Composites: Part A 36 (2005) 705–714

www.elsevier.com/locate/compositesa

The influence of void content on the structural flexural performance

of unidirectional glass fibre reinforced polypropylene composites
P.-O. Hagstrand*, F. Bonjour, J.-A.E. Månson
Laboratoire de Technologies des Composites et Polymères (LTC), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
Received 20 May 2003; revised 4 February 2004; accepted 3 March 2004

Abstract
Voids are often present in composite materials and have, as may be expected, negative effects on the mechanical properties. As a
consequence, it is regarded to be important to optimise manufacturing techniques of composite materials towards minimum void content.
However, it is not obvious that voids also have negative effects on the properties of a structure since those are not just determined by the
properties of the material, but also by the dimensions. For a given mass of material, void will increase the dimensions and as a result, for
example, the moment of inertia. Thus in principle, it is possible that void may actually have positive effects on the properties of a structure.
In this paper this hypothesis is evaluated by studying the influence of void content on the flexural properties of beams manufactured by
compression moulding multiple unidirectional commingled glass/polypropylene fibre tows. By varying the time under moulding pressure,
beams with void contents between 1 and 14% could be manufactured (with the mass, width and length fixed, and thus only the height free).
As expected, voids were found to have a negative effect on the flexural modulus and strength, which both decreased by about 1.5% for each
1% of voids. However, what is more interesting is the fact that voids actually had a clear positive effect on the beam stiffness EI; which
increased by about 2% for each 1% of voids. For example, beams which contained 14% porosity exhibited about 28% higher EI than beams
with less than 1% porosity. Moreover, the flexural failure load did not decrease up to a void content of 14%. On the contrary, a least square fit
suggested a weak increase with void content. It can therefore be concluded that, in this case, voids actually have positive effects on the
structural flexural performance.
q 2004 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Keywords: Commingled tow; E. Consolidation; B. Porosity; B. Mechanical properties

1. Introduction important to optimise manufacturing techniques of compo-

site materials towards minimum void content. Many studies
Voids are often present in composite materials produced have therefore been carried out with the aim of determining
by commercially available manufacturing processes. They the relationship between various processing parameters and
form in the matrix from mechanically entrapped air or the resulting void content and the material properties of
moisture, solvents or polymerisation by-products [1]. It is interest.
well known that voids have negative effects on the However, one should not forget that voids have an effect
mechanical properties of composite materials. For example, that can be regarded to be positive from a structural point of
from a large number of references, Judd and Wright [2] view. Voids decrease the density of a material, i.e. increase
concluded that the interlaminar shear strength typically the volume for a given mass of material. For a structure
decreases about 7% for each volume percent voids up to at subjected to bending, a volume increase may have a
least the 4% level. Tensile, shear, flexural and compressive significant effect on the structural mechanical response,
properties have also been proven to decrease with increasing especially if the volume increase is utilised to increase the
void content [1]. As a consequence, it is regarded to be thickness of the structure. Such a thickness increase, for
example in the order of 5 –10%, is likely to be acceptable for
* Corresponding author. Address: Business Unit Pipe, Borealis AB, SE-
444 86 Stenungsund, Sweden. Tel.: þ 46-303-86-000; fax: þ 46-303-86-
many applications. Moreover, since it is typically easier to
449. process a composite material in a way that results in a high
E-mail address: per-ola.hagstramd@borealisgroup.com (P.-O. Hagstrand). rather than a low void content, voids originating from air
1359-835X/$ - see front matter q 2004 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
doi:10.1016/j.compositesa.2004.03.007
706 P.-O. Hagstrand et al. / Composites: Part A 36 (2005) 705–714

Nomenclature hðvvoid Þ height of beam as function of void content

(mm).
A0 cross-sectional area of sample without voids
I moment of inertia (mm4).
(mm2).
Iðvvoid Þ moment of inertia as function of void content
Aðvvoid Þ cross-sectional area of sample as function of
(mm4).
void content (mm2).
l span length (mm).
c constant dependent on bending support
Mb bending moment (N mm).
conditions.
V0 sample volume without voids (mm3).
E elastic modulus (N/mm2).
Vðvvoid Þ sample volume as function of void content
E0 elastic modulus of material without voids
(mm3).
(N/mm2).
Vvoid void volume (mm3).
Eðvvoid Þ elastic modulus of material as function of
vvoid void content.
void content (N/mm2).
w width of beam (mm).
EI0 structural beam bending stiffness of
z distance from neutral layer to point of stress
material without voids (N mm2).
(mm).
EIðvvoid Þ structural beam bending stiffness as function
r density of material with voids (g/cm3).
of void content (N mm2).
r0 density of material without voids (g/cm3).
F force (N).
d beam deflection (mm).
Fmax flexural failure load (N).
s0 strength of material without voids (N/mm2).
Fmax;0 flexural failure load of material without voids
smax flexural strength (N/mm2).
(N).
sðzÞ flexural stress as function of the thickness
Fmax ðvvoid Þ flexural failure load as function of void
coordinate, z (N/mm2).
content (N).
sðvvoid Þ strength as function of void content
h height of beam (mm).
(N/mm2).
h0 height of beam without voids (mm).

inclusions or cavitations can in principle be regarded to have been investigated by, for example, Ye et al. [6,11] who
a ‘negative cost’ that may reduce the production cost of the studied the interlaminar fracture toughness and correspond-
material/structure. ing failure mechanisms. Santulli et al. [10,12] investigated
Thus, with increasing void content, material properties how the impact behaviour is affected by fibre architecture
such as the flexural modulus and strength can be expected to and processing parameters, whereas Ferreria et al. [13]
drop. However, fundamental structural flexural properties studied the fatigue performance of woven laminates. A
such as the beam stiffness, EI and the flexural load at break, review on the manufacturing of composites from com-
which are affected by the geometry, will not necessarily mingled yarns has been published by Svensson et al. [14].
exhibit their highest values for zero void content. In However, in none of the above-mentioned references, has
principle, there is the potential that such structural proper- the hypothesis that voids may have a positive affect on the
ties may actually exhibit their maxima at intermediate structural flexural performance been proposed and
porosity levels. evaluated.
In this paper this hypothesis is evaluated by studying the
effects of void content on the flexural behaviour of beams
manufactured by compression moulding multiple uni- 2. Materials
directional commingled glass/polypropylene fibre tows.
By varying the time under moulding pressure, beams with Samples were made from commingled glass/PP fibre
void contents between 1 and 14% could be manufactured. tows, supplied by Vetrotex International under the trade
An early study of composites manufactured from name Twintexe. The used tow has a fibre mass fraction of
commingled glass/polypropylene fibre tows was carried 60%, which corresponds to a fibre volume fraction of 35%
out by St John [3] who established a processing window for (fully consolidated). The glass fibres and PP filaments have
minimum void content. He also studied the flexural strength nominal fibre diameters of 17 and 20 – 25 mm, respectively
of woven laminates as a function of glass content. Since [9]. Some physical and mechanical data according to the
then several authors have studied the effects of processing manufacturer of unidirectional Twintexe, are given in
parameters on the consolidation quality [4,5] and selected Table 1.
mechanical properties [6 – 10]. Wakeman et al. [9] studied In this type of preform the flow distance of the polymer
the effects of several processing factors on the flexural during impregnation is typically just 20– 100 mm [3,9]. As a
modulus and strength of woven laminates. The mechanical result, several processes can be used. These vary from low-
behaviour of commingled glass/PP fibre composites has also pressure processes such as vacuum moulding, filament
 P.-O. Hagstrand et al. / Composites: Part A 36 (2005) 705–714 707

Table 1 15 s to manually place the upper part of the mould on top

Mechanical properties of unidirectional Twintexe containing 35 vol% and close the press. In order to avoid local cooling of the hot
glass fibres
tow, the winding frame was supported by means of attached
Density (g/cm3) 1.50 springs, while the upper part of the mould was supported by
Tensile modulus (GPa) ISO 527 28 other springs on the frame (see Fig. 2). As a result, the tows
Tensile strength (MPa) 700 were in principle positioned in the middle of the mould
Flexural modulus (GPa) ISO 178 24
cavity, thus minimising heat transfer to the relatively cold
Flexural strength (MPa) 470
mould surfaces prior to consolidation. As the press closed,
the winding frame and the upper part of the mould were
winding, pultrusion and robotic tow placement, to high- pushed down, and a constant pressure of 5.5 MPa was
pressure processes such as compression or injection applied to the tows. After 15– 600 s, the pressure was
moulding [15,16]. Compared to other intermediate product released and the wound tow was taken out of the mould and
forms such as pre-impregnated tows or powder-impregnated left to cool down at room temperature. Later it was cut from
fibre bundles, flexible commingled yarns can easily be the winding frame. The beams produced had a total length
woven, braided or knitted. Commingled glass/PP fibre of 180 mm and a width of 11.8 mm. From each 180 mm
composites are mainly being used for vehicle applications long sample, up to three 55 mm long samples were cut for
such as truck trailer liners, bumper beams and load floors. further analysis. The height varied from 2.08 to 2.41 mm,
Other applications include for example boat hulls and snow depending on pressure time. In other words, varying the
boards [15]. pressure time was an efficient way of controlling sample
void content. Pressure time is also interesting from another
point of view. It directly affects the cycle time, and as a
3. Experimental result it should in principle also affect the manufacturing
cost.
3.1. Moulding procedure Before the above processing parameters were chosen,
more than 20 samples were produced with varying preheat
A commingled tow was manually wound 10 times and mould temperatures, pressure and pressure time. Many
around a specially made winding frame. As a result, samples of these samples had unimpregnated glass fibres in the
finally consisted of 20 parallel tows. A wound tow before surface, and/or squeeze-flow at mould edges was evident.
and after moulding is shown in Fig. 1a and b, respectively. Even with the processing parameters finally chosen, about
The wound tow was preheated by placing it in a circulating 10 – 20 partly unimpregnated glass fibres could be found in
hot air oven at a temperature of 235 8C for 2 min. It was then about 50% of the samples produced (independent of
immediately transferred to a specially made mould, which pressure time), when carefully inspected. Even though that
had been preheated to 125 8C. From the moment the winded is not likely to affect the mechanical behaviour in a
tow was placed in the lower part of the mould, it took about significant way, these samples were rejected and not used

Fig. 1. (a) Commingled tow wound around a specially made metal winding frame. (b) Consolidated tows after moulding.
708 P.-O. Hagstrand et al. / Composites: Part A 36 (2005) 705–714

Fig. 2. Winding frame placed inside the mould. By means of springs, the tow is positioned in the middle of the mould cavity. This minimises heat losses while
the press closes.

for mechanical testing. The fact that so many samples had symmetrical regarding void distribution and fibre alignment
somewhat insufficient quality may suggest that the poly- throughout the thickness. Mid-span deflection was
propylene fibres are not evenly distributed in the com- measured with a mechanical dial-measuring gauge with an
mingled yarn. It is also possible that the processing estimated accuracy of ^ 10 mm, and the load with a 1 kN
parameters used should have been chosen differently. load cell. Flexural stiffness was calculated from the slope of
Nevertheless, the samples finally selected and later used the force-deflection curves, which were found to be linear in
for mechanical testing and further evaluation, were regarded the entire studied strain interval (0 –0.45%). The crosshead
as having excellent impregnation quality with straight speed was 1 mm/min. In each sample the measured stiffness
unidirectional fibres. typically varied by less than ^ 0.3% depending on loading
direction. This illustrates the high repeatability of the
3.2. Void content measurements measuring technique used.
Later, the flexural strength was measured. In order to
Sample height and width were measured with a prevent local compressive failure at loadings pins (which is
micrometer at three places for each 55 mm long sample. not likely to reflect the intrinsic flexural strength) 3 mm
Typically, the height and width varied by less than thick silicon rubber pieces were put between the loading
^ 0.02 mm for each sample. The average values were
pins and the sample. Still, samples typically failed around
used to calculate the sample volume. Sample weight was
the inner loading pins in compression and interlaminar
measured with a Mettler Toledo PR503 balance. Finally,
shear. However, in trials without silicon rubber pieces
void content was calculated from these volume and weight
considerably lower maximum loads were measured. Thus,
measurements by using Eq. (1).
by using silicon rubber pieces, a flexural strength closer to
r the intrinsic value could be measured. For strength
vvoid ¼ 1 2 ð1Þ
r0 measurements a crosshead speed of 4 mm/min was used.
Since rubber pieces were placed between the loading pins
where r is the measured density and r0 is the density of the and the sample, deflection was not measured.
material without voids (1.5 g/cm3).

3.3. Measurements of flexural behaviour 3.4. Micro structural observations

Flexural behaviour of 55 mm long beams was measured

in 4-point bending; with upper and lower span lengths of 16 Some selected samples were embedded in an acrylic
and 48 mm, respectively. The diameter of the loading pins resin and polished with a polishing machine using 500,
was 6 mm, which is close the maximum allowable 1000, 2400 and finally 4000 grit size silicon carbide
according to ASTM D 790M. grinding paper. The samples were cleaned with water in
First, the flexural stiffness was measured by bending each ultrasonic baths between each grinding step. The polished
sample in both directions up to a strain level of 0.45%. This surfaces were studied using an optical microscope (Olym-
was done since the samples not necessarily are perfectly pus BH2).
 P.-O. Hagstrand et al. / Composites: Part A 36 (2005) 705–714 709

4. Modelling the effect of void content on flexural where hðvvoid Þ and h0 are the sample height with and without
performance voids, respectively. Rearrangement of Eq. (7) gives:
 
1
The objective of the following analysis is to theoretically hðvvoid Þ ¼ h0 ð8Þ
1 2 vvoid
evaluate if void could have positive effects on the structural
flexural performance. In the following the influence of void For a beam with a rectangular cross-section, this expression
content on the structural beam stiffness, EI and maximum can now be used to derive the moment of inertia, I as
flexural load at failure, Fmax ; are therefore estimated. function of void content:
According to classical beam theory, the deflection of a  3
beam loaded by a force is typically given by an expression w½hðvvoid Þ 3 wh30 1
Iðvvoid Þ ¼ ¼ ð9Þ
of the type: 12 12 1 2 vvoid

Fl3 where w is the width of the beam.

d¼ ð2Þ Next, the effect of void content on the elastic modulus
cEI
and strength is discussed. In a fully consolidated uni-
where d is the beam deflection, F the applied force, l the directional glass fibre reinforced PP of the type studied, the
beam length, c a constant dependent on bending support glass fibres carry about 95% of an applied tensile load. With
conditions, E the elastic modulus of the material and I the that in mind, porosity in the PP matrix should in principle
moment of inertia. The structural beam stiffness, which may have a limited effect on the tensile properties of the material,
be defined as the force to deflection ratio, is consequently as long as the applied load can be effectively transferred to
proportional to EI : the fibres. However, this may not be the case, especially if
F voids are preferentially located in the fibre – matrix inter-
/ EI ð3Þ face. Thus, the effect of a given void content on the
d
mechanical properties should be very much dependent on
Furthermore, the stress distribution over the height, sðzÞ the void morphology. Nevertheless, an upper bound for the
generated by a bending moment, Mb is given by: mechanical properties as function of void content can be
Mb derived by assuming that the following properties are all
sðzÞ ¼ z ð4Þ independent of void content: (i) the load transfer to the
I
fibres; (ii) the matrix strain for a given applied tensile load,
where z is the distance from the neutral axis. If only an and (iii) the tensile matrix strain at break. With these
external force is generating the bending moment, Mb assumptions the only effect of the porosity on the
rearrangement of Eq. (4) gives an expression for the failure material/structure will be its increase of the material volume
load, Fmax : (cross-sectional area). That is why the expression derived
smax I below must represent upper bounds.
Fmax / ð5Þ The tensile modulus of a material is defined as:
h
where h is the height of the beam. F
E¼ ð10Þ
Thus, in order to predict the effect of void content on the A1
structural beam stiffness, EI and the flexural failure load, the where F is the applied tensile force, A the cross-sectional
moment of inertia, elastic modulus and strength, all as area and 1 the resulting tensile strain. Similarly to Eq. (8),
function of void content, will be needed. the effect of void content on the cross-sectional area is:
Firstly, the expression for the effect of void content on  
1
the moment of inertia, I is derived. For a structure with Aðvvoid Þ ¼ A0 ð11Þ
rectangular cross-section, for which the width and length are 1 2 vvoid
kept constant and independent of void content, the height With the above-mentioned assumptions, F=1 is independent
can be correlated to void content. of void content. By using that assumption in Eq. (10) gives
The void volume fraction, vvoid is given by: in combination with Eq. (11) an upper bound for the
Vvoid Vðvvoid Þ 2 V0 influence of void content on the tensile modulus:
vvoid ¼ ¼ ð6Þ
V0 þ Vvoid Vðvvoid Þ Eðvvoid Þ ¼ E0 ð1 2 vvoid Þ ð12Þ
where Vvoid is the void volume, V0 is the sample volume As previously mentioned, the matrix strain at break is
without voids and Vðvvoid Þ is the sample volume with voids. assumed to be independent of void content. If it is also
Since the sample width and length are fixed, the void assumed that the material is linear elastic, Eq. (13) should
volume fraction is also given by: give an upper bound of the influence of void content on the
hðvvoid Þ 2 h0 tensile strength.
vvoid ¼ ð7Þ
hðvvoid Þ sðvvoid Þ ¼ s0 ð1 2 vvoid Þ ð13Þ
710 P.-O. Hagstrand et al. / Composites: Part A 36 (2005) 705–714

Fig. 3. Predicted flexural behaviour as function of void content. The models

clearly suggest that void content should have positive effects on the Fig. 4. Sample weight vs. pressure time.
structural flexural behaviour.
be seen, the sample weight is about 0.036 g/mm and there is
If it is also assumed that the material has the same stress-
no indication that sample weight decreases with pressure
strain response both in tension and compression, Eqs. (12)
time. Thus, the fibre content may be assumed constant in all
and (13) should in principle also be valid in flexure. Thus,
samples.
by combining Eqs. (3), (5), (9), (12) and (13), expressions
for the beam stiffness, EI and the maximum load at break,
Fmax ; as a function of void content can finally be derived. 5.2. Effect of time at moulding pressure on void content
 2
1
EIðvvoid Þ ¼ EI0 ð14Þ The time at moulding pressure was, as mentioned, varied
1 2 vvoid
  between 15 and 600 s. With the high mould temperature
1 used (125 8C), the time to complete crystallisation will be
Fmax ðvvoid Þ ¼ Fmax;0 ð15Þ
1 2 vvoid relatively long. As a result, pressure will in many cases be
released prior to complete crystallisation, which will induce
In Fig. 3 Eqs. (12) – (15) are plotted. These expressions
cavitation as a result of crystallisation shrinkage. In Fig. 5
represent as mentioned upper bounds, which may over-
void content vs. pressure time is shown. As can be seen, the
estimate the positive effects of porosity. However, they
highest void content that could be obtained with the
clearly indicate that the presence of voids may have positive
processing parameters used was about 14%. As the pressure
effects on structural flexural performance.
time was increased from 15 to 50 s, the void content
dramatically dropped to less than 4%. Finally, at pressure
5. Results and discussion times above 120 s, the void content was found to be less
than 1%.
5.1. Effect of pressure time on sample weight

At the open sides of the mould, the polymer can be

squeezed out to some extent during moulding. If this occurs
it may be more pronounced for long pressure times. This
will affect the fibre content in the samples, and as a result it
will be far more difficult to compare the properties of the
samples and determine the true effect of porosity on the
mechanical properties. Hence, it is important to ensure that
any loss of polymer is insignificant, or even more important,
that is not affected by pressure time.
With the chosen processing parameters, no visible loss of
polymer could be observed at the open sides of the mould.
However, in order to ensure that the fibre content was
constant, the weight of each sample was carefully measured.
The results are shown in Fig. 4, where sample weight (per
mm length of specimen) is plotted vs. pressure time. As can Fig. 5. Void content vs. pressure time.
 P.-O. Hagstrand et al. / Composites: Part A 36 (2005) 705–714 711

Fig. 6. Polished cross-section of sample with an overall void content of 0.8%.

5.3. Void morphology 5.4. Effect of void content on flexural stiffness and strength

Fig. 6 shows a polished cross-section of a sample with In Fig. 8 the effect of void content of the flexural modulus
an overall void content below 1%. As can be seen, fibres is shown. As can be expected, porosity has a negative effect.
are well impregnated but are distributed non-uniformly in According to the least square fit, the flexural modulus
the form of small bundles, which typically contain less decreases by 1.4% for each 1% of voids.
than 40 glass fibres. In Fig. 7 a polished cross-section of a
sample with an overall void content above 13% is shown.
It is interesting to note that most fibres are still very well
impregnated, and that the porosity is mainly in the form
of macro voids located in polymer rich regions. This is an
advantageous morphology from a mechanical point of
view. The load transfer to the fibres can be expected to be
relatively good in spite of the high void content. The
morphology is a result of the chosen processing
procedure. The high moulding pressure (5.5 MPa) and
the relatively high preheat temperature (235 8C) ensure
good impregnation quality of fibres, whereas porosity is
generated later mainly from crystallisation shrinkage.
Furthermore, it is likely that void content is somewhat
lower close to the sample surfaces, where crystallisation,
to a larger extent, will be completed while the sample is
still under pressure. This is an advantageous void
distribution, at least as long as flexural failure occurs in
compression (or tension), and not in shear. A more
pronounced void content gradient can possibly be Fig. 7. Polished cross-section of sample with an overall void content of
generated in thicker samples. 13%.
712 P.-O. Hagstrand et al. / Composites: Part A 36 (2005) 705–714

Fig. 8. Flexural modulus vs. void content.

In Fig. 9 the effect of void content of the flexural strength

is shown. Again as expected, porosity has a negative effect,
and according to the least square fit, the flexural strength
decreases by 1.5% for each 1% of voids. This is a weak
negative effect compared to what has been reported in the
literature [1]. There are several possible reasons for this. As
mentioned, since the PP matrix carries less than 5% of the
load, voids should have a limited effect on the tensile
behaviour as long as the load can be efficiently transferred to
the fibres. Furthermore, PP is a tough matrix compared to
for example unsaturated polyesters and epoxies, thus voids
will to a lesser extent act as crack initiators.
The beams failed mainly as a result of kink band Fig. 10. Polished cross-section of tested beam showing a kink band formed
formation in the compressive zone around the inner loading in compressive zone.
pins. This is shown in Fig. 10. Typically, shear cracks in the
middle of the samples could also be observed (see Fig. 11).
The void content did not appear to affect the failure mode
significantly.

5.5. Effect of void content on structural performance

From these results it is clear that voids have a negative

effect on the flexural modulus and strength, as expected.
However, one should not forget that structural materials are
used to build structures, and the properties of a structure are
not only determined by the properties of the material, but

Fig. 11. Polished cross-section of tested beam showing a shear crack

formed in the middle of the beam where the shear stress in principle reaches
Fig. 9. Flexural strength vs. void content. its maximum.
 P.-O. Hagstrand et al. / Composites: Part A 36 (2005) 705–714 713

Fig. 12. Beam stiffness, EI vs. void content. As can be seen, porosity has a
clear positive effect on EI; which increases by about 2% for each 1% of Fig. 13. Flexural failure load vs. void content. As can be seen, porosity does
voids. not affect the flexural failure load negatively, on the contrary the least
square fit suggest a weak increase with void content.

also by the geometry of the structure. While voids have a buckling, which is governed by the matrix shear yield stress
negative effect on material properties, they have a positive [17]. Since voids have a negative effect on the shear
effect on the moment of inertia, as discussed above. In other performance of the matrix, it can be expected that the
words, in order to really capture the complete and relevant compressive strength of the material, with increasing void
effects of porosity, one should also investigate how the content, will eventually become so low that it cannot be
structural performance is affected by void content. compensated for by the increasing bending resistance, 2I=h:
In Fig. 12 the beam stiffness, EI is plotted vs. void Nevertheless, from the results presented above it is clear that
content. As can be seen, voids have a clear positive effect. these expected maxima in beam stiffness and flexural failure
According to the least square fit, EI increases by about 2% load are reached at void content levels above 14%.
for each 1% of voids. For example, the beams with 14%
porosity exhibit about 28% higher EI than the beams that
contain less than 1% porosity. Obviously, the negative effect 6. Conclusions
of porosity on the flexural modulus is weaker than its
positive effect on the moment of inertia. With the void morphology induced by the processing
In Fig. 12 the prediction of EI vs. void content using Eq. procedure used, porosity has the following effects on the
(13) is also shown (where EI0 has been fitted to the least flexural behaviour of unidirectional glass fibre reinforced
square fit). As expected, the model overestimates the polypropylene beams:
positive effect of porosity on EI: However, the difference
is less than expected bearing in mind the assumptions the † A negative effect on the flexural modulus and strength,
model is based on. which decrease by about 1.5% for each 1% of voids up to
The positive effect on EI is of somewhat limited interest a void content level of 14%.
unless the maximum load at break is maintained or at least † A clear positive effect on the beam stiffness, EI; which
does not dramatically decrease with increasing void content. increases by about 2% for each 1% of voids. Beams
In Fig. 13 the effect of void content on the flexural failure which contain 14% porosity exhibit about 28% higher EI
load is shown. Even though there is some scatter, there are than beams with less than 1% porosity.
no indications whatsoever that the flexural failure load † No negative effect on the flexural failure load, Fmax : On
decreases with void content up to 14%. On the contrary, the the contrary, a least square fit suggests a weak increase
least square fit suggests a weak increase. up to void content level of 14%.
In Fig. 13 the prediction of Fmax vs. void content using
Eq. (14) is also shown (where Fmax;0 has been fitted to the Clearly, in this case the hypothesis that voids may have a
least square fit). Again, the model overestimates the positive positive effect on the structural flexural performance is true.
effect of porosity on the flexural failure load, but with a less
than expected difference.
However, for even higher void content levels, it is very Acknowledgements
likely that the beam stiffness and especially the flexural
failure load, will eventually reach maxima. After all, The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance of
unidirectional glass fibre reinforced PP beams typically Marcel Kohler, Antonio Balta and Alp Sarioglu, and thank
fail in compression as a result of in-phase mode of micro Stephen Clifford, Niklas Jansson and Martyn Wakeman for
714 P.-O. Hagstrand et al. / Composites: Part A 36 (2005) 705–714

valuable discussions (all LTC, EPFL). Vetrotex Inter- [9] Wakeman MD, Cain TA, Rudd CD, Brooks R, Long AC.
national is also thanked for supplying the commingled tow. Compression moulding of glass and polypropylene composites
for optimised macro- and micro-mechanical properties—1 com-
mingled glass and polypropylene. Compos Sci Technol 1998;
58(12):1879 –98.
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