1.

Explain the principles of Scientific Management and its relevance in

contemporary society.
 Classical Theory 1895-1930 Its main objective is improving economic efficiency, especially labor
productivity.
 Factory worker (immigrants don’t speak English) as unit of production-machine theory
 Standardised work methods
 Frederick W Taylor(1856-1915)- simple worker, in 6 years to chief engineer “American dream”
 1911 peak
 1880s taylor observed the phenomenon of worker’s propsely operating well below capacity-rely on rule of thumb than
scientific soldiering-restricting the output-
 Piece rate system
To scientifically determine optimal way to perform job, T performed experiment called Time motion studies- To counter
soldiering, improve efficiency -The use of stopwatch to time worker’s sequence of motions (complex into simple tasks to
eliminate wasteful motion) to determine one best way to perform job

4 principles
1. Develop science -time & motion study-vs of rule of thumb (rule on practical experience)
2. Scientifically select, train, develop worker-job description- based on capability and motivation, and train
them to work at maximum efficiency.

3. Cooperate with workers with principle of the science- develop incentive- Monitor worker performance, and
provide instructions and supervision to ensure that they're using the most efficient ways of
working.

4. Divide work, responsibility equally- promote leader who guide- Allocate the work between managers and
workers so that the managers spend their time planning and training, allowing the workers to
perform their tasks efficiently

Base for M theories

Rule of thumb-select worker

2. Explain the major differences between the classical and human relations
approaches to management theory. Also point out similarities, if any.
Where Classical theorists were concerned with structure and mechanics of organisations,
the theorists of human relations were, understandably, concerned with the human factor

Human Relation 1930-1940s peak

Hawthorne studies-Elton Mayo- motivated by attention, people receiving attention perform better
-illumination Experiments (1924-27)
Experiments to determine the effects of changes in illumination on productivity. The brightness of the light was
increased and decreased to find out the effect on the productivity of test group, experimental group was exposed to
varying intensities of illumination while controlled group continued to work under constant intensities of illumination.
The hypothesis was that with higher illumination, productivity will increase.  Surprisingly Both groups
productivity increased - even when experimental group was working in dim light

Relay assembly test room experiments(1927-1929) analysing effect of physical surroundings (rest,
pauses, lunch break duration, length of working week) on output were designed to determine the
effect of changes in various job conditions on group productivity as the illumination experiments could not establish
relationship between intensity of illumination and production. For this purpose, the researchers set up a relay
assembly test room two girls were chosen.

These girls were asked to choose for more girls as co-workers. The work related to the assembly of telephone relays.
They were given opportunity to express their viewpoints and concerns to the supervisor. In some cases, they were
allowed to take decisions on matters concerning them.
From time to time, changes were made in working hours, rest periods, lunch breaks,etc. It was concluded that social
relationship among workers, participation in decision making had greater effect on productivity than working
conditions. the researchers decided to revert back to original position, that is, no rest and other benefits. Surprisingly,
productivity increased further instead of going down due to  the change in girls’ attitudes towards work and their work
group. They developed a feeling of stability and a sense of belongings. Since there was more freedom of work, they
developed a sense of responsibility and self-discipline. The relationship between supervisor and workers became
close and friendly. Output increased even when worsening conditions
Hypothesis was now that it was the attitudes of subjects at work and not the physical
conditions. This gave rise to the 'Hawthorne Effect' - employees were responding not so
much to changes in the environment as to the fact they were the centre of attention - a
special group.

3.Mass Interview (1928-1930) During the course of experiments, about 20,000 interviews were conducted between
1928 and 1930 to find out reasons for increased productivity, It was concluded that productivity can be increased if
workers are allowed talk freely about matters rather than answering yes or no to direct questions. And belistened..
interviews were collected with the workers on employee attitudes to working conditions,
their supervision and their jobs.

4.Bank wiring observation room experiment 1932 Group of 14 male workers in the bank wiring under observation.
Worker’s pay depended on the performance of the gorpu as a whole. The researchers thought that efficient workers
would put pressure on the less efficient workers to complete work. However, the informal group established its own
standards of output and social pressure was used to achieve the standards of output., isolated themselves

Productivity restricted due to pressure from peers to adopt a slower rate to circumvent
company wages incentive scheme to generally adopt own group rules and behaviour

The Hawthorne experiments clearly showed that a man at work is motivated by more than the satisfaction of
economic needs. Management should recognise that people are essentially social beings and not merely economic
beings. As a social being, they are members of a group and the management should try to understand group
attitudes and group psychology.

 Workers respond primarily to the social context of the work place

 The workers’ need for recognition and a sense of belonging are important
 A person’s attitude to work is shaped by the group to which he/she belongs in the company
The worker is more responsive to the social forces of his/her peer group than to the controls and incentives of management.

 Era of social ethic, Gov. involve-era of efficiency of large production

 Social man-Economic man
 Cooperative system for efficiency- Control for efficiency
 Informal relation as solution- job and Org design

Similarity:
Closed stable org. system- NO outside environment
Universal solution possible

3. Summarize the main features of the neo-human relations approach to organization

and management. How does it differ from the human relations approach?

neo-human relations 1950s

the psychological needs of employees. offer different incentives to workers to fulfill each need up the hierarchy.
Differ: NO universal solution, depends on the situation
Human resource theorists:
• Autonomous human beings display potential for growth and self-actualisation (A. Maslow) Maslow put forward a
theory that there are five levels of human needs which employees need to have fulfilled at work.
 proposed a hierarchy of human needs building from basic needs at the base to
higher needs at the top.
• 1943-physiological needs, food shelter safety, love, self-esteem, self-actualization
• Individual behaviour is affected by the environment (K. Lewin)
• Organisations stifle individual growth, this leads to ineffectiveness (D. Mc Gregor: Theory X; Y, C.
• Building work teams (R. Likert)
Theory X Assumptions:
 People do not like work and try to avoid it.managers have to control, direct, coerce and threaten employees to get them
to work toward organizational goals.
 People prefer to be directed, to avoid responsibility, to want security; they have little ambition.

Theory Y Assumptions:
 People will both seek and accept responsibility under favorable conditions.
 People have the capacity to be innovative in solving organizational problems.
 People are bright, but under most organizational conditions their potentials are underutilized.
Theory X (essentially 'scientific'
Theory Y
mgt)

Lazy Like working

Avoid responsibility Accept/seek responsibility

Need space to develop

Therefore need control/coercion
imagination/ingenuity

Schein type: 'rational economic man' Schein type: 'self-actualising man'

• Behavioural management theory (Human and Neo-Human Relations)

the human relations movement supplanted scientific scientific management as the dominant approach to management int he
1930s and recognizes the complexities of human behavior in organizational settings.

Contributions: provided important insights into motivation, group dynamics, and other interpersonal processes in
organizations.. Challenged the view that employees are tools and furthered the belief that employees are valuable resources.
Limitations: the complexity of individual behavior makes prediction of that behavior difficult. Many behavioral concepts
have not yet been put to use because some managers are reluctant to adopt them. Contemporary research findings by
behavioral scientists are often not communicated to practicing managers in an understandable form.

4. Explain the concepts of span of control and scalar chain and how they are
related in determining the overall hierarchical structure of organizations.
Characterize formal organizational relationships.

Span of control- n of worker who report directly to manager/supervisor

Scalar chain- n of level of management
Centralised Org- Tall- with narrow span of control and many layers (upper lvl of M in decision making)
Decentralised Org- Flat- with broad span of control and few layers (lower lvl of M in decision making)
Line- power, direct authority over all activity within 1 department
Staff – advisory rel, with Line-support service for common activity throughout ALL departments
Functional- when CEO give power to Staff line
In Matrix- Lateral-same level

5. Discuss the importance of organizational culture for effective organizational

performance. Analyse the interrelationship between organizational structure and
 types of organizational culture through Handy’s model. Also analyse Deal
and Kennedy’s model of organizational cultures.
Corporate culture- patterns of behaviour based on shared values and beliefs within a particular firm
Culture gives continuity and identity to the group – long term success , deal with things
Is modified, refined by symbols, stories, slogans, ceremony

Charles Handy’s model

Power/Web-power of centre, few rulers- faster decision-  Zeus-all-powerful Greek god, based on a central power course
Role/Temple- hierarchal bureaucracy- Apollo, the Greek god of reason. culture works by leaders and employees being
logical and being rational.
Task/Net- team matrix org.
Person/Cluster- ind. Dionysus likes wine, fun

Deal and Kennedy 1982- Speed of feedback/reward -fast,slow-and Level of risk-high,low

F-Outgoing-Work hard/play hard- restaurant, software company-team short term action
R-Driving-Tough-guy macho-Police, surgeon, radio, cosmetics-Ind, short term
R-Specialist- Bet your company-Aircraft, Oil company-Breakthrough, slow
F- Control-Process- Bank-order system long hours

6. Contrast the classical, human relations and neo-human relations approaches to

improving organizational performance and effectiveness.
7. Explain what is meant by the contingency approach to organization. How does it
differ from other approaches to organization and management? Assess the
contribution of contingency theory to our understanding of organizations.

1960s extension of system approach. it relates the environment to specific structures of org. no one best universal structure
depends on variable factors.
Contingency models
 Size and econ perf-Larger company. More bureaucracy, more perf
 Technology- Woodward- production system /unit, mass-broad span, process-many lvls Industrial org design org
structure based on type of production technology are commercially successful.
Perrow- craft. Non-routine, routine. engineering
 Environment- Burns and Stalker-mechanistic, organic, Lawrence Lorsch-differentiation, when different
departments create their own corporate culture within company's overall structure. Integration- how the
different areas of the company coordinate their operations
Diff in Env require diff methods, integrating mechanisms.More diverse, dynamic environment- more effective org will be
differentiated, highly integrated
Stable-less differentiation, high integration is needed

8. What do you understand by a "hybrid" form of organisation structure? What

problems might arise with this form of structure? Support your answer with
practical examples.

Barns and Stalker model /mechanistic, organic/

Mix of mechanistic and organic structure- lead to conflict, need for senior leader
Production, mechanistic- hotel kitchen; rules, procedures
Organic- front reception office, academic staff: teamwork, mutual cooperation

9. Discuss, with supporting examples, the major changes confronting organizations

and management today. Explain instances of resistance to change and the
effective management strategies to overcome the resistance.

External factors- technology, taste, competitors, legislation, Econ circumstances

Internal- Manager desire to modify attitudes, behaviour, skills , rel of Org to improve perf.
One of property of change is Resistance:

Causes of Resistance
1. Parochial self-interest- lose sth as result
 2. Misunderstanding-idk reason of change
3. Contradictory assessments- don’t make sense
4. Low tolerances of change- fear of handling

Methods to overcome Resistance- Kotter and Schesinger

1. Education and comm.- reason of change, time consuming
2. Participate and Involvement-willingness, inappr change
3. Facilitate support-training counselling-adjust time,expensive
4. Negotiation, agreement- offer incentive, -group lose out, too expensive
5. Manipulate, co-optation-promotion, ignore disadv -others wont work, quick, future problems
6. Explicit, Implicit coercion- threat,remove-speedy , risky

10. To what extent do you accept the view that conflict is an inevitable feature of
organizational life? Discuss how management can attempt to avoid the harmful effects of conflict. Analyse
Thomas’s model of conflict handling strategies. Support
your arguments with practical examples.

Org. conflict- situation in disagreement over goals, ways to accomplish goals btw parties emerges
Levels, Sources of conflicts, Outcome and handling will determine its valence
Traditional approach- bad, need not occur, result from lack of trust open, ppl r goodness in nature
Pluralistic approach- good, should be encouraged/regulated, inevitable, result from competition, ppl r self-seeking, competitive-
conflict
Conflict M- ways of exerc power btw parties to overcome disagree

Thomas 1976- Ways of resolving conflicts- how assertive each party pursuing its concern, cooperative with others concern
1.Collaboration-integrative solution both party wins-time consuming- to learn,merge insights from diff persp
2.Competition-quick,decisive action, take adv of non-comp
3.Accomodate- one appeases, submits to other interest, when ur wrong, harmony, build social credits
4.Compromise- both give up their concern-temporary settle,if collab compete is unsuccesful
5. Avoidance- flee conflict, trivial issue, cool down, others resolve

Org practise- Nature of human behaviour in practise

Parkinson’s law-work expands so as to fill the time available for its completion
-the law of triviality-time spent on any agenda will be in inverse proportion to the sum involved
Peter principle-in hierarchy every employee tends to rise to his level of incompetence
Pull- rel with above ppl in hierarchy-is more effective than Push -self-improvemnt