Notice the fissures which
appear to be expanding into cratered terrain from the depressed,
chaotic "valley."
Enhanced photonletric version
6N15 (opposite) includes a portion of the limb in the upper left
corner of this view looking back at Aurorae Sinus and Pyrrhae Regio.
Notice the same diagonal features as those seen in 6N7. At bottom is
an enhanced photometric version of 6N15.
6N16 (above) provides a ready conlparisoil between the two char-

acteristic kinds of Martian craters. The large crater just right of center
is an example of a large (approximately %-kilometer diameter) flat-
bottomed crater, with subdued edges and evidence of extensive modi-
fication. On its rim is a small bowl-shaped crater with very sharp
edges and a lip that appears to be slightly elevated above the sur-
rounding ground.
6N17 (opposite) shows another expanse of cratered terrain. At bot-
ton1 is an enhanced photometric version of 6N17.
6N18 (above) contains in the lower left the edge of what is appar-
ently a large, nearly obliterated "ghost" crater. While the prominent
crater in the upper middle of 6N18 may be easily identified in 6N14,
this larger "ghost" crater edge is not apparent in the A frame.
Enhanced photonletsic version
6N19 (opposite) continues the panorama of Martian craters. At
bottom is an enhanced photometric version of 6N19.
6N20 (above) shows at the left a crater with a concentric double-

ring appearance and, at the right, a ridge-like feature more than
50 kilometers long.
Enhailced photometric versioil
6N21 (opposite) includes the boundary between dark Sabaeus Sinus
and light Deucalionis Regio. Careful crater counts in both regions indi-
cate there is no significant difference between crater distributions in
light and dark areas. At bottom is an enhanced photometric version
of 6N21.
6N22 (above), illuminated by a low Sun (14 degrees above the

horizon), reveals a surface with a great deal of subtle topography.
6N23 (above) was taken at the afternoon terminator. Detail is less
apparent than in 6N21, an effect due perhaps to greater surface ob-
scuration by an atmospheric haze or to the difference in filters through
which the pictures were taken.
6N24 (opposite, top), taken in very dim light, shows several pos-
sible craters.
6N25 (opposite, bottom) was taken beyond the terminator.

Mariner 7 also obtained pictures of Meridiani Sinus during its near
encounter sequence. One of the most interesting aspects of these pic-
tures, however, is the information they have provided about possible
haze layers in the Martian atmosphere. Meteorologic analysis of this
information has led to the following conclusion: Above this portion
of the Martian surface there were probably three distinct, colorless
haze layers located between 5 and 45 kilometers above the surface.
7N1 (opposite) clearly presents the limb haze at the bottom of the
picture. At bottom is an enhanced photometric version of 7N1.
4N2 (above) was fortuitously taken of the limb. This high-resolution

view clearly shows the detachment of the haze layer from the surface.
7N3 (opposite) shows the cratered terrain north of Meridiani Sinus.
At bottom is an enhanced photo~netricversion of 7N3.
7N4 (above) shows the fairly indistinct outline of several highly

foreshortened craters.
7N5 (opposite) presents the dark mass of Meridiani Sinus. Again,
reference to the photometric version is useful. Many of the craters
seen here are readily identified in the Mariner 6 near encounter pic-
tures. Also, near the limb at the bottom of the picture is the eastern
portion of dark Oxia Palus (compare 7F35 and 6F33). At bottom is
an enhanced photometric version of 7N5.
7N6 (above) probably overlaps a small portion of the Mariner 6

B frame, 6N12. Again notice the light appearance of part of many of
the crater bottoms.
7N7 (above) shows again the intricate detail
of the eastern edge of Meridiani Sinus.
4N8 (opposite, top) provides a more detailed

view of the craters south of Meridiani Sinus.
The Sun is almost directly above this region, a
possible explanation of the subdued appearance
of this topography.
7N9 (opposite, bottom) reveals more of the

crater Edom than was visible in 6N13. This pic-
t.ure, taken through a blue filter, shows lower
contrast than 4N5 or 7, supporting Earth-based
observations that the Martian surface exhibits 7N7
reduced contrast in blue light.
South Polar
Mariner 6 far encounter pictures had shown there was tantalizing
detail prominent both in the interior and along the edge of the South
Polar Cap. This observation motivated the mission scientists and engi-
neers to increase the Mariner 7 near encounter Polar Cap coverage
from six pictures to ten pictures. After finishing their trace across
Meridiani Sinus, the television cameras were slewed far south to the
Polar Cap edge. These two mosaics provide the most graphic illustra-
tion of the operation of the automatic gain control, described in
Chapter 2. The top mosaic shows the Polar Cap as it would have
actually appeared to an observer aboard the spacecraft. The second
mosaic shows the maximum definition versions of these pictures. In
this lower version, notice that the Polar Cap is about the same shade
of grey as the bare ground to the left and that a very dark band has
been artificially introduced along the cap edge. The attributes of this
second version, however, are obvious when one compares the fine
detail apparent both on and off the cap to the much less detailed
rendition of these same areas in the upper mosaic.
The depth of snow inferred from these pictures and the low tem-
peratures measured on the cap by the infrared radiometer have led
most investigators to conclude that the snow is frozen carbon dioxide,
"
dry ice," not frozen water like the Earth's polar caps.
7N10 (above) shows the area just north of the cap, and, because of
its bland appearance, is an enigmatic picture. Far encounter pictures,
e.g., 6F40, suggested there was a haze over the morning portion of
the Polar Cap; and such a haze, if present, could account for the lack
of detail in 7N10.
7 N l l (opposite) provides a view of the Polar Cap edge. Topo-

graphic detail is clearly seen through the snow layer. At bottom is an
enhanced photon~etricversion of 7N 11.
7N12 (above) is a deceptive telephoto view of the cap edge. Since
the sunlight is coming from the left side of the frame, what appear to
be shadowed crater walls are, in fact, the sunlit slopes from which the
snow has been melted or sublimated by the direct sunlight. The bright
slopes of the craters are the areas inclined away from the Sun where
snow still remains.
7N13 (opposite) continues the picture track across the polar cap.
For many craters, the rims appear brighter and the floors darker than
the surrounding surface. In this area, crater shapes and distributions
are similar to those of nonpolar regions on Mars. At bottom is an en-
hanced photometric version of 7N13.
7N14 (above) presents some features apparently unlike any seen
elsewhere on Mars. The large circular feature at the lower right, nick-
named the "elephant's footprint," contains several very irregularly out-
lined depressions that do not resemble craters. Here these features,
referred to as "etch pits," appear to be quite shallow.
7N15 (opposite) shows more etch pits. In addition, there is a very

unusual, lumpy texture to the surface just below and to the left of the
large, flat-bottomed crater near the right margin of the picture. At
7 N l 6 (above) introduces unusual features of seemingly positive
relief such as the bright, raised area near the picture center. Isolated
knobs and hills of this sort have not been identified elsewhere on Mars.
7N17 (opposite) includes the actual South Pole near the lower right
corner of the picture. In the vicinity of the Pole there is a noticeable
lack of craters and other features common elsewhere on the Polar Cap.
Notice, also, the alignnlent of curved streaks around the Pole. At bot-
tom is an enhanced photometric version of 7N14.
7N 18 ( above ) reveals the small-scale surface
texture and features present
- deep- within the
Polar Cap.
7N19 (opposite, top) displays a long, scal-

loped arc which stretches about 900 kilometers
across the center of the picture and appears to
separate the heavily cratered Cap areas from
the sparsely cratered central ones. The night-
time ternlinator passes through the right side of
this picture.
7N20 (opposite, bottom), the "giant's foot-

print," is a feature straddling the scalloped arc
seen in 7N19.
After passing beyond the Polar Cap terminator, the cameras were
pointed northward and back toward the limb again. The next eleven
pictures showed additional cratered areas plus a new type of terrain,
which has been described as featureless, in the floor of Hellas. As
seen in far encounter (e.g., 6F46), Hellas is a large circular area that
appears bright throughout its crossing from terminator to limb.
Enhanced photo~netricversion
7N21 (opposite), our final view of the limb, looks north toward
Meridiani Sinus, the dark area near the horizon. At bottom is an en-
7N22 (above), highly foreshortened, shows some indistinct craters

and subtle linear markings.
7N23 (opposite) includes much of Noachis. Craters seen here do
not appear to differ significantly from those in Mariner 6 pictures. At
7N24 (above) reveals more flat-bottomed craters.

7N25 (opposite) offers an interesting view of the transitional area
between cratered terrain and Hellas. The diagonal ridges in the upper
right corner characterize a gentle downward slope to the lower floor
of Hellas, in the extreme corner. At bottom is an enhanced photomet-
ric version of 7N25.
7N26 (above) is a high-resolution picture of these ridges and shows

an otherwise largely smooth surface. Notice that the ridges appear to
predate the craters in the lower left corner because the craters, like
those seen in 7N25, interrupt the ridges and are apparently not con-
trolled by the ridges.
7N27 (opposite) shows the distinctively featureless floor of Hellas.
Three craters are visible near the western boundary, but none are
clearly identified further into Hellas. Apparently, some process is oper-
ating, or has operated, in Hellas which either prevents the formation
of craters or erases such craters as they form. At bottom is an en-
7N28 (above) is evidence of the lack of visible features at a resolu-

tion of approximately 500 meters.
7N29 (opposite) covers more of the Hellas floor. At bottom is an
7N30 (above) supports. the evidence of 7N28.

7N31 (opposite) shows that even at the very low solar elevation
angle of 8 degrees there are no identifiable features. At bottom is ail
7N32 (above), like 7N31, shows the lack of identifiable features on

the floor of Hellas.
CHAPTER 5
Summary
Since the seventeenth century, Mars has captivated man's imagina-

tion. From rudimentary knowledge, man has imagined that Mars, of
all the planets, most closely resembles Earth and is perhaps capable
of supporting life. Mariner 4 abruptly reversed these visions and sug-
gested that perhaps Mars, heavily cratered and lacking Earth's dense
atmosphere and strong magnetic field, more closely resembled the
Moon. The Mariner 6 and 7 flights have finally revealed a unique
Martian character, distinctly different from that of either the Earth
or the Moon.
Martian crater shapes and size distributions differ significantly from

the lunar counterparts. Chaotic terrain appears unlike anything recog-
nized on either the Moon or the Earth; and featureless terrain has no
lunar equivalent. Dramatic Polar Cap pictures reveal long ridges and
irregular depressions of unknown nature and origin. Clearly, the handi-
work of uniquely Martian phenomena is evidenced on the surface.
Tenuous, patchy layers of haze are seen in the atmosphere above

local regions of Mars. Mars' larger moon, Phobos, is found to be the
darkest object yet identified in the solar system.
Finally, Earthlings' views of Martian "life" have undergone major

evolution. Lowell's canal-constructing race can finally be abandoned.
However, this does not eliminate the possibility that simpler microbial
life may have developed; nor does it diminish the importance of learn-
ing whether life of any kind has ever existed or presently exists on the
planet. In this connection, Dr. Norman Horowitz has warned ". . . . it
should be noted that if Mars is to be a testing ground for our notions
about the origin of life, we must avoid using these same notions to dis-
prove in advance the possibility of life on the planet."
These 200 Mariner 6 and 7 pictures, taken in a brief span of 8 days,

have told us much about our planetary neighbor and have raised many
new questions whose answers await the discoveries of future missions.
Bibliography
Glasstone, S., The Book of Mars, NASA-SP-179. National Aeronautics
and Space Administration, Washington, D.C., 1968.
Leighton, R. B., et al., "Mariner 6 and 7 Television Pictures: Prelimi-

nary Analysis," Science, Vol. 166, No. 3901, pp. 49-67, October 3,
1969.
Leighton, R. B., et al., "The Mariner 6 and 7 Pictures of Mars," Special

Supplement, Journal of Geophysical Research, January 1971.
Mariner-Mars 1964, Final Project Report, NASA SP-139. National

Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, D.C., 1967.
Mariner-Mars 1969, A Preliminary Report, NASA SP-225. National

Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, D.C., 1969.
Slipher, E. C., The Photographic Story of Mars, Sky Publishing Cor-

poration, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1962.
MARINER MARS 1969 TELEVISION EXPERIMENT TEAM
ROBERT B. LEIGHTON, California Institute of Technology
Principal Investigator
MERTON E. DAVIES RAND Corporation
ALANG. HERRIMAN Jet Propulsion Laboratory
NORGAN H. HOROWITZ California Institute of Technology
CONWAY B. LEOVY University of Washington
BRUCEC. MURRAY California Institute of Technology
ROBERT P. SHARP California Institute of Technology
BRADFORD A. SMITH New Mexico State University
ANDREW T. YOUNG Jet Propulsion Laboratory
MARINER MARS 1969 PROJECT MANAGEMENT

N. W. CUNNINGHAM, NASA Program Manager
R. A. KENNEDY, NASA Program Engineer
R. F. FELLOWS, NASA Program Scientist
H. hl. SCHURMEIER, JPL Project Manager
H. W. NORRIS, JPL Spacecraft System Manager
J. R. CASANI,
JPL Deputy Spacecraft System Manager
V. C. CLARKE, JPL Mission Analysis and Engineering Manager
J. A. STALLKAMP, JPL Project Scientist
M. S. JOHNSON, JPL Mission Operations Systems Manager
N. A. RENZETTI, JPL Tracking and Data System Manager
W. R. DUNBAR, Launch Vehicle System A4anager
Lewis Research Center
MARINER MARS 1969 TELEVISION PERSONNEL

P. M. SALOMON
S. B. SENG
W. J. SLEIGH
R. K. SLOAN
G. M. SMITH
D. L. SMYTH
L. M. SNYDER
L. A. SODERBLOM
J. M. SOHA
H. P. SQUYRES
W. D. STROMBERG
F. VESCELUS
Appendix
FAR ENCOUNTER PHOTOREFERENCE TABLE
Sub-spacecraft point
Picture Shutter Range, Phase Kilometers/
number direction km " Longitude, " W Latitude pixela
6F1 Bottom 1,244,221 21 100 -6 34.0

6F2 Bottom 1,228,388 21 109 -6 33.4
6F3 Bottom 1,212,556 21 117 -6 32.9
6F4 Bottom 1,196,724 21 126 -6 32.5
6F5 TOP 1,180,281 21 136 -6 32.1
6F6 TOP 1,164,448 21 145 -6 31.7
6F7 TOP 1,148,615 21 153 -6 31.3
6F8 TOP 1,132,782 21 162 -6 30.8
6F9 Bottom 1,116,342 21 172 -6 30.4
6F10 Bottom 1,100,507 21 181 -6 30.0
' 6Fll Bottom 1,083,790 21 190 -6 29.5
6F12 TOP 1,068,232 21 199 -6 29.0
6F13 TOP 1,052,399 21 208 -6 28.6
6F14 TOP 1,036,568 21 217 -6 28.2
6F15 TOP 1,020,733 21 226 -6 27.8
6F16 Bottom 1,004,291 21 235 -6 27.3
6F17 Bottom 988,457 21 244 -6 26.8
6F18 Bottom 972,624 21 253 -6 26.4
6F19 TOP 956,181 21 262 -6 26.0
6F20 TOP 940,347 21 271 -6 25.6
6F21 TOP 924,514 21 280 -6 25.2
6F22 Top 908,679 21 289 -6 24.7
6F23 Bottom 892,236 21 298 -6 24.3
6F24 Bottom 876,402 21 307 -6 23.8
6F25 Bottom 860,568 21 316 -6 23.4
6F26 Bottom 844,733 21 325 -6 23.0
6F27 TOP 828,289 21 334 -6 22.6
6F28 TOP 812,455 21 343 -6 22.1
6F29 TOP 796,619 21 352 -6 21.7
6F30 Bottom 780,175 21 1 -6 21.2
6F31 Bottom 764,339 21 10 -6 20.8
6F32 Bottom 748,454 21 19 -6 20.4
6F33 Bottom 732,667 21 28 -6 19.9
6F34 Bottom 568,196 21 120 -6 15.4
6F35 Bottom 540,171 21 136 -6 14.7
a6F1-33 and 7F0-67 are 480 pixels in width.
6F34-49 and 7F69-93 are 960 pixels in width.
FAR ENCOUNTER PHOTOREFERENCE TABLE (Contd)
Sub-spacecraftpoint
number direction krn " pixela
~ o n ~ i t u d'eW
; Latitude
6F36 TOP 512,753 21 151 -6 13.9

6F37 TOP 484,723 21 167 -6 13.1
6F38 Bottom 457,301 21 182 -6 12.4
6F39 Bottom 429,267 21 198 -6 11.6
6F40 Bottom 401,840 21 213 -6 10.9
6F41 Bottom 401,231 21 214 -6 10.9
6F42 Bottom 376,849 21 227 -6 10.2
6F43 Bottom 352,463 21 241 -6 9.5
6F44 Bottom 328,075 21 255 -6 8.8
6F45 TOP 304,293 21 268 -6 8.2
6F46 TOP 279,898 21 282 -6 7.5
6F47 TOP 255,498 21 295 -7 6.9
6F48 TOP 231,092 21 309 -7 6.2
6F49 TOP 206,680 21 322 -7 5.5
7F0 TOP 1,844,034 22 50 -4 50.3
7F1 Bottom 1,720,371 22 121 -4 46.9
7F3 TOP 1,697,072 22 134 -4 46.3
7F4 Bottom 1,685,722 22 141 -4 46.0
7F5 TOP 1,674,371 22 147 -4 45.7
7F6 Bottom 1,663,021 22 154 -4 45.3
7F7 TOP 1,651,670 22 160 -4 45.0
7F8 Bottom 1,640,320 22 167 -4 44.7
7F9 Bottom 1,628,371 22 173 -4 44.4
7F10 TOP 1,617,023 22 180 -4 44.1
7Fll Bottom 1,605,671 22 186 -4 43.8
7F12 TOP 1,594,321 22 193 -4 43.5
7F13 Bottom 1,582,971 22 199 -4 43.2
7F14 TOP 1,571,621 22 206 -4 42.9
7F15 TOP 1,559,673 22 213 -4 42.5
7F16 Bottom 1,548,323 22 219 -4 42.2
7F17 TOP 1,536,973 22 226 -4 41.9
7F18 Bottom 1,525,623 22 233 -4 41.6
7F19 TOP 1,514,167 22 239 -4 41.3
7F20 Bottom 1,502,923 22 246 -4 41.0
7F21 Bottom 1,490,977 22 252 -4 40.7
7F22 TOP 1,479,626 22 259 -4 40.4
7F23 Bottom 1,468,279 22 265 -4 40.1
Sub-spacecraft point
number direction km " pixela
Longitude, "W Latitude
7F24 TOP 1,453,533 22 272 -4 39.8
7F25 Bottom 1,445,577 22 278 -4 39.4
7F26 TOP 1,433,630 22 285 -4 39.1
7F27 TOP 1,422,281 22 292 -4 38.8
7F28 Bottom 1,410,931 22 298 -4 38.5
7F29 TOP 1,399,581 22 305 -4 38.2
7F30 Bottom 1,388,233 22 311 -4 37.9
7F31 TOP 1,376,882 22 318 -4 37.6
7F32 TOP 1,364,937 22 325 -4 37.3
7F33 Bottom 1,353,586 22 331 -4 37.0
' 7F35 Bottom 1,199,474 23 60 -4 32.8
7F36 TOP 1,184,540 23 68 -4 32.4
7F37 TOP 1,169,009 23 77 -4 31.9
7F38 Bottom 1,154,076 22 86 -4 31.5
7F39 Bottom 1,138,545 22 95 -4 31.1
7F40 TOP 1,123,613 23 103 -4 30.7
7F41 TOP 1,108,081 23 112 -4 30.3
7F42 TOP 1,092,551 23 121 -4 29.9
7F43 Bottom 1,077,617 23 130 -4 29.5
7F44 Bottom 1,062,086 23 139 -4 29.0
7F45 TOP 1,047,152 23 147 -4 28.6
7F46 Top 1,031,621 23 156 -4 28.2
7F47 Bottom 1,016,687 23 165 -4 27.8
7F48 Bottom 1,001,156 23 174 -4 27.3
7F49 Bottom 985,625 23 183 -4 26.9
7F50 TOP 970,691 23 191 -4 26.5
7F51 TOP 955,160 23 200 -4 26.1
7F52 Bottom 940,225 23 209 -4 25.7
7F53 Bottom 924,693 23 218 -4 25.3
71754 TOP 909,759 23 226 -4 24.8
7F55 TOP 894,227 23 235 -4 24.4
7F56 TOP 878,695 23 244 -4 24.0
7F57 Bottom 863,760 23 253 -4 23.6
7F58 Bottom 848,227 23 261 -4 23.2
7F59 TOP 833,292 23 270 -4 22.8
7F60 TOP 817,760 23 279 -4 22.4
7F61 Bottom 803,248 23 287 -4 22.0
Sub-spacecraftpoint
number direction krn " pixel"
Longitude, "W Latitude
7F62 Bottom 787,291 23 296 -4 21.5
7F63 TOP 772,355 23 305 -4 21.1
7F64 TOP 756,821 23 314 -4 20.7
7F65 TOP 741,287 23 323 -4 20.3
7F66 Bottom 726,351 23 331 -4 19.9
7F67 Bottom 710,816 23 340 -4 19.4
7F69 Bottom 535,132 23 81 -4 14.6
7F70 Bottom 514,811 23 93 -4 14.0
7F71 TOP 495,087 23 104 -4 13.5
7F72 TOP 474,764 23 116 -4 12.9
7F73 Bottom 455,037 23 127 -4 12.4
7F74 TOP 435,309 23 138 -4 11.9
7F75 TOP 414,982 23 150 -4 11.3
7F76 Bottom 395,251 23 161 -4 10.8
7F77 Bottom 374,920 23 173 -4 10.2
7F78 TOP 355,185 23 184 -4 9.7
7F79 Bottom 335,449 23 195 -5 9.1
7F80 Bottom 315,112 23 207 -5 8.6
7F81 TOP 295,370 23 218 -5 8.0
7F82 Bottom 275,625 22 230 -5 7.5
7F83 Bottom 255,279 22 241 -5 6.9
7F84 TOP 235,527 22 252 -5 6.4
7F85 TOP 215,173 22 264 -5 5.8
7F86 Bottom 195,412 22 275 -5 5.3
7F87 TOP 175,645 22 286 -5 4.8
7F88 TOP 155,273 22 298 -6 4.2
7F89 TOP 150,478 22 300 -6 4.0
7F90 Bottom 145,084 22 304 -6 3.9
7F91 Bottom 140,288 22 306 -6 3.7
7F92 TOP 134,892 22 309 -6 3.6
7F93 Tol? 130,095 22 312 -6 3.5
NEAR ENCOUNTER PHOTOREFERENCE TABLE
Picture dimension
Data at center of picture
on surface, km
Picture Shutter
number or filter slant
Phase
Solar
elevation
Viewing Longi- Latiyde7Horizontal Vertical
range, krn angle, " angle, " tude, "W
angle, "
6Nla Blue 6621 44 88 45 53 -6 - 1292
6N2 TOP 7389 52 71 70 67 4 551 143
6N3 Green 6598 52 83 57 56 -2 - 1324
6N4 Bottom 6159 52 85 51 50 -5 238 118
6N5 Red 5699 52 79 42 43 -8 2283 1127
6N6 TOP 5355 52 73 37 37 - 10 162 103
6N7 Green 5030 51 66 30 31 - 13 1492 990
BN8 Bottom 4778 52 61 25 26 - 14 128 92
6N9 Blue 4930 51 49 41 14 0 1511 1228
6N10 TOP 4727 52 44 39 10 -1 123 111
6Nll Green 4541 51 39 37 4 -3 1177 1124
6N12 Bottom 4428 52 35 38 0 -3 109 107
6N13 Red 4331 52 29 40 354 -4 1090 1130
6N14 TOP 4903 80 71 62 37 - 13 253 94
6N15 Green 4404 80 60 50 26 - 16 2202 865
6N16 Bottom 4105 80 52 42 18 - 17 123 79
6N17 Blue 3865 80 44 34 10 - 18 1270 756
6N18 TOP 3746 80 38 31 4 - 16 105 73
6N19 Green 3617 80 31 25 357 - 17 983 718
6N20 Bottom 3546 80 24 21 351 - 16 91 69
6N21 Red 3501 80 20 17 345 - 16 889 697
6N22 TOP 3498 80 14 15 340 - 15 86 69
6N23 Green 3522 80 8 15 334 - 14 880 706
6N24 Bottom 3584 80 3 18 328 - 13 88 71
7Nla Blue 8725 37 79 44 9 -5 - 1767
7N2" TOP 9766 43 58 75 13 20 - 201
7N3 Green 9118 44 67 67 59 12 - 2144
7N4 Bottom 8492 44 75 59 5 4 401 162
7N5 Red 7995 44 82 52 3 -2 - 1598
7N6 TOP 7552 44 88 46 359 -7 269 144
7N7 Green 7136 44 85 41 356 - 12 3143 1406
7N8 Bottom 6774 44 80 36 353 - 17 203 130
7N9 Blue 6443 44 74 31 350 -21 1989 1272
aFor this limb picture, the picture center was not on the planet. Therefore, the data given here is for the point at the center of
the right edge of the frame.
NEAR ENCOUNTER PHOTOREFERENCE TABLE (Contd)
Picture dimension
Data at center of picture
on surface, krn
Picture Shutter
number or filter Slant
Phase elevation
Viewing Longi- Latiyde'Horizontal Vertical
range, krn angle, " angle, " tude, " W
angle, "
7N10 TOP 6693 35 39 48 33 -54 168 190

7Nll Green 6381 35 38 45 ' 27 -57 1650 2025
7N12 Bottom 6095 35 36 43 21 -61 149 159
7N13 Red 5886 35 34 43 17 -65 1512 1690
7N14 TOP 5662 35 31 42 9 -68 142 143
7N15 Green 5495 35 28 43 1 -71 1484 1513
7N 16 Bottom 5318 35 25 43 349 -74 141 132
7N17 Blue 5195 35 21 45 334 -77 1549 1394
' 7N18 TOP 5069 35 18 46 314 -77 148 124
7N19 Green 5013 35 13 49 291 -78 1837 1356
7N20 Bottom 4971 35 8 53 269 -75 172 124
7N21 Red 5337 80 76 66 354 -21 - 1066
7N22 TOP 4818 80 66 56 346 -28 210 92
7N23 Green 4431 80 57 47 339 -34 1951 868
7N24 Bottom 4154 80 49 40 331 -38 132 80
7N25 Blue 3938 80 43 34 324 -42 1218 773
7N26 TOP 3778 80 36 29 316 -44 104 73
7N27 Green 3656 80 31 24 308 -46 989 723
7N28 Bottom 3679 80 24 28 298 -41 94 77
7N29 Red 3633 80 19 26 291 -41 925 779
7N30 TOP 3636 80 13 27 284 -39 89 78
7N31 Green 3660 80 8 28 277 - 38 915 811
NASA has prepared this map of Mars from the
Mariner 1969 television pictures. Far encounter
pictures provided the basis for most of the map,
but near encounter data was used for areas of
near encounter coverage. T o most dramatically
present the Martian topography, the cartog-
raphers used maximum-definition near encounter
pictures in their work. Since this data, unlike the
far encounter data, is not photometrically accu-
rate, there is an obvious mismatch at the bound-
aries between areas drawn from far encounter
pictures and those drawn using near encounter
data. This maximum definition data has also
caused Meridiani Sinus to appear much less
prominent than it actually is and has caused the
spurious dark band along the edge of the polar
cap. However, this map shows many features
previously unmapped and locates other features
naore accurately than was previously possible.
159
* U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1971 0-424-086

The Mariner 6 and 7 Pictures of Mars

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THE MARINER 6 AND 7

THE MARINER 6 AND 7

Prepared at Jet Propulsion Laboratory

Srrentlfic and Terh~licalI n f o r n ~ a t ~ oOffice

Modern Martian exploration began during the seventeenth century

About 1780, Sir William Herschel, continuing the work of Mdraldi,

The nineteenth century brought a host of Martian map makers. Two

In 1892, as astronomers began to study canals more carefully,

As Martian exploration entered the twentieth century, Martian life

The improvement of photography at the turn of the century intro-

This century also introduced the use of new analysis instruments,

Using a spectrometer, G. P. Kuiper discovered carbon dioxide in the

Shortly after the successful Mariner 4 mission, NASA authorized the

After more than 3 years of preparation, Mariner 6 was perched atop

This ingenuity and flexibility of operation typified the entire

Picture-taking activities for both Mariners were divided into two

Friday, August 1. A scheme has been devised to calibrate the point-

Saturday, August 2. Properly oriented once again, Mariner 7 records

Sunday, August 3. Mariner 7 records and transmits an additional 33

Tuesday, August 5. Mariner 7 plays back its 33 near encounter pic-

Postscript. At this writing 16 months later, both spacecraft are

The Television System

A television picture taken by Mariners 6 and 7 is actually an array

This numerical information was received in the telemetry from the

The Mariner 4 television experiment had shown Mars to have a very

A second uninvited feature in the pictures was the residual image

Opposite: A comparison between the maximum-definition and photometric

Other Scientific Experiments

The ultraviolet spectrometer experiment found no ozone in the

The instrument used two semiconductor detectors, one cooled to

This spectrum of the South

Temperatures as warm as the 280-290°K range were observed in

Radius, Pressure, Temperature,

Earth-based investigators were unable to photograph details smaller

As Mars rotated, features emerged from the western morning termi-

NORTH POLAR HOOD

SOUTH POUR CAP

SOUTH POLAR CAP

SOUTH POLAR CAP

Syrtis Major, a large, dark, triangular-shaped feature, appears in the

SOUTH POLAR CAP

SOUTH POLAR CAP

This page begins the side-by-side comparison of similar Mariner 6

PHOENlClS LACUS COPRATES

MARE SIRENUM ,-.--'-'-* AONIUS SINUS

As Solis Lacus and Coprates move towards the limb, it becomes

PHOENlClS LACUS COPRATES

MARE SIRENUM AONIUS SINUS

MARE ClMMERlUM MARE SIRENUM

SOUTH POLAR CAP

The brightening of the Amazonis features climaxes in 6Fll and

SOUTH POLAR CAP

Careful conlparison of the Mariner 6 pictures with those from

w SOUTH POLAR CAP

In these pictures, Nodus Laocoontis is seen more clearly to be a

SOUTH POLAR CAP

SOUTH POLAR CAP

At this distance, a small dark feature may be identified just west of

SOUTH POLAR CAP

The pictures from both spacecraft show a definite darkening over