CHAPTER 9

Heredity and
Evolution

W e have seen that reproductive processes give rise to new individuals

that are similar, but subtly different. We have discussed how some
amount of variation is produced even during asexual reproduction. And
the number of successful variations are maximised by the process of
sexual reproduction. If we observe a field of sugarcane we find very little
variations among the individual plants. But in a number of animals
including human beings, which reproduce sexually, quite distinct
variations are visible among different individuals. In this chapter, we
shall be studying the mechanism by which variations are created and
inherited. The long-term consequences of the accumulation of variations
are also an interesting point to be considered. We shall be studying this
under evolution.

9 . 1 A CCUMUL ATION OF V ARIATION

VARIA
ARIATION
DURING REPRODUCTION
Inheritance from the previous generation provides both
a common basic body design, and subtle changes in it,
for the next generation. Now think about what would
happen when this new generation, in its turn,
reproduces. The second generation will have differences
that they inherit from the first generation, as well as
newly created differences (Fig. 9.1).
Figure 9.1 would represent the situation if a single
individual reproduces, as happens in asexual
reproduction. If one bacterium divides, and then the
Figure 9.1 resultant two bacteria divide again, the four individual
Creation of diversity over succeeding bacteria generated would be very similar. There would
generations. The original organism at the top
will give rise to, say, two individuals, similar
be only very minor differences between them, generated
in body design, but with subtle differences. due to small inaccuracies in DNA copying. However, if
Each of them, in turn, will give rise to two sexual reproduction is involved, even greater diversity
individuals in the next generation. Each of will be generated, as we will see when we discuss the
the four individuals in the bottom row will be rules of inheritance.
different from each other. While some of these Do all these variations in a species have equal
differences will be unique, others will be
chances of surviving in the environment in which they
inherited from their respective parents, who
were different from each other.
find themselves? Obviously not. Depending on the
nature of variations, different individuals would have

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different kinds of advantages. Bacteria that can withstand heat will survive
better in a heat wave, as we have discussed earlier. Selection of variants
by environmental factors forms the basis for evolutionary processes, as
we will discuss in later sections.

Q U E S T I O N S

?
1. If a trait A exists in 10% of a population of an asexually reproducing
species and a trait B exists in 60% of the same population, which trait
is likely to have arisen earlier?
2. How does the creation of variations in a species promote survival?

9.2 HEREDITY
The most obvious outcome of the reproductive process still remains the
generation of individuals of similar design. The rules of heredity determine
the process by which traits and characteristics are reliably inherited. Let
us take a closer look at these rules.

9.2.1 Inherited Traits

What exactly do we mean by similarities and differences? We know that
a child bears all the basic features of a human being. However, it does
not look exactly like its parents, and human populations show a great
deal of variation.

Activity 9.1
n Observe the ears of all the students in the class. Prepare a list of
students having free or attached earlobes and calculate the (a)
percentage of students having each (Fig. 9.2). Find out about the
earlobes of the parents of each student in the class. Correlate the
earlobe type of each student with that of their parents. Based on
this evidence, suggest a possible rule for the inheritance of earlobe
types.

9.2.2 Rules for the Inheritance of Traits – (b)

Mendel’s Contributions Figure 9.2
(a) Free and (b) attached
The rules for inheritance of such traits in human beings are related to
earlobes. The lowest part
the fact that both the father and the mother contribute practically equal of the ear, called the
amounts of genetic material to the child. This means that each trait can earlobe, is closely attached
be influenced by both paternal and maternal DNA. Thus, for each trait to the side of the head in
some of us, and not
there will be two versions in each child. What will, then, the trait seen in
in others. Free and
the child be? Mendel (see box) worked out the main rules of such attached earlobes are two
inheritance, and it is interesting to look at some of his experiments from variants found in human
more than a century ago. populations.

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 Gregor Johann Mendel (1822–1884)
Mendel was educated in a monastery and went on to study science and
mathematics at the University of Vienna. Failure in the examinations for a
teaching certificate did not suppress his zeal for scientific quest. He went
back to his monastery and started growing peas. Many others had studied
the inheritance of traits in peas and other organisms earlier, but Mendel
blended his knowledge of science and mathematics and was the first one
to keep count of individuals exhibiting a particular trait in each generation.
This helped him to arrive at the laws of inheritance.

Mendel used a number of contrasting visible characters of garden

peas – round/wrinkled seeds, tall/short plants, white/violet flowers and
so on. He took pea plants with different characteristics – a tall plant and
a short plant, produced progeny by crossing them, and calculated the
percentages of tall or short progeny.
In the first place, there were no halfway characteristics in this first-
generation, or F1 progeny – no ‘medium-height’ plants. All plants were
tall. This meant that only one of the parental traits
was seen, not some mixture of the two. So the next
question was, were the tall plants in the F1
generation exactly the same as the tall plants of the
parent generation? Mendelian experiments test this
by getting both the parental plants and these F1 tall
plants to reproduce by self-pollination. The progeny
of the parental plants are, of course, all tall. However,
the second-generation, or F2, progeny of the F1 tall
plants are not all tall. Instead, one quarter of them
are short. This indicates that both the tallness and
shortness traits were inherited in the F1 plants, but
only the tallness trait was expressed. This led Mendel
to propose that two copies of factor (now called genes)
controlling traits are present in sexually reproducing
organism. These two may be identical, or may be
different, depending on the parentage. A pattern of
inheritance can be worked out with this assumption,
as shown in Fig. 9.3.
Figure 9.3
Inheritance of traits
over two generations Activity 9.2
n In Fig. 9.3, what experiment would we do to confirm that the F2
generation did in fact have a 1:2:1 ratio of TT, Tt and tt trait
combinations?

In this explanation, both TT and Tt are tall plants, while only tt is a

short plant. In other words, a single copy of ‘T’ is enough to make the
plant tall, while both copies have to be ‘t’ for the plant to be short. Traits
like ‘T’ are called dominant traits, while those that behave like ‘t’ are
called recessive traits. Work out which trait would be considered
dominant and which one recessive in Fig. 9.4.

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 What happens when pea plants showing two different
characteristics, rather than just one, are bred with each other?
What do the progeny of a tall plant with round seeds and a short
plant with wrinkled-seeds look like? They are all tall and have
round seeds. Tallness and round seeds are thus dominant traits.
But what happens when these F1 progeny are used to generate
F2 progeny by self-pollination? A Mendelian experiment will find
that some F2 progeny are tall plants with round seeds, and some
were short plants with wrinkled seeds. However, there would also
be some F2 progeny that showed new combinations. Some of them
would be tall, but have wrinkled seeds, while others would be short,
but have round seeds. You can see as to how new combinations of Figure 9.4
traits are formed in F2 offspring when factors controlling for seed
shape and seed colour recombine to form zygote leading to form x
F2 offspring (Fig. 9.5). Thus, the tall/short trait and the round RR yy rr YY
(round, green) (wrinkled, yellow)
seed/wrinkled seed trait are independently inherited.
Ry rY
9.2.3 How do these Traits get Expressed?
How does the mechanism of heredity work? Cellular DNA is F1

the information source for making proteins in the cell. A section Rr Yy

(round, yellow)
of DNA that provides information for one protein is called the
gene for that protein. How do proteins control the x
characteristics that we are discussing here? Let us take the Rr Yy
F1
Rr Yy
F1
example of tallness as a characteristic. We know that plants
have hormones that can trigger growth. Plant height can thus RY Ry rY ry

depend on the amount of a particular plant hormone. The F2

amount of the plant hormone made will depend on the RY

efficiency of the process for making it. Consider now an enzyme RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy

that is important for this process. If this enzyme works Ry

efficiently, a lot of hormone will be made, and the plant will be RRYy RRyy RrYy Rryy
tall. If the gene for that enzyme has an alteration that makes
rY
the enzyme less efficient, the amount of hormone will be less,
RrYY RrYy rrYY rrYy
and the plant will be short. Thus, genes control characteristics,
ry
or traits.
If the interpretations of Mendelian experiments we have been RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy

discussing are correct, then both parents must be contributing

315 round, yellow 9
equally to the DNA of the progeny during sexual reproduction.
We have disscussed this issue in the previous Chapter. If both 108 round, green 3

parents can help determine the trait in the progeny, both parents 101 wrinkled, yellow 3

must be contributing a copy of the same gene. This means that 32 wrinkled, green 1
each pea plant must have two sets of all genes, one inherited from 556 seeds 16

each parent. For this mechanism to work, each germ cell must
Figure 9.5 Independent inheritance of two
have only one gene set. separate traits, shape and colour of seeds
Figure 9.5
How do germ-cells make a single set of genes from the normal two Independent inheritance
copies that all other cells in the body have? If progeny plants inherited a of two separate traits,
single whole gene set from each parent, then the experiment explained shape and colour of seeds
in Fig. 9.5 cannot work. This is because the two characteristics ‘R’ and
‘y’ would then be linked to each other and cannot be independently

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 inherited. This is explained by the fact that each gene set is present, not
as a single long thread of DNA, but as separate independent pieces,
each called a chromosome. Thus, each cell will have two copies of each
chromosome, one each from the male and female parents. Every germ-
cell will take one chromosome from each pair and these may be of either
maternal or paternal origin. When two germ cells combine, they will
restore the normal number of chromosomes in the progeny, ensuring
the stability of the DNA of the species. Such a mechanism of inheritance
explains the results of the Mendel experiments, and is used by all
sexually reproducing organisms. But asexually reproducing organisms
also follow similar rules of inheritance. Can we work out how their
inheritance might work?

9.2.4 Sex Determination

We have discussed the idea that the two sexes participating in sexual
reproduction must be somewhat different from each other for a number
of reasons. How is the sex of a newborn individual
determined? Different species use very different strategies
for this. Some rely entirely on environmental cues. Thus,
in some animals like a few reptiles, the temperature at
which fertilised eggs are kept determines whether the
animals developing in the eggs will be male or female. In
other animals, such as snails, individuals can change sex,
indicating that sex is not genetically determined. However,
in human beings, the sex of the individual is largely
genetically determined. In other words, the genes inherited
from our parents decide whether we will be boys or girls.
But so far, we have assumed that similar gene sets are
inherited from both parents. If that is the case, how can
genetic inheritance determine sex?
The explanation lies in the fact that all human
chromosomes are not paired. Most human chromosomes
have a maternal and a paternal copy, and we have 22
such pairs. But one pair, called the sex chromosomes, is
odd in not always being a perfect pair. Women have a
perfect pair of sex chromosomes, both called X. But men
have a mismatched pair in which one is a normal-sized X
while the other is a short one called Y. So women are XX,
while men are XY. Now, can we work out what the
inheritance pattern of X and Y will be?
As Fig. 9.6 shows, half the children will be boys and
half will be girls. All children will inherit an X chromosome
from their mother regardless of whether they are boys or
girls. Thus, the sex of the children will be determined by
Figure 9.6
what they inherit from their father. A child who inherits
Sex determination in an X chromosome from her father will be a girl, and one
human beings who inherits a Y chromosome from him will be a boy.

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 Q U E S T I O N S
1. How do Mendel’s experiments show that traits may be dominant or

?
recessive?
2. How do Mendel’s experiments show that traits are inherited
independently?
3. A man with blood group A marries a woman with blood group O and
their daughter has blood group O. Is this information enough to tell you
which of the traits – blood group A or O – is dominant? Why or why not?
4. How is the sex of the child determined in human beings?

9.3 EVOLUTION
We have noted that there is an inbuilt tendency to variation during
reproduction, both because of errors in DNA copying, and as a result of
sexual reproduction. Let us now look at some consequences of this
tendency.

9.3.1 An Illustration
Consider a group of twelve red beetles. They live, let us assume, in some
bushes with green leaves. Their population will grow by sexual
reproduction, and therefore, can generate variations. Let us imagine also
that crows eat these beetles. The more beetles the crows eat, the fewer
beetles are available to reproduce. Now, let us think about some different
situations (Fig. 9.7) that can develop in this beetle population.

Figure 9.7 Variations in a population – inherited and otherwise

In the first situation, a colour variation arises during reproduction,

so that there is one beetle that is green in colour instead of red. This
beetle, moreover, can pass the colour on to its progeny, so that all its

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 progeny beetles are green. Crows cannot see green-coloured beetles on
the green leaves of the bushes, and therefore cannot eat them. What
happens then? The progeny of green beetles is not eaten, while the
progeny of red beetles continues to be eaten. As a result, there are more
and more green beetles than red ones in the beetle population.
In a second situation, again, a colour variation arises during
reproduction, but now it results in a beetle that is blue in colour instead
of red. This beetle can also pass the colour on to its progeny, so that all
its progeny beetles are blue. Crows can see blue-coloured beetles in the
green leaves of the bushes as well as they can see red ones, and therefore
can eat them. What happens initially? In the population, as it expands,
there are a few blue beetles, but most are red. But at this point, an
elephant comes by, and stamps on the bushes where the beetles live.
This kills most of the beetles. By chance, the few beetles that have survived
are mostly blue. The beetle population slowly expands again, but now,
the beetles in the population are mostly blue.
It is obvious that in both situations, what started out as a rare variation
came to be a common characteristic in the population. In other words,
the frequency of an inherited trait changed over generations. Since genes
control traits, we can say that the frequency of certain genes in a
population changed over generations. This is the essence of the idea of
evolution.
But there are interesting differences, too, in the two situations. In the
first case, the variation became common because it gave a survival
advantage. In other words, it was naturally selected. We can see that the
natural selection is exerted by the crows. The more crows there are, the
more red beetles would be eaten, and the more the proportion of green
beetles in the population would be. Thus, natural selection is directing
evolution in the beetle population. It results in adaptations in the beetle
population to fit their environment better.
In the second situation, the colour change gave no survival advantage.
Instead, it was simply a matter of accidental survival of beetles of one
colour that changed the common characteristic of the resultant
population. The elephant would not have caused such major havoc in
the beetle population if the beetle population had been very large. So,
accidents in small populations can change the frequency of some genes
in a population, even if they give no survival advantage. This is the notion
of genetic drift, which provides diversity without any adaptations.
Now consider a third situation. In this, as the beetle population begins
to expand, the bushes start suffering from a plant disease. The amount
of leaf material for the beetles is reduced. The beetles are poorly nourished
as a result. The average weight of adult beetles decreases from what it
used to be when leaves were plentiful, but there is no genetic change
occurring. After a few years and a few beetle generations of such scarcity,
the plant disease is eliminated. There is a lot of leaf food. At this time,
what would we expect the weight of the beetles to be?

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9.3.2 Acquired and Inherited Traits
We discussed the idea that the germ cells of sexually reproducing
populations are made in specialised reproductive tissue. If the weight of
the beetle is reduced because of starvation, that will not change the DNA
of the germ cells. Therefore, low weight is not a trait that can be inherited
by the progeny of a starving beetle. Therefore, even if some generations
of beetles are low in weight because of starvation, that is not an example
of evolution, since the change is not inherited over generations. Change
in non-reproductive tissues cannot be passed on to the DNA of the germ
cells. Therefore the experiences of an individual during its lifetime cannot
be passed on to its progeny, and cannot direct evolution.
Consider another example of how an individual cannot pass on to
its progeny the experiences of its lifetime. If we breed a group of mice, all
their progeny will have tails, as expected. Now, if the tails of these mice
are removed by surgery in each generation, do these tailless mice have
tailless progeny? The answer is no, and it makes sense because removal
of the tail cannot change the genes of the germ cells of the mice.

Charles Robert Darwin (1809–1882)

Charles Darwin set out on a voyage when he was 22 years old. The
five-year voyage took him to South America and the islands off its coast.
The studies that he conducted during this voyage were to change forever
the way we look at the variety of life on earth. Interestingly, after he got
back to England, he never left its shores again. He stayed at home and
conducted various experiments that led him to formulate his hypothesis
that evolution took place due to natural selection. He did not know the
mechanism whereby variations arose in the species. He would have
been enlightened by Mendel’s experiments, but these two gentlemen
did not know of each other or their work!
We often associate Darwin solely with the theory of evolution. But he was an accomplished
naturalist, and one of the studies he conducted was to do with the role of earthworms in
soil fertility.

This is the reason why the ideas of heredity and genetics that we
have discussed earlier are so essential for understanding evolution. Even
Charles Darwin, who came up with the idea of evolution of species by
natural selection in the nineteenth century, could not work out the
mechanism. It is ironic that he could have done so if he had seen the
significance of the experiments his Austrian contemporary, Gregor
Mendel, was doing. But then, Mendel too did not notice Darwin’s work
as relevant to his!

Origin of life on earth

Darwin’s theory of evolution tells us how life evolved from simple to more complex forms
and Mendel’s experiments give us the mechanism for the inheritance of traits from one
generation to the next. But neither tells us anything about how life began on earth in the
first place.

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 J.B.S. Haldane, a British scientist (who became a citizen of India later), suggested in
1929 that life must have developed from the simple inorganic molecules which were
present on earth soon after it was formed. He speculated that the conditions on earth
Do You Know?

at that time, which were far from the conditions we see today, could have given rise to
more complex organic molecules that were necessary for life. The first primitive
organisms would arise from further chemical synthesis.
How did these organic molecules arise? An answer was suggested by the experiment
conducted by Stanley L. Miller and Harold C. Urey in 1953. They assembled an
atmosphere similar to that thought to exist on early earth (this had molecules like
ammonia, methane and hydrogen sulphide, but no oxygen) over water. This was
maintained at a temperature just below 100°C and sparks were passed through the
mixture of gases to simulate lightning. At the end of a week, 15% of the carbon (from
methane) had been converted to simple compounds of carbon including amino acids
which make up protein molecules. So, can life arise afresh on earth even now?

Q U E S T I O N S

?
1. What are the different ways in which individuals with a particular
trait may increase in a population?
2. Why are traits acquired during the life-time of an individual not
inherited?
3. Why are the small numbers of surviving tigers a cause of worry from
the point of view of genetics?

9.4 SPECIA TION

SPECIATION
What we have seen so far is micro-evolution. That means that the changes
are small, even though they are significant. Also, they simply change the
common characteristics of a particular species. But this does not properly
explain as to how new species come into existence. That can be said to
have happened only if this group of beetles we are thinking about, splits
into two populations that cannot reproduce with each other. When this
happens, they can be called two independent species. So, can we extend
the reasoning we have used above to explain such speciation?
Consider what would happen if the bushes the beetles feed on are
spread widely over a mountain range. The beetle population becomes
very large as a result. But individual beetles feed mostly on a few nearby
bushes throughout their lifetime. They do not travel far. So, in this huge
population of beetles, there will be sub-populations in neighbourhoods.
Since male and female beetles have to meet for reproduction to happen,
most reproduction will be within these sub-populations. Of course, an
occasional adventurous beetle might go from one site to another. Or a
beetle is picked up by a crow from one site and dropped in the other site
without being eaten. In either case, the migrant beetle will reproduce
with the local population. This will result in the genes of the migrant
beetle entering a new population. This kind of gene flow is bound to

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happen between populations that are partly, but not completely
separated. If, however, between two such sub-populations a large river
comes into existence, the two populations will be further isolated. The
levels of gene flow between them will decrease even further.
Over generations, genetic drift will accumulate different changes in
each sub-population. Also, natural selection may also operate differently
in these different geographic locations. Thus, for example, in the territory
of one sub-population, crows are eliminated by eagles. But this does
not happen for the other sub-population, where crow numbers are very
high. As a result, the green variation will not be selected at the first site,
while it will be strongly selected at the second.
Together, the processes of genetic drift and natural selection will result
in these two isolated sub-populations of beetles becoming more and
more different from each other. Eventually, members of these two groups
will be incapable of reproducing with each other even if they happen to
meet.
There can be a number of ways by which this can happen. If the
DNA changes are severe enough, such as a change in the number of
chromosomes, eventually the germ cells of the two groups cannot fuse
with each other. Or a new variation emerges in which green females will
not mate with red males, but only with green males. This allows very
strong natural selection for greenness. Now, if such a green female beetle
meets a red male from the other group, her behaviour will ensure that
there is no reproduction between them. Effectively, new species of beetles
are being generated.

Q U E S T I O N S
1. What factors could lead to the rise of a new species?
2.

3.

9.5 EV
Will geographical isolation be a major factor in the speciation of a self-
pollinating plant species? Why or why not?
Will geographical isolation be a major factor in the speciation of an
organism that reproduces asexually? Why or why not?

OLUTION AND CL ASSIFIC

EVOLUTION ASSIFICAATION
?
Based on these principles, we can work out the evolutionary relationships
of the species we see around us. It is a sort of going backwards in time.
We can do this by identifying hierarchies of characteristics between
species. In order to understand this process, let us think back to our
discussion on the classification of organisms in Class IX.
Similarities among organisms will allow us to group them and then
study the groups. For this, which characteristics decide more
fundamental differences among organisms, and which ones decide less
basic differences? What is meant by ‘characteristics’, anyway?
Characteristics are details of appearance or behaviour; in other words, a
particular form or a particular function. That we have four limbs is thus a
characteristic. That plants can do photosynthesis is also a characteristic.

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 Some basic characteristics will be shared by most organisms. The
cell is the basic unit of life in all organisms. The characteristics in the
next level of classification would be shared by most, but not all organisms.
A basic characteristic of cell design that differs among different organisms
is whether the cell has a nucleus. Bacterial cells do not, while the cells of
most other organisms do. Among organisms with nucleated cells, which
ones are unicellular and which ones multi-cellular? That property marks
a very basic difference in body design, because of specialisation of cell
types and tissues. Among multi-cellular organisms, whether they can
undertake photosynthesis or not will provide the next level of
classification. Among the multi-cellular organisms that cannot do
photosynthesis, whether the skeleton is inside the body or around the
body will mark another fundamental design difference. We can see that,
even in these few questions that we have asked, a hierarchy is developing
that allows us to make classification groups.
The more characteristics two species will have in common, the more
closely they are related. And the more closely they are related, the more
recently they will have had a common ancestor. An example will help. A
brother and a sister are closely related. They have common ancestors in
the first generation before them, namely, their parents. A girl and her
first cousin are also related, but less than the girl and her brother. This
is because cousins have common ancestors, their grandparents, in the
second generation before them, not in the first one. We can now appreciate
that classification of species is in fact a reflection of their evolutionary
relationship.
We can thus build up small groups of species with recent common
ancestors, then super-groups of these groups with more distant common
ancestors, and so on. In theory, we can keep going backwards like this
until we come to the notion of a single species at the very beginning of
evolutionary time. If that is the case, then at some point in the history of
the earth, non-living material must have given rise to life. There are many
theories about how this might have happened. It would be interesting to
come up with theories of our own!

9.5.1 Tracing Evolutionary Relationships

When we try to follow evolutionary relationships, how do we identify
characteristics as common? These characteristics in different organisms
would be similar because they are inherited from a common ancestor.
As an example, consider the fact that mammals have four limbs, as do
birds, reptiles and amphibians (Fig. 9.8). The basic structure of the limbs
is similar though it has been modified to perform different functions in
various vertebrates. Such a homologous characteristic helps to identify
an evolutionary relationship between apparently different species.
Figure 9.8 However, all similarities simply in organ shape are not necessarily
Homologous organs
because of common ancestry. What would we think about the wings of

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birds and bats, for example (Fig. 9.9)? Birds
and bats have wings, but squirrels and
lizards do not. So are birds and bats more
closely related to each other than to squirrels
or lizards?
Before we jump to this conclusion, let us
look at the wings of birds and bats more Figure 9.9
closely. When we do that, we find that the Analogous organs – The wing of a bat and the
wings of bats are skin folds stretched mainly wing of a bird
between elongated fingers. But the wings of
birds are a feathery covering all along the arm. The designs of the two
wings, their structure and components, are thus very different. They
look similar because they have a common use for flying, but their origins
are not common. This makes them analogous characteristics, rather
than homologous characteristics. It would now be interesting to think
about whether bird arms and bat arms should be considered homologous
or analogous!

9.5.2 Fossils
Such studies of organ structure can be done not only on current species,
but also on species that are no longer alive. How do we know that these
extinct species ever existed? We know this from finding fossils (Fig. 9.10).
What are fossils? Usually, when organisms die, their bodies will
decompose and be lost. But every once in a while, the body or at least
some parts may be in an environment that does not let it decompose
completely. If a dead insect gets caught in hot mud, for example, it will
not decompose quickly, and the mud will eventually harden and retain
the impression of the body parts of the insect. All such preserved traces
of living organisms are called fossils.

Figure 9.10 Various kind of fossils. Note the different appearances and degrees of detail and preservation.
The dinosaur skull fossil shown was found only a few years ago in the Narmada valley.

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 How do we know how old the fossils are? There are two components
to this estimation. One is relative. If we dig into the earth and start finding
fossils, it is reasonable to suppose that the fossils we find closer to the
surface are more recent than the fossils we find in deeper layers. The
second way of dating fossils is by detecting the ratios of different isotopes
of the same element in the fossil material. It would be interesting to find
out exactly how this method works!

How do fossils form layer by layer?

Let us start 100 million years ago. Some invertebrates on

the sea-bed die, and are buried in the sand. More sand
accumulates, and sandstone forms under pressure.

Millions of years later, dinosaurs living in the area die, and their bodies, too, are
buried in mud. This mud is also compressed into rock, above the rock containing
the earlier invertebrate fossils.
Do You Know?

Again millions of years later, the bodies of horse-like creatures dying in the area are
fossilised in rocks above these earlier rocks.

Much later, by erosion or water flow wears away some of the rock and exposes the
horse-like fossils. As we dig deeper, we will find older and older fossils.

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9.5.3 Evolution by Stages
A question that arises here is – if complicated organs,
such as the eye, are selected for the advantage they
provide, how can they be generated by a single DNA
change? Surely such complex organs will be created
bit-by-bit over generations? But how can each
intermediate change be selected for? There are a
number of possible explanations. Even an
intermediate stage (Fig. 9.11), such as a rudimentary
eye, can be useful to some extent. This might be
enough to give a fitness advantage. In fact, the eye –
Figure 9.11
like the wing – seems to be a very popular adaptation. A flatworm named Planaria has very simple
Insects have them, so does an octopus, and so do ‘eyes’ that are really just eye-spots which
vertebrates. And the structure of the eye in each of detect light.
these organisms is different – enough for them to have
separate evolutionary origins.
Also, a change that is useful for one property to
start with can become useful later for quite a different
function. Feathers, for example, can start out as
providing insulation in cold weather (Fig. 9.12). But
later, they might become useful for flight. In fact,
some dinosaurs had feathers, although they could
not fly using the feathers. Birds seem to have later
adapted the feathers to flight. This, of course, means
that birds are very closely related to reptiles, since
dinosaurs were reptiles!
It is all very well to say that very dissimilar-
looking structures evolve from a common ancestral
design. It is true that analysis of the organ structure
in fossils allows us to make estimates of how far back
evolutionary relationships go. But those are guesses
about what happened in history. Are there any
current examples of such a process? The wild
cabbage plant is a good example. Humans have, over
more than two thousand years, cultivated wild
cabbage as a food plant, and generated different
vegetables from it by selection (see Fig. 9.13). This is,
of course, artificial selection rather than natural
selection. So some farmers have wanted to select for
very short distances between leaves, and have bred Figure 9.12
the cabbage we eat. Some have wanted to select for Dinosaurs and the evolution of feathers
arrested flower development, and have bred broccoli,
or for sterile flowers, and have made the cauliflower. Some have selected
for swollen parts, and come up with kohlrabi. Some have simply looked
for slightly larger leaves, and come up with a leafy vegetable called kale.
Would we have thought that all these structures are descended from the
same ancestor if we had not done it ourselves?

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 Figure 9.13 Evolution of wild cabbage!

Another way of tracing evolutionary relationships depends on the

original idea that we started with. That idea was that changes in DNA
during reproduction are the basic events in evolution. If that is the case,
then comparing the DNA of different species should give us a direct estimate
of how much the DNA has changed during the formation of these species.
This method is now extensively used to define evolutionary relationships.
More to Know!

Molecular phylogeny
We have been discussing how changes in the DNA during cell division would lead to changes
in the proteins that are made from this new DNA. Another point that has been made is that
these changes would accumulate from one generation to the next. Could this be used to
trace the changes in DNA backwards in time and find out where each change diverged
from the other? Molecular phylogeny does exactly this. This approach is based on the idea
that organisms which are more distantly related will accumulate a greater number of
differences in their DNA. Such studies trace the evolutionary relationships and it has been
highly gratifying to find that the relationships among different organisms shown by molecular
phylogeny match the classification scheme that we learnt in Class IX.

Q U E S T I O N S
1. Give an example of characteristics being used to determine how close

2.

3.
two species are in evolutionary terms.
Can the wing of a butterfly and the wing of a bat be considered
homologous organs? Why or why not?
What are fossils? What do they tell us about the process of evolution?

9.6 EV OLUTION SHOULD NOT BE EQUA

EVOLUTION TED WITH
EQUATED
?
‘PROGRESS’
In an exercise of tracing the family trees of species, we need to remember
certain things. Firstly, there are multiple branches possible at each and

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every stage of this process. So it is not as if one species is eliminated to
give rise to a new one. A new species has emerged. But that does not
necessarily mean, like the beetle example we have been thinking about,
that the old species will disappear. It will all depend on the environment.
Also, it is not as if the newly generated species are in any way ‘better’
than the older one. It is just that natural selection and genetic drift have
together led to the formation of a population that cannot reproduce with
the original one. So, for example, it is not true that human beings have
evolved from chimpanzees. Rather, both human beings and chimpanzees
have a common ancestor a long time ago. That common ancestor is likely
to have been neither human or chimpanzee. Also, the first step of
separation from that ancestor is unlikely to have resulted in modern
chimpanzees and human beings. Instead, the two resultant species have
probably evolved in their own separate ways to give rise to the current
forms.
In fact, there is no real ‘progress’ in the idea of evolution. Evolution is
simply the generation of diversity and the shaping of the diversity by
environmental selection. The only progressive trend in evolution seems
to be that more and more complex body designs have emerged over
time. However, again, it is not as if the older designs are inefficient! So
many of the older and simpler designs still survive. In fact, one of the
simplest life forms – bacteria – inhabit the most inhospitable habitats
like hot springs, deep-sea thermal vents and the ice in Antarctica. In
other words, human beings are not the pinnacle of evolution, but simply
yet another species in the teeming spectrum of evolving life.

9.6.1 Human Evolution

The same tools for tracing evolutionary
relationships – excavating, time-dating
and studying fossils, as well as
determining DNA sequences – have
been used for studying human
evolution. There is a great diversity of
human forms and features across the
planet. So much so that, for a long time,
people used to talk about human
‘races’. Skin colour used to be the
commonest way of identifying these so-
called races. Some were called yellow, Figure 9.14
some black, white or brown. A major question debated for a long time Evolution —
was, have these apparent groups evolved differently? Over recent years, Ladder versus Tree
the evidence has become very clear. The answer is that there is no
biological basis to the notion of human races. All humans are a single
species.
Not only that, regardless of where we have lived for the past few
thousand years, we all come from Africa. The earliest members of the
human species, Homo sapiens, can be traced there. Our genetic footprints
can be traced back to our African roots. A couple of hundred thousand
years ago, some of our ancestors left Africa while others stayed on. While

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 the residents spread across Africa, the migrants slowly spread across
the planet – from Africa to West Asia, then to Central Asia, Eurasia,
South Asia, East Asia. They travelled down the islands of Indonesia and
the Philippines to Australia, and they crossed the Bering land bridge to
the Americas. They did not go in a single line, so they were not travelling
for the sake of travelling, obviously. They went forwards and backwards,
with groups sometimes separating from each other, sometimes coming
back to mix with each other, even moving in and out of Africa. Like all
other species on the planet, they had come into being as an accident of
evolution, and were trying to live their lives the best they could.

Q U E S T I O N S

?
1. Why are human beings who look so different from each other in terms
of size, colour and looks said to belong to the same species?
2. In evolutionary terms, can we say which among bacteria, spiders, fish
and chimpanzees have a ‘better’ body design? Why or why not?

What you have learnt

n Variations arising during the process of reproduction can be inherited.
n These variations may lead to increased survival of the individuals.
n Sexually reproducing individuals have two copies of genes for the same trait. If the
copies are not identical, the trait that gets expressed is called the dominant trait
and the other is called the recessive trait.
n Traits in one individual may be inherited separately, giving rise to new combinations
of traits in the offspring of sexual reproduction.
n Sex is determined by different factors in various species. In human beings, the sex
of the child depends on whether the paternal chromosome is X (for girls) or Y (for
boys).
n Variations in the species may confer survival advantages or merely contribute to
the genetic drift.
n Changes in the non-reproductive tissues caused by environmental factors are not
inheritable.
n Speciation may take place when variation is combined with geographical isolation.
n Evolutionary relationships are traced in the classification of organisms.
n Tracing common ancestors back in time leads us to the idea that at some point of
time, non-living material must have given rise to life.
n Evolution can be worked out by the study of not just living species, but also fossils.
n Complex organs may have evolved because of the survival advantage of even the
intermediate stages.
n Organs or features may be adapted to new functions during the course of evolution.
For example, feathers are thought to have been initially evolved for warmth and
later adapted for flight.

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 n Evolution cannot be said to ‘progress’ from ‘lower’ forms to ‘higher’ forms. Rather,
evolution seems to have given rise to more complex body designs even while the
simpler body designs continue to flourish.
n Study of the evolution of human beings indicates that all of us belong to a single
species that evolved in Africa and spread across the world in stages.

E X E R C I S E S
1. A Mendelian experiment consisted of breeding tall pea plants bearing violet flowers
with short pea plants bearing white flowers. The progeny all bore violet flowers,
but almost half of them were short. This suggests that the genetic make-up of the
tall parent can be depicted as
(a) TTWW
(b) TTww
(c) TtWW
(d) TtWw
2. An example of homologous organs is
(a) our arm and a dog’s fore-leg.
(b) our teeth and an elephant’s tusks.
(c) potato and runners of grass.
(d) all of the above.
3. In evolutionary terms, we have more in common with
(a) a Chinese school-boy.
(b) a chimpanzee.
(c) a spider.
(d) a bacterium.
4. A study found that children with light-coloured eyes are likely to have parents
with light-coloured eyes. On this basis, can we say anything about whether the
light eye colour trait is dominant or recessive? Why or why not?
5. How are the areas of study – evolution and classification – interlinked?
6. Explain the terms analogous and homologous organs with examples.
7. Outline a project which aims to find the dominant coat colour in dogs.
8. Explain the importance of fossils in deciding evolutionary relationships.
9. What evidence do we have for the origin of life from inanimate matter?
10. Explain how sexual reproduction gives rise to more viable variations than asexual
reproduction. How does this affect the evolution of those organisms that reproduce
sexually?
11. How is the equal genetic contribution of male and female parents ensured in the
progeny?
12. Only variations that confer an advantage to an individual organism will survive in
a population. Do you agree with this statement? Why or why not?

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