10 1021@cr030698 PDF

Chem. Rev.
2004, 104, 293−346 293
Gold Nanoparticles: Assembly, Supramolecular Chemistry,

Quantum-Size-Related Properties, and Applications toward Biology, Catalysis,
and Nanotechnology
Marie-Christine Daniel and Didier Astruc*
Molecular Nanosciences and Catalysis Group, LCOO, UMR CNRS No. 5802, Université Bordeaux I, 33405 Talence Cedex, France
Received August 6, 2003
Contents 6.3. AuNP Sugar Sensors 323

6.4. Other AuNP Bioconjugates: Peptides, Lipids, 324
1. Historic Introduction 293 Enzymes, Drugs, and Viruses
2. General Background: Quantum Size Effect and 294 6.5. AuNP Biosynthesis 325
Single-Electron Transitions 7. Catalysis 325
3. Synthesis and Assembly 296 7.1. Catalysis of CO Oxidation 325
3.1. Citrate Reduction 296 7.2. Electrochemical Redox Catalysis of CO and 326
3.2. The Brust−Schiffrin Method: Two-Phase 296 CH3OH Oxidation and O2 Reduction
Synthesis and Stabilization by Thiols 7.3. Catalysis of Hydrogenation of Unsaturated 326
3.3. Other Sulfur Ligands 297 Substrates
3.4. Other Ligands 298 7.4. Catalysis by Functional Thiolate-Stabilized 326
AuNPs
3.4.1. Phosphine, Phosphine Oxide, Amine, and 298
Carboxylate Ligands 7.5. Other Types of Catalysis 327
3.4.2. Isocyanide 298 8. Nonlinear Optics (NLO) 327
3.4.3. Acetone 298 9. Miscellaneous Applications 328
3.4.4. Iodine 298 10. Conclusion and Perspectives 329
3.5. Microemulsion, Reversed Micelles, 298 11. Acknowledgment 329
Surfactants, Membranes, and Polyelectrolytes 12. Abbreviations 329
3.6. Seeding Growth 298 13. References 330
3.7. Physical Methods: Photochemistry (UV, 298
Near-IR), Sonochemistry, Radiolysis, and 1. Historic Introduction
Thermolysis
Although gold is the subject of one of the most
3.8. Solubilization in Fluorous and Aqueous Media 299 ancient themes of investigation in science, its renais-
3.9. Characterization Techniques 300 sance now leads to an exponentially increasing
3.10. Bimetallic Nanoparticles 303 number of publications, especially in the context of
3.11. Polymers 304 emerging nanoscience and nanotechnology with nano-
3.12. Dendrimers 307 particles and self-assembled monolayers (SAMs). We
3.13. Surfaces, Films, Silica, and Other AuNP 308 will limit the present review to gold nanoparticles
Materials (AuNPs), also called gold colloids. AuNPs are the
4. Physical Properties 312 most stable metal nanoparticles, and they present
4.1. The Surface Plasmon Band (SPB) 312 fascinating aspects such as their assembly of multiple
4.2. Fluorescence 314 types involving materials science, the behavior of the
4.3. Electrochemistry 315 individual particles, size-related electronic, magnetic
4.4. Electronic Properties Using Other Physical 315 and optical properties (quantum size effect), and their
Methods applications to catalysis and biology. Their promises
5. Chemical, Supramolecular, and Recognition 317 are in these fields as well as in the bottom-up
Properties approach of nanotechnology, and they will be key
5.1. Reactions of Thiolate-Stabilized AuNPs 317 materials and building block in the 21st century.
Whereas the extraction of gold started in the 5th
5.2. Supramolecular Chemistry 318
millennium B.C. near Varna (Bulgaria) and reached
5.3. Molecular Recognition 319 10 tons per year in Egypt around 1200-1300 B.C.
5.3.1. Redox Recognition Using Functionalized 319 when the marvelous statue of Touthankamon was
AuNPs as Exoreceptors constructed, it is probable that “soluble” gold ap-
5.3.2. Miscellaneous Recognition and Sensors 320 peared around the 5th or 4th century B.C. in Egypt
6. Biology 321 and China. In antiquity, materials were used in an
6.1. DNA−AuNPs Assemblies and Sensors 321 ecological sense for both aesthetic and curative
6.2. AuNP-Enhanced Immuno-Sensing 323 purposes. Colloidal gold was used to make ruby glass
10.1021/cr030698+ CCC: $48.50 © 2004 American Chemical Society
Published on Web 12/20/2003
294 Chemical Reviews, 2004, Vol. 104, No. 1 Daniel and Astruc
(vide infra), that “gold must be present in such a

degree of communition that it is not visible to the
human eye”. A colorant in glasses, “Purple of Cas-
sius”, is a colloid resulting from the heterocoagulation
of gold particles and tin dioxide, and it was popular
in the 17th century.2b A complete treatise on colloidal
gold was published in 1718 by Hans Heinrich
Helcher.3 In this treatise, this philosopher and doctor
stated that the use of boiled starch in its drinkable
gold preparation noticeably enhanced its stability.
These ideas were common in the 18th century, as
indicated in a French dictionary, dated 1769,4 under
the heading “or potable”, where it was said that
“drinkable gold contained gold in its elementary form
but under extreme sub-division suspended in a
Marie-Christine Daniel was born in Vannes, France. She graduated from liquid”. In 1794, Mrs. Fuhlame reported in a book5
the University of Rennes (France). She is now finishing her Ph.D. on
exoreceptors at the Bordeaux 1 University in the research group of
that she had dyed silk with colloidal gold. In 1818,
Professor Didier Astruc. Her doctoral research is concerned with the Jeremias Benjamin Richters suggested an explana-
recognition of anions of biological interest using functionnalized gold tion for the differences in color shown by various
nanoparticles and redox-active metallodendrimers. preparation of drinkable gold:6 pink or purple solu-
tions contain gold in the finest degree of subdivision,
whereas yellow solutions are found when the fine
particles have aggregated.
In 1857, Faraday reported the formation of deep-
red solutions of colloidal gold by reduction of an
aqueous solution of chloroaurate (AuCl4-) using
phosphorus in CS2 (a two-phase system) in a well-
known work. He investigated the optical properties
of thin films prepared from dried colloidal solutions
and observed reversible color changes of the films
upon mechanical compression (from bluish-purple to
green upon pressurizing).7 The term “colloid” (from
the French, colle) was coined shortly thereafter by
Graham, in 1861.8 Although the major use of gold
colloids in medicine in the Middle Ages was perhaps
Didier Astruc is Professor of Chemistry at the University Bordeaux I and for the diagnosis of syphilis, a method which re-
has been a Senior Member of the Institut Universitaire de France since mained in use until the 20th century, the test is not
1995. He studied in Rennes (thesis with R. Dabard), and then did his completely reliable.9-11
postdoctoral research at MIT with R. R. Schrock. He is the author of
Electron Transfer and Radical Processes in Transition-Metal Chemistry In the 20th century, various methods for the
(VCH, 1995, prefaced by Henry Taube) and Chimie Organométallique preparation of gold colloids were reported and
(EDP Science, 2000; Spanish version in 2003). His research interests reviewed.11-17 In the past decade, gold colloids have
are in organometallic chemistry at the interface with nanosciences, been the subject of a considerably increased number
including sensing, catalysis, and molecular electronics. of books and reviews,15-44 especially after the break-
and for coloring ceramics, and these applications are throughs reported by Schmid17,19,21 and Brust et al.22,27
still continuing now. Perhaps the most famous ex- The subject is now so intensively investigated, due
ample is the Lycurgus Cup that was manufactured to fundamental and applied aspects relevant to the
in the 5th to 4th century B.C. It is ruby red in quantum size effect, that a majority of the references
transmitted light and green in reflected light, due to reported in the present review article have appeared
the presence of gold colloids. The reputation of soluble in the 21st century. Readers interested in nano-
gold until the Middle Ages was to disclose fabulous particles in general can consult the excellent books
curative powers for various diseases, such as heart cited in refs 15, 24, 28, 33, and 43. The book by
and venereal problems, dysentery, epilepsy, and Hayat, published in 1989,14 essentially deals with
tumors, and for diagnosis of syphilis. This is well biological aspects and imaging of AuNPs.
detailed in what is considered as the first book on
colloidal gold, published by the philosopher and 2. General Background: Quantum Size Effect and
medical doctor Francisci Antonii in 1618.1 This book Single-Electron Transitions
includes considerable information on the formation Physicists predicted that nanoparticles in the
of colloidal gold sols and their medical uses, including diameter range 1-10 nm (intermediate between the
successful practical cases. In 1676, the German size of small molecules and that of bulk metal) would
chemist Johann Kunckels published another book,2a display electronic structures, reflecting the electronic
whose chapter 7 concerned “drinkable gold that band structure of the nanoparticles, owing to quan-
contains metallic gold in a neutral, slightly pink tum-mechanical rules.29 The resulting physical prop-
solution that exert curative properties for several erties are neither those of bulk metal nor those of
diseases”. He concluded, well before Michael Faraday molecular compounds, but they strongly depend on
Gold Nanoparticles Chemical Reviews, 2004, Vol. 104, No. 1 295
the particle size, interparticle distance, nature of the

protecting organic shell, and shape of the nano-
particles.27 The few “last metallic electrons” are used
for tunneling processes between neighboring par-
ticles, an effect that can be detected by impedance
measurements that distinguish intra- and intermo-
lecular processes. The quantum size effect is involved
when the de Broglie wavelength of the valence
electrons is of the same order as the size of the
particle itself. Then, the particles behave electroni-
cally as zero-dimensional quantum dots (or quantum
boxes) relevant to quantum-mechanical rules. Freely
mobile electrons are trapped in such metal boxes and
show a characteristic collective oscillation frequency
of the plasma resonance, giving rise to the so-called Figure 1. Differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) responses
plasmon resonance band (PRB) observed near 530 for AuNP solutions measured at a Pt microelectrode;
nm in the 5-20-nm-diameter range. In nanoparticles, (upper) as-prepared 177 µM hexanethiol-capped Au147
there is a gap between the valence band and the showing 15 high-resolution quantized double-layer charg-
ing (QDL) peaks and (lower) 170 µM hexanethiol-capped
conduction band, unlike in bulk metals. The size- Au38 showing a HOMO-LUMO gap. It can be seen that
induced metal-insulator transition, described in the as-prepared solution contains a residual fraction of Au38
1988, is observed if the metal particle is small enough that smears out the charging response in E regions where
(about 20 nm) that size-dependent quantization ef- QDL peaks overlap. The electrode potential scanned nega-
fects occur. Then, standing electron waves with tive to positive. Reprinted with permission from ref 40
(Quinn’s group). Copyright 2003 American Chemical So-
discrete energy levels are formed. Single-electron ciety.
transitions occur between a tip and a nanoparticle,
causing the observation of so-called Coulomb block-
ing redox cascades that are well known in inorganic
ades if the electrostatic energy, Eel ) e2/2C, is larger and organometallic electrochemistry for other transi-
than the thermal energy, ET ) kT. The capacitance tion metal clusters and bi-sandwich complexes.
C becomes smaller with smaller particles. This means The pioneering work by Schmid and co-workers on
that single-electron transitions can be observed at a well-defined phosphine-stabilized gold clusters showed
given temperature only if C is very small, i.e., for the properties of quantum-dot particles for the first
nanoparticles since they are small enough (C < 10-18 time.30 The number of atoms in these gold clusters
F). Large variations of electrical and optical proper- is based on the dense packing of atoms taken as
ties are observed when the energy level spacing spheres, each atom being surrounded by 12 nearest
exceeds the temperature, and this flexibility is of neighbors. Thus, the smallest cluster contains 13
great practical interest for applications (transistors, atoms, and the following layers contain 10n2 + 2
switches, electrometers, oscillators, biosensors, cataly- atoms, n being the layer number. For instance, the
sis).32-38 For instance, single-electron tunneling re- second layer contains 42 atoms, which leads to a total
lated to the electrical resistance of a single rod- of 55 atoms for a gold cluster, and the compound
shaped molecule provided a value of 18 ( 12 MΩ for [Au55(PPh3)12Cl6] has been well characterized by
self-assembled monolayers on gold (1,1,1) substrate Schmid’s group. Recently, spectroscopic data have
used to tether AuNPs deposited from a cluster revealed discrete energy level spacings of 170 meV
beam.32 The transition from metal-like capacitive that can be attributed to the Au55 core.30c Larger
charging to redox-like charging was observed with clusters containing, respectively, 147, 309, 561, 923,
alkanethiolate-gold nanoparticles of low dispersity 1415, or 2057 (n ) 3-8) atoms have been isolated.30,31
in an electrochemical setup for Coulomb staircase Discrete organogold clusters are also well known with
experiments.39,40 Indeed, it was initially indicated small numbers of atoms and various geometries, and
that these AuNPs could accommodate 10 redox they will not be reviewed here.41,42 Large ones form
states.39a In a subsequent paper published in 2003, a fuzzy frontier between clusters and colloids (AuNPs),
it was shown that lower temperatures enhance the the latter being defined by some dispersity material-
resolution of quantized double-layer charging peaks ized by a histogram determined using transmission
in differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) observations. electron microscopy (TEM) data.
This led to the resolution of 13 peaks in CH2Cl2 at Despite the considerable variety of contributions,
263 K for Au140 particles.39b At the same time, we will focus first on synthesis, stabilization, and
however, a publication by Quinn’s group revealed various types of assemblies, and then on physical
remarkably well-resolved DPV of analogous Au147 properties and on chemical, supramolecular, and
particles, showing 15 evenly spaced peaks at room sensor properties, and finally on applications to
temperature (295 K) corresponding to 15 oxidation biochemistry, catalysis, and nonlinear optical proper-
states (Figure 1). It was also anticipated that, the ties before concluding on the perspectives of AuNPs
number of observable charge states being limited by in nanosciences and nanotechnology. Many publica-
the size of the available potential window, additional tions involve two or even sometimes several of these
peaks should be observed in controlled atmosphere topics. Thus our classification is arbitrary, but the
and reduced temperature conditions.40 Thus, AuNPs reader will often better understand the spirit of each
behave as other delocalized redox molecules, disclos- paper from its title given in the reference section.
3. Synthesis and Assembly

3.1. Citrate Reduction
Among the conventional methods of synthesis of
AuNPs by reduction of gold(III) derivatives, the most
popular one for a long time has been that using
citrate reduction of HAuCl4 in water, which was
introduced by Turkevitch in 1951.12 It leads to AuNPs Figure 3. Formation of AuNPs coated with organic shells
of ca. 20 nm. In an early effort, reported in 1973 by by reduction of AuIII compounds in the presence of thiols.
Frens,13 to obtain AuNPs of prechosen size (between Reprinted with permission from ref 73 (Crooks’s group).
16 and 147 nm) via their controlled formation, a Copyright 2001 Royal Society of Chemistry.
method was proposed where the ratio between the
reducing/stabilizing agents (the trisodium citrate-to- redissolved in common organic solvents without
gold ratio) was varied. This method is very often used irreversible aggregation or decomposition, and they
even now when a rather loose shell of ligands is can be easily handled and functionalized just as
required around the gold core in order to prepare a stable organic and molecular compounds. The tech-
precursor to valuable AuNP-based materials. Re- nique of synthesis is inspired by Faraday’s two-phase
cently, a practical preparation of sodium 3-mercap- system7 and uses the thiol ligands that strongly bind
topropionate-stabilized AuNPs was reported in which gold due to the soft character of both Au and S.47
simultaneous addition of citrate salt and an am- AuCl4- is transferred to toluene using tetraoctylam-
phiphile surfactant was adopted; the size could be monium bromide as the phase-transfer reagent and
controlled by varying the stabilizer/gold ratio (Figure reduced by NaBH4 in the presence of dodecanethiol
2).44 (Figure 3).47a The organic phase changes color from
orange to deep brown within a few seconds upon
3.2. The Brust−Schiffrin Method: Two-Phase addition of NaBH4:
Synthesis and Stabilization by Thiols
AuCl4-(aq) + N(C8H17)4+(C6H5Me) f
Schmid’s cluster [Au55(PPh3)12Cl6], reported in 1981,
long remained unique with its narrow dispersity (1.4 N(C8H17)4+AuCl4-(C6H5Me)
( 0.4 nm) for the study of a quantum-dot nanoma-
terial, despite its delicate synthesis.45 The stabiliza- mAuCl4-(C6H5Me) +
tion of AuNPs with alkanethiols was first reported
nC12H25SH(C6H5Me) + 3m e- f
in 1993 by Mulvaney and Giersig, who showed the
possibility of using thiols of different chain lengths 4m Cl-(aq) + [Aum(C12H25SH)n](C6H5Me)
and their analysis.46a The Brust-Schiffrin method for
AuNP synthesis, published in 1994, has had a The TEM photographs showed that the diameters
considerable impact on the overall field in less than were in the range 1-3 nm, with a maximum in the
a decade, because it allowed the facile synthesis of particle size distribution at 2.0-2.5 nm, with a
thermally stable and air-stable AuNPs of reduced preponderance of cuboctahedral and icosahedral struc-
dispersity and controlled size for the first time tures. Larger thiol/gold mole ratios give smaller
(ranging in diameter between 1.5 and 5.2 nm). average core sizes, and fast reductant addition and
Indeed, these AuNPs can be repeatedly isolated and cooled solutions produced smaller, more monodis-
perse particles. A higher abundance of small core
sizes (e2 nm) is obtained by quenching the reaction
immediately following reduction or by using sterically
bulky ligands.48-50 Brust et al. extended this synthe-
sis to p-mercaptophenol-stabilized AuNPs in a single-
phase system,47b which opened an avenue to the
synthesis of AuNPs stabilized by a variety of func-
tional thiol ligands.47,48 Subsequently, many publica-
tions appeared describing the use of the Brust-
Schiffrin procedure for the synthesis of other stable
AuNPs, also sometimes called monolayer-protected
clusters (MPCs), of this kind that contained func-
tional thiols.49-53 The proportion thiol:AuCl4- used
in the synthesis controls the size of the AuNPs (for
instance, a 1:6 ratio leads to the maximum average
core diameter of 5.2 nm, i.e., ca. 2951 Au atoms and
ca. 371 thiolate ligands; core diameter dispersity of
∼ (10%). Murray et al. reported and studied the
“place exchange” of a controlled proportion of thiol
Figure 2. Preparation procedure of anionic mercapto-
ligands by various functional thiols52 (Figures 4 and
ligand-stabilized AuNPs in water. Reprinted with permis- 5) and the subsequent reactions of these functional
sion from ref 44 (Kunitake’s group). Copyright 1999 AuNPs.50,52 Schiffrin reported the purification of
Elsevier. dodecanethiol-stabilized AuNPs from tetraoctylam-
attained an icosahedral structure upon freezing.63c

A single-toluene phase method was also reported
whereby the ammonium salt-stabilized AuNPs were
synthesized, followed by an exchange reaction with
dodecanethiol.58 Superhydride64a and hexadecyl-
aniline64b (inter alia) have been used as alternative
reagents to NaBH4 for the reduction of gold(III) in
the synthesis of thiol-stabilized AuNPs. Shape sepa-
Figure 4. General scheme for the ligand-exchange reac- ration of suspended AuNPs by size-exclusion chro-
tion between alkanethiol-AuNPs of the Brust type and matography was monitored by examining the 3D
various functionalized thiols. chromatograms obtained by employing a diode-array
detection system.65
monium impurities by Soxhlet extraction.54 The
influence of nonionic surfactant polyoxoethylene(20)
sorbitan monolaurate (Tween 20) on surface modifi- 3.3. Other Sulfur Ligands
cation of AuNPs was studied with mercaptoalkanoic
acids.55 Digestive ripening, i.e., heating a colloidal Other sulfur-containing ligands,67-70 such as xan-
suspension near the boiling point in the presence of thates66 and disulfides,67-69 di-70a and trithiols,70b and
alkanethiols (for instance, 138 °C for 2 min, followed resorcinarene tetrathiols,70d have been used to sta-
by 5 h at 110 °C), significantly reduced the average
bilize AuNPs. Disulfides are not as good stabilizing
particle size and polydispersity in a convenient and
agents as thiols,67-70 which is eventually useful for
efficient way. This technique also led to the formation
of 2D and 3D superlattices,56,57 a subject of intense catalysis.70 Similarly, thioethers do not bind AuNPs
investigation (see also section 3.13 on materials).58-63 strongly,71 but the use of polythioethers by Rhein-
For instance, AuNPs obtained using acid-facilitated hout’s group astutely circumvented this problem.72a
transfer are free of tetraalkylammonium impurity, Tetradentate thiethers have also been used to revers-
are remarkably monodisperse, and form crystalline ibly form AuNP assemblies.72b On the other hand,
superstructures.63a The truncated icosahedron struc- oxidation of thiol-stabilized AuNPs by iodine pro-
ture is formed in growth conditions in which the vokes their decomposition to gold iodide with forma-
equilibrium shape is achieved.63b Molecular dynamics tion of disulfides, which led Crooks to form polycy-
simulations showed that AuNPs with 1157 Au atoms clodextrin hollow spheres by templating AuNPs.73
Figure 5. Ligand substitution reactions (CH2Cl2, 2 d, room temperature) for the syntheses of the AuNPs containing
mixed dodecanethiol and (amidoferrocenyl) alkanethiol-type ligands with variation of the chain length (C11 vs C6) and
ring structure of the ferrocenyl motif (Cp, Cp*, C5H4COMe). Reprinted with permission from ref 140 (Astruc’s group).
Copyright 2002 American Chemical Society.
3.4. Other Ligands lecular wires,76f and 1,4-diisocyanide-AuNP forms

large aggregate superstructures that have been
3.4.1. Phosphine, Phosphine Oxide, Amine, and examined by IR and Raman spectroscopy, showing
Carboxylate Ligands bonding to the AuNP core via the carbon lone
The Brust biphasic method of synthesis was ap- pair.76g,h
plied to PPh3 in order to improve the synthesis of 3.4.3. Acetone
Schmid’s cluster [Au55(PPh3)12Cl6], using HAuCl4‚ Pure Au0NPs, obtained by replacement of citrate
3H2O and N(C8H15)4Br in a water-toluene mixture by acetone, were shown to be stable against attack
to which PPh3 and then NaBH4 were added. It was by BH4- or HCl.76i
estimated that the cluster synthesized in this way
had the formula [Au101(PPh3)21Cl5] and contained 3.7 3.4.4. Iodine
mass percent of [Au(PPh3)Cl] as an impurity.74a Iodine adsorption was shown to displace citrate
Thermolysis of [AuI(C13H27COO)(PPh3)] at 180 °C ions from AuNPs, leading to superstructures that are
under N2 yielded monodispersed AuNPs capped by also formed upon addition of KI.76j
myristate and a small amount of PPh3 ligands; the
AuNP diameter increased with reaction time, from 3.5. Microemulsion, Reversed Micelles,
12 nm for 1 h to 28 nm for 10 h, and with increasing Surfactants, Membranes, and Polyelectrolytes
temperature (42 nm for 5 h at 200 °C).74b Various The use of microemulsions,77 copolymer micelles,78
other gold complexes, in particular gold(I) amine reversed micelles,77 surfactant, membranes, and other
complexes, have been used as precursors for the amphiphiles is a significant research field for the
synthesis of amine-stabilized AuNPs.75,76a,b Reduction synthesis38 of stabilized AuNPs in the presence or in
of AuIVCl4 by NaBH4 in a mixture of tri-n-octylphos- the absence of thiol ligands.77-95 The syntheses
phine oxide (TOPO) and octadecylamine (1:0.57 involve a two-phase system with a surfactant that
molar ratio) at 190 °C resulted in the controlled causes the formation of the microemulsion or the
growth of spherical AuNPs (8.59 ( 1.09 nm diameter) micelle maintaining a favorable microenvironment,
that are stable for months in toluene and were together with the extraction of metal ions from the
manipulated into crystals and 2D arrays (Figure 6).76c aqueous phase to the organic phase. This is an
Capping aqueous AuNPs with the amino acid lysine advantage over the conventional two-phase system.
stabilizes the AuNPs in solution electrostatically and This dual role of the surfactant and the interaction
renders them air-stable and water-dispersible, a between the thiol and the AuNP surface control the
finding that is promising toward biologically relevant growth and stabilization of the AuNP or nanocrystal.
research.76d Efficient synthesis of stable AuNPs by The narrow size distribution allows the ordering of
reaction of AuCl4- ions with the alkalothermophilic the particles into a 2D hexagonal close-packed array.
actinomycete Thermomonospora sp. has been AuNP sizes of the order of 4 nm diameter have been
described.76e found.79 Polyelectrolytes have also been extensively
used for the synthesis of AuNPs (Figure 7).94,98-102
3.4.2. Isocyanide The polyelectrolyte coating of carboxylic acid-deriva-
Aryl isocyanide thin films have attracted some tized AuNPs with diameters less than 10 nm has
attention, due to their potential application as mo- been achieved by electrostatic self-assembly of op-
positely charged polyelectrolytes.102b
3.6. Seeding Growth

The seeding-growth procedure is another popular
technique that has been used for a century. Recent
studies have successfully led to control of the size
distribution (typically 10-15%) in the range 5-40
nm, whereas the sizes can be manipulated by varying
the ratio of seed to metal salt (Figure 8).103-105 The
step-by-step particle enlargement is more effective
than a one-step seeding method to avoid secondary
nucleation.87a Gold nanorods have been conveniently
fabricated using the seeding-growth method.87b
3.7. Physical Methods: Photochemistry (UV,

Near-IR), Sonochemistry, Radiolysis, and
Thermolysis
UV irradiation is another parameter that can
Figure 6. 2D lattice of octadecylamine/TOPO-capped improve the quality of the AuNPs,86,104,105 including
AuNPs spontaneously formed when the latter are deposited when it is used in synergy with micelles86 or seeds.104
on a copper grid; bar ) 20 nm. (Inset) Scanning electron Near-IR laser irradiation provokes an enormous size
microscopy (SEM) image of a cubic colloidal crystal pre-
pared from octadecylamine/TOPO-capped AuNPs (190 °C);
growth of thiol-stabilized AuNPs.106 The presence of
bar ) 80 µm. Reprinted with permission from ref 76c an ultrasonic field (200 kHz) allowed the control of
(O’Brien’s group). Copyright 2000 The Royal Society of the rate of AuCl4- reduction in an aqueous solution
Chemistry. containing only a small amount of 2-propanol and the
Figure 8. TEM image of larger gold particles prepared

from seed: (a) 5.5 ( 0.6, (b) 8.0 ( 0.8, (c) 17 ( 2.5, and (d)
37 ( 5 nm after separation of rods. The 5.5 ( 0.6-nm
AuNPs were extracted into toluene after thiol capping for
TEM in order to remove excess surfactant. The other
particles were separated from excess surfactant by cen-
trifugation. Reprinted with permission from ref 89 (Mur-
phy’s group). Copyright 2001 American Chemical Society.
produced alkyl-groups-passivated AuNPs of 26 nm.118a

Thermolysis of crude preparations of Brust’s AuNPs
without removing the phase-transfer reagent, tet-
raoctylammonium bromide, to 150-25 °C led to an
increase of the particle sizes to 3.4-9.7 nm, and this
size evolution was discussed on the basis of a
thermodynamic model. The heat-treated AuNPs
formed 2D superlattices with hexagonal packing. The
conformation of the alkanethiol is all-trans, and these
ligands interpenetrate each other (Figure 10).118b
Laser photolysis has been used to form AuNPs in
block copolymer micelles.119 Laser ablation is another
technique of AuNP synthesis that has been used
under various conditions whereby size control can be
Figure 7. Schematic diagram illustrating the layer-by- induced by the laser.120-122 The evolution of thiol-
layer polymer deposition process applied to AuNPs. Re-
printed with permission from ref 98 (Caruso’s group). stabilized AuNPs has been induced by and observed
Copyright 2001 American Chemical Society. upon heating.123-126,135 Structural changes of spheri-
cal aggregates composed of mercaptoacetate-stabi-
sizes of the formed AuNPs by using parameters such lized AuNPs suspended in water were monitored by
as the temperature of the solution, the intensity of maintaining the spheroid suspension at a constant
the ultrasound, and the positioning of the reac- temperature, ranging from 65 to 91 °C, for 2-12 h.
tor.107,108 Sonochemistry was also used for the syn- The spheroid diameter was reduced to almost 70%
thesis of AuNPs within the pores of silica111-113 and of the original size, due to an irreversible “coagula-
for the synthesis of Au/Pd bimetallic particles.114 tive” transition resulting from fusion among the
Radiolysis has been used to control the AuNP size115a nanocolloids in spheroids.126b Morphology changes of
or to synthesize them in the presence of specific AuNPs were also shown during sintering.126c Sput-
radicals,115b and the mechanism of AuNP formation tering AuNPs by single ions and clusters was shown
upon γ-irradiation has been carefully examined (Fig- to eject AuNPs.178
ure 9).116
AuNPs have been fabricated via decomposition of 3.8. Solubilization in Fluorous and Aqueous
[AuCl(PPh3)] upon reduction in a monolayer at the Media
gas/liquid interface.117 The thermolysis of [C14H29- AuNPs stabilized by perfluorodecanethiol or
Me3N][Au(SC12H25)2] at 180 °C for 5 h under N2 1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorooctathiol, with an average
Figure 9. Taping-mode AFM images of the species formed

in a solution irradiated with γ rays (1.5 kGy) and then
deposited on highly ordered pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) 30
days after the irradiation and dried under a mild N2 stream
for visualization. The solution contains 10-3 mol‚L-1 AuIII
and poly(vinyl alcohol) but no alcohol. (A) Height-mode (z
range 80.0 nm) image and (B) phase (z range 42.2°) image,
run simultaneously on the same area of the sample. (C, D)
Close-up images showing the same area as in (A) and (B),
respectively. Reprinted from ref 116 (Belloni’s group) by
permission of The Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC) on
behalf of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique
(CNRS). Copyright 1998.
diameter of 2.4-2.6 nm, were prepared by reduction

of HAuCl4 by NaBH4 (dropwise addition) in ethanol
and were soluble only in fluorocarbon media.127
Special emphasis has been placed on the synthesis
of stable water-soluble thiol-stabilized AuNPs128-134
using thiols containing poly(ethylene oxide)
chains128-130a (Figure 11) or carboxylate modification
(Figure 12).130b,134 Poly(N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone) (PVP)
is the polymer of choice for the stabilization in water Figure 10. UV-vis spectra (A) and TEM images and size
of AuNPs prepared by reduction of HAuCl4 (see the distributions (B) of (a) [AuCl4]- before reduction; dode-
section on polymers). canethiol-AuNPs (b) as prepared and after heat treatment
at (c) 150, (d) 190, and (e) 230 °C; and (f) octadecanethiol-
3.9. Characterization Techniques AuNPs heat-treated at 250 °C. Reprinted with permission
The most common characterization technique is from ref 188b (Miyake’s group). Copyright 2003 American
Chemical Society.
high-resolution transmission electron microscopy
(HRTEM), which gives a photograph of the gold core providing the size distribution of these cores gives
of the AuNPs,46 but the core dimensions can also be crucial information on the dispersity of the sample
determined using scanning tunneling microscopy that is usually obtained from TEM pictures.47 The
(STM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), small-angle mean diameter, d, of the cores allows determination
X-ray scattering (SAXS),50,137a laser desorption- of the mean number of gold atoms, NAu, in the
ionization mass spectrometry (LDI-MS),137b-139 and cores:47 NAu ) 4π(d/2)3/vAu. For instance, with d )
X-ray diffraction.136 A detailed high-resolution study 2.06 nm, NAu ) 269.140 From these data, the ele-
of the AuNP shape using HRTEM, reported by Brust mental analysis, giving the Au/S ratio, allows calcu-
et al., revealed that the truncated cuboctahedron lation of the average number of S ligands. This
predominated, and that decahedra, dodecahedra and number can also be deduced from X-ray photoelectron
icosahedra were also present in the same preparation spectroscopy (XPS) or thermogravimetric analysis
of alkanethiol-stabilized AuNPs.47 The histogram (TGA).50
gold cores by thiolate ligands139 was due to large

ligand/Au binding ratios on core edges and vertexes
(Figure 13), in accord with theoretical calculations.140
Moreover, it was reported that thermolysis of the
thiolate-stabilized AuNPs produces only the corre-
sponding disulfide. The absence of thiol by thermal
desorption mass spectrometry was considered to be
evidence that the chemisorbed ligand consisted of an
alkanethiolate (not thiol) fragment. This would mean
that H2 is produced during the reductive synthesis
from thiols, but this formation has never been
detected. Theoretical calculations suggested the for-
Figure 11. Schematic representation of a AuNP protected mation of disulfides when the number of thiol mol-
by a monolayer of monohydroxy (1-mercaptoundec-11-yl) ecules around a AuNP was enough to saturate the
tetraethylene glycol. The hydrophobic C11 chain confers
extreme stability to the cluster, while the hydrophilic
flat planes, whereas thiolate behavior was observed
tetraethylene glycol unit ensures solubility in water. when the sulfur atoms were not enough.139a This
Reprinted with permission from ref 129 (Brust’s group). finding was reported139 to corroborate the observation
Copyright 2002 The Royal Society of Chemistry. of a S-S distance of 2.32 Å from grazing incidence
X-ray in self-assembly of n-alkanethiols on a (1,1,1)
gold crystal surface.139b Brust et al. recently provided
1H NMR evidence for intact thiols adsorbed on
AuNPs. They showed that the loss of hydrogen could

be prevented to some extent as long as there is no
easy reaction path for hydrogen removal.140
X-ray diffraction also demonstrated the striking
tendency of thiolates-AuNPs to spontaneously form
highly ordered superlattices141-144 with periodicity
extending to three dimensions up to several tens of
micrometers.143 These superlattices were obtained
upon slow evaporation of the organic solvent or even
water on a suitable surface.144b Such self-organized
superlattices of AuNPs on highly ordered pyrolytic
graphite (HOPG) are also observable by STM (Figure
14).27 Monodispersity is a very important criterion
for the formation of ordered superlattices.145a When
the gas phase at the gas-suspension interface of a
synthetic medium leading to sodium mercaptosucci-
nate-AuNPs contained nonpolar organic molecules,
spherical AuNPs formed. On the other hand, when
the gas phase contained polar organic vapors such
as MeCN or CHCl3, irregular-shaped AuNPs
formed.145b
Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) films of Schmid’s Au55
Figure 12. Possible combinations of H2O molecules with cluster were characterized by STM, Brewter angle
mercaptosuccinic acid (MSA)-capped AuNPs: one H2O microscopy (BAM), and scanning force microscopy
molecule connected with two carbonyl groups in either (a)
one MSA molecule, (b) adjoining MSA molecules on one (SFM). These techniques showed that the cluster
AuNP, making a successive hydrogen-bonding network, or formed monolayers, as indicated by the surface
(c) MSA molecules from different AuNPs, the water acting pressure-area (π-A) isotherms and the area-time
as “glue” to join two neighboring particles. Reprinted with (A-t) isobars between 20 and 30 °C and 15-30 nN/m
permission from ref 130b (Chen’s group). Copyright 1999 of surface pressure, and the cluster size could be
American Chemical Society. estimated from the π-A isotherms as 2.17 nm (calcd
The oxidation state of the gold atoms of the core 2.1 nm).19 The Au55 cluster has also been studied by
has been examined by Brust et al in their seminal Mössbauer spectroscopy, extended X-ray absorption
article using X-ray photoelectron spectra that showed fine structure (EXAFS), electron spectroscopy for
the binding energies of the doublet for Au 4f7/2 (83.8 chemical analysis (ESCA), and conductivity measure-
eV) and Au 4f5/2 (87.5 eV) characteristic of Au0. No ments. These techniques show that the Au55 particles
band was found for AuI at 84.9 eV, although one-third behave like a system with a few “last metallic
of the gold atoms are located at the surface and electrons” that are used for tunneling between neigh-
bonded to thiols for 2.0-2.5 nm sized particle cores. boring clusters. This “metallizing” situation was
On this basis, Brust et al. suggested that the gold- observed by applying an alternating current in the
thiol bond does not have the character of gold 10-kHz range as for impedance measurements.146,147
sulfide.46b This matter of a thiol vs thiolate bond to Scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS) had been
the gold core atoms, however, has been debated. For used to observe Coulomb blockade in metal nano-
instance, it was suggested that a high coverage of particles. The tunneling current is induced by an
Figure 13. Stable configurations of AuNPs covered with n-alkanethiol molecules. The sequence shows n ) 4 butanethiol,
n ) 6 hexanethiol, n ) 8 octanethiol, n ) 10 decanethiol, n ) 12 dodecanethiol, n ) 14 butanedecanethiol, and n ) 16
hexanedecanethiol (n ) number of C atoms). Reprinted with permission from ref 139 (José-Yacamán’s group). Copyright
1998 Kluwer.
applied voltage and leads to the charging of a metal state. The temperature of the transition increases
particle with at least one single electron.148-150 Elec- with the chain length, and FTIR shows the increasing
trostatic trapping (ET) is a technique used to inves- amount of gauche defects. Variable-temperature
tigate isolated nanosize metal particles. It is based deuterium NMR in the solid state shows that the
on moving a polarized particle in an electric field to disorder, materialized by the increased proportion of
the point of strongest field, which is the position gauche bonds, propagates from the chain terminus
between two electrodes (dipped in a solution of the toward the middle of the chain, but not further to
particles) at a distance comparable to the particle the ligand atom, and causes chain melting.152 Calo-
diameter.27,148,149 rimetric measurements led to the determination of
The UV-vis and IR spectra provide an identifica- the formation enthalpy of AuNPs in a water/sodium
tion of the ligand that is also confirmed by NMR bis(2-ethylhexyl) sulfosuccinate/n-heptane micro-
spectroscopy, except that the ligand atoms close to emulsion. The results indicated that the energetic
the core give broad signals. This latter phenomenon states and the dimensions of the AuNPs were influ-
is due to (i) spin-spin relaxational (T2) broadening enced by the radii and concentrations of the reversed
(main factor), (ii) variations among the gold-sulfur micelles.80
bonding sites around the particle, and (iii) a gradient Capillary zone electrophoresis in acetate buffer
in the packing density of the thiolate ligands from showed that the mobility of AuNPs with a given core
the core region to the ligand terminus at the diameter decreased with decreasing ionic strength.
periphery.151-153 The NMR spectra are very informa- At the highest ionic strength investigated (6 mmol/
tive, as for all molecular compounds, for the part of L), a good linear dependence of the mobility on the
the ligand remote from the core. The latter can also reciprocal of the core radius allowed the character-
be more fully analyzed, if desired, after oxidative ization of the size of the AuNPs.156
decomplexation using iodide. The AFM images of AuNPs operating in the contact
IR spectroscopy shows that, as in SAMs,154 the mode in air at room temperature showed an attrac-
thiolate ligands of AuNPs are essentially in all-trans tive interaction among the particles, leading to the
zigzag conformations, with 5-25% of gauche defects formation of aggregates and a mean size that is a
at both inner and terminal locations.50,152 IR and function of the size of the reverse micelle used for
NMR spectroscopies allow, together with differential the synthesis. This was taken into account in terms
scanning calorimetry (DSC),152-155 the detection of of the formation of an adsorbed layer of surfactant
order-disorder transitions in AuNPs in the solid molecules at the particle surface.81
Figure 15. Schematic illustrating the proposed inter-

actions of thiocyanate ion-coated 2.8 ( 0.8- and 11.6 ( 0.8-
nm-diameter AuNPs with 37.8 ( 9-nm-diameter ethylene-
diaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA)-covered AgNPs. Reprinted
with permission from ref 164 (Fendler’s group). Copyright
2002 The Royal Society of Chemistry.
on TiO2 (1,1,0) surfaces.160b The surface of AuNPs was

analyzed using a phase reconstruction technique in
TEM, extended to simultaneous correction of spheri-
cal aberration and two-fold astigmatism.160c The
vacancy formation energy of AuNPs has been shown
Figure 14. Nanostruture preparation from AuNPs: STM to decrease with decreasing particle size.160d
image of self-assembled superlattice of 3.5-nm gold par-
ticles on a HOPG substrate. The particles are stabilized
by hexanethiol. TEM micrograph of an AB2 superlattice of 3.10. Bimetallic Nanoparticles
AuNPs having a bimodal size distribution (4.5 and 7.8 nm).
The AuNPs are stabilized by decanethiol. Reprinted with Bimetallic nanoparticles20,37 containing gold as one
permission from ref 27 (Brust’s group). Copyright 2002 of the elements have been synthesized in a variety
Elsevier. of ways. Bimetallic AuNPs have been reported with
Ag (Figure 15),161-168 Pd (Figure 16),97,161,166,167 Pt,161,167
The use of incoherent light experiments, performed TiO2,99 Fe,169-171 Zn,168 Cu,165,168 ZrO2,172 CdS,173,174
in the vicinity of the surface plasmon resonance Fe2O3,175 and Eu.176 Although bimetallic nano-
frequency, allowed measurement of the phase relax- particles have been known for a long time, Schmid’s
ation time and nonlinear susceptibility of AuNPs of group were the first to report the synthesis of core-
5-40 nm.157 shell bimetallic nanoparticles, the core-shell struc-
Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS)70b and ture being demonstrated using HRTEM and energy-
XPS made it possible to analyze the chemisorptive disperse X-ray (EDX) microanalysis. AuNPs of 18 nm
properties of tetrathiol ligands and indicated that diameter were covered with a Pd or Pt shell when
surface passivation was an important factor in the an aqueous solution of these AuNPs was added to a
dispersibility of AuNPs in nonpolar solvents.70c solution of H2PtCl6 or H2PdCl4 and H3NOHCl. The
EXAFS allowed investigation of the size-dependent original color of the AuNPs then changed to brown-
distance contraction in thiol-stabilized AuNPs, and black. Addition of p-H2NC6H4SO3Na stabilized the
the short metal-ligand bond found suggested a generated particles in the same manner as P(m-C6H4-
rather strong surface interaction.158 SO3Na)3 stabilized the AuNPs. The colloids showed
High-resolution time-of-flight mass spectroscopy a metallic luster and were of uniform 35 nm diam-
analysis of alkanethiol-stabilized AuNPs allowed the eter. For instance, Au/Pt particles had an average
assignment of the number of gold and sulfur atoms, gold content of 15% atom % located at the core
although alkyl chains were not evident. Pure gold surrounded by Pt crystals of about 5 nm that were
cluster ions of various sizes could be generated from pregrown before being added to the Au surface.161
the AuNPs in a two-laser experiment.159 Stabilization of the bimetallic particles could be
Small-angle X-ray scattering, STM, and AFM were achieved using the Brust procedure in the presence
consistent with a small, monodisperse (2.4 nm diam- of thiols. Such stable bimetallic particles were syn-
eter) gold core.160a The formation by physical vapor thesized with group 10 (Pd, Pt) and group 11 (Cu,
deposition and growth of AuNPs was studied by STM Ag, Au) metals, all containing Au as one of the two
proved recent understanding of the parameters lead-

ing to the stabilization of AuNPs and of their quan-
tum-size-related interest, there has been a revival
of activity in the field of polymer-stabilized
AuNPs.33,177,180-181 The most commonly used polymers
for the stabilization of AuNPs are PVP and poly-
(ethylene glycol).11b,14
Although there are a variety of ways to achieve
nanoparticle-polymer composites,182,183 two different
approaches dominate. The first one consists of the
in situ synthesis of the nanoparticles in the polymer
matrix either by reduction of the metal salts dissolved
in that matrix184 or by evaporation of the metals on
the heated polymer surface.185 The second one, less
frequently used, involves polymerization of the ma-
trix around the nanoparticles.186 Recently, however,
blending of premade AuNPs into a presynthesized
polystyrene polymer (synthesized by anionic polym-
erization) bound to a thiol group was also reported.187
Whereas the physical process involving mechanical
crushing or pulverization of bulk metals and arc
discharge yielded large nanoparticles with a wide size
distribution, nanoparticles prepared by reduction of
metal salts are small, with a narrow size distribution.
This reduction processes most often use a reagent
such as NaBH4188 which is added in situ, or the
reductant can also be the solvent, such as an alco-
hol.189,190 For instance, HAuCl4‚4H2O gives stable
AuNPs upon refluxing in methanol/water in the
Figure 16. Cartoon diagram of core metal galvanic presence of PVP, even if NaOH is added subsequently
exchange reactions. MPC, monolayer-protected cluster; to the preparation of the AuNPs.191 In poly(acryl-
MPAC, monolayer-protected alloy cluster; SC12, S(CH2)11-
CH3. Reprinted with permission from ref 166a (Murray’s amide), AuCl4- cannot be reduced by alcohol, but it
group). Copyright 2002 American Chemical Society. can be reduced by NaBH4.192 Other reductants are
generated involving radiolysis, photolysis,193 or elec-
metals, and were characterized using TEM, 1H NMR trochemistry.194 The polymer-nanoparticle composite
line broadening, XPS, elemental analysis, and TGA. can be generated from solution (the classic mode) or
TEM showed that Pd/Au cores are small (1.7 nm) and can involve the immobilization by a solid polymer
relatively monodisperse (average 20% dispersity), such as poly(acrylic acid), poly(vinyl alcohol), or PVP
while Ag/Au cores are larger (3.2 nm), and other frequently used. Reduction of metal ions in the
bimetallic particles are of intermediate size. The mole presence of the polymer is most often chosen because
ratios of metals both in and on the surface of the the complexation of the metal cations by the ligand
bimetallic cores differed significantly from the metal: atoms of the polymer is crucial before reduction. In
salt ratio used in the bimetallic particle synthesis.162 particular, it dramatically limits the particle size.195
Partially segregated alloys indeed form easily, and The most important role of the stabilizing polymer
more noble metals prefer the nonsurface (core) loca- is to protect the nanoparticles from coagulation.
tion.20 Metal galvanic exchange reactions are yet Toshima has expressed this function quantitatively
another quite facile way to synthesize stable bimetal- by the “gold number”, i.e. the number of milligrams
lic particles. This procedure relies on reactions of of protective polymer that just prevents 10 mL of a
alkanethiolate-metal particles or other metal par- red gold sol from changing color to violet upon
ticles (Ag, Pd, Cu) with the complexes [AuISCH2- addition of 1 mL of 10% aqueous NaCl. The “gold
(C6H4)CMe3] and [PdII{S(CH2)11Me}2].163,166 Au core- number” is smaller for protective polymers that are
Ag shell and Au core-Pt shell nanoparticles have better stabilizers.189 Core-shell PVP-stabilized Au/
been formed using photochemically reduced phos- Pd196 and Au/Pt197,198 nanoparticles were prepared by
photungstate Keggin ions.168b Specific properties and
Yonezawa and Toshima by simultaneous alcohol
functions of bimetallic nanoparticles will be discussed
reduction of the two corresponding metal salts and
in the appropriate sections devoted to catalytic,
characterized by EXAFS. The relative order of reduc-
electronic, and optical properties.
tion in alcohol/water is seemingly controlled by the
relative redox potentials, HAuCl4 being reduced more
3.11. Polymers rapidly than Pd(OH)2 and PtCl62-. The AuNPs form
Since the report in Helcher’s treatise in 1718,3 first, and then the Pd or Pt shell forms around the
indicating that starch stabilizes water-soluble gold AuNPs to produce the core-shell bimetallic particles.
particles, it has been known that such materials, In fact, the Pd0 formed reduces AuCl4- to Au0 and
recognized two centuries later as polymers, favor the thus acts as a mediator or redox catalyst for the
isolation of AuNPs.14,179 With the considerably im- reduction of AuCl4-, as long as any AuCl4- is left in
Figure 17. Schematic representation for the synthesis of polymer-coated AuNPs by surface-initiated living-radical
polymerization (LRP). Reprinted with permission from ref 214 (Fukuda’s group). Copyright 2002 American Chemical Society.
Figure 18. SEM image of (a) 50-µm ceramic hollow spheres (CHSs), (b)-50 µm gold-seeded CHSs, (c) 50-µm gold hollow
spheres (GHSs) obtained by calcination and dissolution of gold-seeded CHSs, (d) a 100-µm CHS, (e) a 100-µm gold-seeded
CHS, and (f) a 100-µm broken GHS. The arrow in (c) indicates a broken particle, which proves that it is hollow. From (f),
it can be seen that the inside of GHS is empty. Reprinted with permission from ref 216b (Fendler’s group). Copyright 2002
Elsevier.
the solution.199,200 Attempts to synthesize Pd-core/Au- an ideal choice to serve as a confined reaction
shell bimetallic particles led instead to a remarkable vessel.209 The formation of AuNPs was also controlled
cluster-in-cluster structure because of this redox by using poly(methylphosphazene), whose lone pairs
priority (Figure 16).201 stabilized the AuNPs.210 Functionalized polymers
Many ordered polymer-AuNPs are known. For have also been used as stabilizers. Poly(ethylene
instance, AuNPs in PVP were prepared by hydrazine glycol)-based polymer was used to fabricate an AuNP
reduction of incorporated HAuCl4. The color of the sensor that reversibly binds lectin for recognition and
solution of HAuCl4-loaded block copolymer changed bioassay.211 The so-called “grafting from” technique
from yellow to purple, and then to bluish upon has been used to construct highly dense polymer
addition of a large excess of anhydrous hydrazine. brushes. For instance, several methods,212-214 includ-
The reduction can be stopped by addition of HCl, ing the efficient living radical polymerization (LRP),
which protonates hydrazine in order to avoid coagu- have indeed been applied to the synthesis of AuNPs
lation of the AuNPs.202,203 These phenomena were coated with such a high-density polymer brush.
also obtained with (styrene-block-ethylene oxide).204,205 AuNP-based nanoscale architectures could be fore-
The use of a diaminotriazine-functionalized diblock casted using this simple technique (Figure 17).214
copolymer led to size-controlled synthesis of AuNP Polymer hollow spheres have been synthesized
aggregates in solution and in thin films with thymine with movable AuNPs at their interiors.215 AuNPs can
functionality.206 AuNPs were generated in polymeric serve as templates for the synthesis of conductive
micelles composed of amphiphilic block copoly- capsules216 (Figure 18) and for the oligomerization
mers,207,208 and amphilic star-block copolymers were of L-cysteine in aqueous solution (Figure 19).217
Linear polymers having cyano or mercapto groups

stabilize AuNPs of 1.5-3 nm diameter and narrow
size distributions.222 AuNPs of Brust type with some
thiol chain termini bearing exo-norbornene units
were polymerized using ring-opening metathesis
polymerization (ROMP) to produce a block copolymer
shell.223,224 Small AuNPs (5 nm diameter) stabilized
with sodium citrate225 were attached to the surface
of silica nanoparticles protected by polymer layers to
provide contrast in the final TEM image, a strategy
also used to obtain TEM contrast for many types of
molecular97 and biological materials.226 Solution be-
havior, i.e., transformation in the morphology from
small spherical AuNPs to large anisotropic objects,
was observed by decreasing the concentration of
polystyrene-block-poly(2-vinylpyridine) micelles be-
low the critical micelle concentration (Figure 20).85
Networks of AuNPs prepared in water were ob-
Figure 19. AuNPs as templates for the synthesis of hollow
polymer capsules. Reprinted with permission from ref 216c served by TEM upon adding poly(acrylic acid) to
(Feldheim’s group). Copyright 1999 American Chemical AuNPs stabilized by thiolated poly(ethylene oxide)
Society. chains of high molecular weight (necessary to stabi-
lize AuNPs in water). Moreover, thin and linear
Nanosized domains of block copolymers can be used thermally robust arrangements were formed when
as nanoreactors to synthesize AuNPs by expansion chondroitin sulfate c sodium salt (a polysaccharide
of the nanosized domains and period of block copoly- carrying sulfuric acid groups and carboxylic acid
mers, such as polystyrene-block-poly(4-vinylpyridine) groups) was added (Figure 21).227 AuNPs of about 20
(PS-PVP) diblock copolymers.218 Self-assemblies of nm size were formed upon reduction of AuCl3 by
AuNPs/polymer multilayer films have been formed polyaniline in N-methylpyrrolidinone.228 An amine-
using surface functionalization.219,220 AuNPs of aver- functionalized polymer was used to simultaneously
age size between 1 and 50 nm have also been assemble carboxylic-acid-functionalized AuNPs and
stabilized by many water-soluble polymers, and some silica naoparticles into extended agregates.229 Such
of then have been shown to be stable after 9 months a strategy also led to spherical silica templates
in air. The most stable ones were obtained with (Figure 22).226 Macroporous Au spheres with a di-
polymers possessing hydrophobic backbones and side ameter ∼9 µm have been formed by employing porous
groups, allowing good interactions with the AuCl4- organic bead templates and preformed AuNPs.230
ion. The preparations were carried out using either AuNPs were stabilized by the lone nitrogen pair on
UV irradiation or KBH4 to reduce HAuCl4 in the the backbone of polymethylphosphazene, [Me(Ph)-
presence of a mass ratio of polymer:gold 25:1.221 PN]n, and varying the ratio of [Me(Ph)PN]n to HAuCl4
Figure 20. (a) Reaction scheme for the synthesis of the PEO-GMA-DEAR triblock copolymers. (b) Schematic illustration
of the formation of three-layer “onion-like” micelles and shell cross-linked micelles from PEO-GMA-DEA triblock copolymers.
PEO-GMA-DEA, poly[(ethylene oxide)-block-glycerol monomethacrylate-block-2-(diethylamino)ethyl methacrylate]. Re-
printed with permission from ref 85 (Armes’s group). Copyright 2002 American Chemical Society.
Figure 22. Schematic illustration for the synthesis of

Au@HCMS (hollow core/mesoporous shell) polymer and
carbon capsules. Reprinted with permission from ref 226
(Hyeon’s group). Copyright 2002 American Chemical So-
ciety.
amide that were functionalized with disulfide an-
Figure 21. TEM images of AuNPs covered with PEGSH choring groups. The resulting polymer-coated AuNPs
2000, observed in the presence of chondroitin sulfate c
sodium salt (polysaccharide carrying sulfuric acid groups could be stored in the dry state and redispersed in
and carboxylic acid groups, which are expected to interact water to yield sterically stabilized AuNP suspensions.
with the PEG chain). Reprinted with permission from ref The disulfide-bearing polymers exhibited only a
228 (Ishiwatari’s group). Copyright 2002 The Chemical slightly larger affinity for the gold surface than those
Society of Japan. that do not have the disulfide groups. The polymer
layers allowed the free diffusion of small solutes but
prior to reduction allowed control of the AuNP size.231 efficiently minimized the nonspecific absorption of
AuNPs (4-12 nm) were associated with thiol-func- large molecules such as proteins, a promising prop-
tionalized polyoxometalates γ-[SiW10O36(RSi)O]4- (R erty (Figure 23).236a AuNPs have been synthesized
) HSC3H6), where the R group played the role of both in graft copolymer micelles,87 and the diffusion of
stabilizing the AuNPs via the thiolate ligand and AuNPs in a polymer matrix has been analyzed.236b
forming a covalent link to the polyanion through the Core-shell AuNPs have been prepared by the layer-
trimethoxysilane group.232 The preparation of poly- by-layer technique, utilizing polyelectrolyte multi-
(N-isopropylacrylamide)-protected AuNPs has been layers assembled onto polystyrene cores as thin films
carried out in a homogeneous phase using various in which to infiltrate AuNPs, and hollow spheres
methods, and this polymer was found to be a better were obtained by removal of the templated polysty-
passivant than alkanethiols.233a rene cores.236c
AuNPs were prepared in both aqueous and organic
systems by reducing HAuCl4 with o-anisidine in the 3.12. Dendrimers
presence of 1:1 N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone/toluene.233b A variety of assemblies between PAMAM dendrim-
AuNPs of 6 nm diameter and narrow size distribu- ers and AuNPs were reported in which the AuNPs
tions were stabilized by π-conjugated poly(dithiaful- were stabilized by the dendrimer that acted as both
vene) polymers, and the oxidized form of this polymer a polymer and a ligand. The AuNPs were stabilized
induced a strong red shift of the absorption spectrum only in the presence of excess PAMAM dendrimers
of the AuNPs to 550 nm (whereas the theory predicts and in solution, but PAMAM dendrimers function-
510-515 nm for the plasmon band in water).234 alized with thiol termini could completely stabilize
AuNPs with improved stability against long-term the AuNPs.237 PAMAM dendrimers were also func-
aggregation up to one month were prepared using tionalized with hydrophobic groups for solubilization
poly(styrene)-block-poly(2-vinylpyridine) star-block of the AuNPs in organic solvents.238,368 Such den-
copolymer.235 drimer-AuNP assemblies were deposited as films on
Water-soluble polymer-stabilized AuNPs were pre- surfaces and used as sensors.239-241 AuNPs were
pared from citrate-capped AuNPs by simple contact synthesized from AuCl3 in DMF using PAMAM
with dilute aqueous solutions of hydrophilic nonionic dendrimers that were modified with surface methyl
polymers based on the monomers N-[tris(hydroxy- ester groups.242 The use of PAMAM dendrimers for
methy)methyl]acrylamide and N-(isopropyl)acryl- the stabilization of AuNPs allowed control of the
Figure 23. Stepwise “grafting-to” derivatization of AuNPs. (a) Fixation of the polymer with disulfide anchoring groups.
(b) Activation of the polymer by unsymmetrical bifunctional linker groups. (c) Functionalization of the polymer by receptors.
Step (b) is omitted when “activated” polymers are used. Reprinted with permission from ref 236a (Mangeney’s group).
Figure 24. Syntheses of dendronized AuNPs using the thiol ligand substitution procedure. Reprinted with permission
from ref 251 (Astruc’s group). Copyright 2003 American Chemical Society.
interparticle distance.243 PAMAM-dendrimer-AuNPs for the detection of volatile organic compounds and
assemblies were incorporated into SiO2 matrices.244 studied by specular neutron reflectometry.255a AuNPs
The pH dependence of water-soluble PAMAM-den- were formed in the presence of stiff polyphenylene
drimer-stabilized AuNPs was examined,245 and such dendrimer templates with 16 thiomethyl groups on
assemblies were used for imaging in cells.246 Bimetal- the outside.255b
lic Au-Pd nanoparticles were synthesized by Crooks’s
group from PAMAM-dendrimer-Pd nanoparticles 3.13. Surfaces, Films, Silica, and Other AuNP
assemblies for a catalytic purpose.247-249 Dendrimers Materials
containing a AuNP core were synthesized by using
the Brust-Schiffrin technique with dendrons that AuNPs were deposited on surfaces for a number
were functionalized with thiols at the focal point of purposes, including physical studies256-275 (Figures
(Figures 24 and 25).250-254 PAMAM-dendrimer- 26-28) and derivatization of self-assembled mono-
AuNP composites were used as chemiresistor sensors layers.276-278 Privileged materials for deposition are
Figure 25. Direct syntheses of dendronized AuNPs containing a nonaferrocenyl thiol dendron (about 180 ferrocenyl groups).
Reprinted with permission from ref 251 (Astruc’s group). Copyright 2003 American Chemical Society.
Figure 27. Tapping-mode AFM images (2 µm × 2 µm) of

the morphologies of a 0.02-mL gold film deposited on
focused ion beam patterned surfaces for different ion
fluences If and periodicities ldef: (a) ldef ) 300 nm, If )
37 500 ions per point; (b) ldef ) 300 nm, If ) 3750 ions per
point; (c) ldef ) 500 nm, If ) 37 500 ions per point. Reprinted
with permission from ref 262 (Bardotti’s group). Copyright
2002 Elsevier.
form multistructures whose photocurrent responses

were recorded.294
Thin films of AuNPs were prepared,126,295-309 in
particular LB films310-319 (Figure 32) and monolay-
ers320 at the liquid interface92,321 and from the gas
phase.322a Typically, the Brust-Schiffrin method was
used to synthesize alkanethiol-stabilized AuNPs that
were subsequently spread on the water surface.
Figure 26. Schematic representation of the procedures These totally hydrophobic films could sustain reason-
developed for fabricating two-dimensional arrays of AuNPs able pressures, and the compressibility was high. It
on a silicon substrate in combination with self-assembly appeared likely that multilayers were generated
of an (aminopropyl)triethoxysilane monolayer, immobiliza- above 6-8 mN/m.317 Films of several tens of cm2 in
tion of nanoparticles, alkanethiol treatment, and solvent
evaporation technique. Reprinted from ref 258 (Liu’s group) width and several microns in thickness were formed
by permission of the PCCP Owner Societies. Copyright by cross-linking AuNPs with alkanedithiols, followed
2002. by filtration onto nanoporous supports.322b A conduct-
ing AuNP film is simply produced by rinsing a
Si,279 various molecular silicon substrates,280 TiO2 polystyrene plate with ethanol and water, followed
(Figure 29),281-285a BaTiO3,285b SrTiO3,285c Al2O3 (Fig- by stirring it at room temperature in an aqueous
ure 30),286 ammonium salts,287 and various forms of solution consisting of a thiol and a AuNP solution.323
carbon288-293 ([60] fullerene (Figure 31),288,289 nano- AuNPs were dispersed into Nylon-1,1 thin films, and
tubes,290,291 and diamond292). AuNPs were also de- the resulting materials were studied during heat
posited together with [RuIItris(2,2′-bipyridine)] to treatment.324-326 Phase transfer of AuNPs across a
Figure 28. Schematic configuration of the experimental

apparatus for measuring current-voltage characteristics
by an STM tip. (a) Conventional structure of single-electron
tunneling (SET) devices in which a small AuNP is sepa-
rated from a substrate electrode by an ultrathin tunneling
layer. (b) Current structure of the SET devices in which a
small AuNP is separated from an HOPG ground plane by
a surface-capped tunneling layer on the gold particle.
Reprinted with permission from ref 272 (Huang’s group).
Copyright 1998 Elsevier.
Figure 31. Fullerene-induced network of γ-cyclodextrin-

capped AuNPs in aqueous solution. Reprinted with permis-
sion from ref 288a (Kaifer’s group). Copyright 2001 Ameri-
can Chemical Society.
Figure 29. Schematic illustration of sequential surface

sol-gel technique and alternate assembly. Reprinted with
permission from ref 284a (Kunitake’s group). Copyright
1999 American Chemical Society.
Figure 32. Schematics of the formation of the defects in

Figure 30. AuNP deposits on SiO2/Al2O3 nanoparticles LB monolayers prepared from (a) a low particle concentra-
produced by reduction of [AuCl4]- with freshly prepared tion and (b) a high AuNP concentration of LB spreading
sodium borohydride solution. Reprinted with permission suspensions. Reprinted with permission from ref 312
from ref 115b (Kamat’s group). Copyright 2000 American (Huang’s group). Copyright 2001 American Institute of
Chemical Society. Physics.
water/oil interface was achieved by stoichiometric amines.327b AuP nanowires that are between 100 and
ion-pair formation between carboxylate anions on 200 nm wide could be formed by ultrashort laser
particle surfaces and tetraoctylammonium cations pulses.327c
and revealed by TEM, IR, UV-vis absorption, and There are many reports of the preparation, char-
EDX.327a Complete phase transfer of negatively acterization, and study of AuNPs dispersed within
charged (-CO2- or -SO3-), surface-modified AuNPs mesoporous silica, Au@SiO2.111-113,125,328-360 The influ-
from the aqueous phase to the organic phase was ence of size, 328,329 the biofunctionalization,331 the
carried out by hydrophobization using primary crystal growth,332 the organization in high order
Figure 34. Schematic illustration of AuNPs in a silicate

matrix. Reprinted with permission from ref 353 (Lev’s
group). Copyright 1997 The Royal Society of Chemistry.
any aggregation of particles has been reported.335

There is growing interest for the assembly and study
of AuNPs on silanized glass plates,295,300,347,360,492,645-648
Figure 33. SEM images of plasmonic waveguide struc-

tures fabricated by assembling the Au@SiO2 core-shell
AuNP against templates (see insets) patterned in thin films
of photoresist. These core-shell AuNPs had a core diam-
eter of 50 nm and a shell thickness of ∼100 nm. Reprinted
with permission from ref 329a (Xia’s group). Copyright
2002 American Chemical Society.
(Figure 33),333 the influence of radiations on the
nucleation,342 and the sol-gel approach354,359 have
been examined in the preparations of Au@SiO2. The
two most common synthetic methods to form sol-
gel matrices of AuNPs are the citrate route followed
by stabilization by a (3-aminopropyl)trimethoxysilane
(APTMS)-derived aminosilicate and the sol-gel pro-
cessing in inverse micelles (Figure 34).354 For in-
stance, 2- and 5-nm AuNPs have been inserted in
mesoporous silica materials MCM-41 and MCM-48
by the Somorjai group.352 Another simple and suc-
cessful method involves tetramethoxysilane, partially
hydrolyzed tetrakis(hydroxymethyl)phosphonium chlo-
ride, and HAuCl4 in aqueous solution to produce
Au@SiO2 containing up to 1% weight Au.342 Reduc- Figure 35. AuNP superlattices. (Top) Packing sequences
tion of HAuCl4 using H2 at 973 K for 1 h was also observed in AuNP superlattices: (a) hexagonal close-
successfully used.344 The sonochemical approach of packing ABAB, (b) cubic close-packing ABC ABC, and (c)
HAuCl4 reduction leads to the deposition of AuNPs anomalous packing in which AuNPs sit on two fold saddle
on the surface of the silica spheres113 or within the positions D. The packing becomes ADA or ADC. (Bottom)
High-dispersion diffraction patterns from an FCC AuNP
pores of mesoporous silica.111,112 Some methods for superlattice on the [111] zone axis. The reflections (220),
the engineering of the AuNP surface have been corresponding to the second row of reflections, correspond
described.355 The homogeneous incorporation of silica- to the void superlattice. Reprinted with permission from
coated AuNPs into a transparent silica gel without ref 366 (José-Yacamán’s group). Copyright 2000 Springer.
quantitatively by solving Maxwell’s equations for

spherical particles with the appropriate boundary
conditions. Mie theory attributes the plasmon band
of spherical particles to the dipole oscillations of the
free electrons in the conduction band occupying the
energy states immediately above the Fermi energy
level.380 All the numerous subsequent and recent
reports correlate the spectroscopic behavior of AuNPs
with the Mie theory.24,375,380-383 The main character-
Figure 36. Synthesis of gold-decorated latexes via elec- istics of the SPB are (i) its position around 520 nm;
troless deposition of gold from aqueous solution, using the (ii) its sharp decrease with decreasing core size for
conducting polymer overlayer as a redox template. PNVP, AuNPs with 1.4-3.2-nm core diameters due to the
poly(N-vinylpyrrolidone). Reprinted with permission from onset of quantum size effects that become important
ref 372a (Armes’s group). Copyright 2001 The Royal Society for particles with core sizes <3 nm in diameter and
of Chemistry.
also cause a slight blue shift (the damping of the SP
mode follows a 1/radius dependence due essentially
and highly stable AuNPs have been prepared inside
to surface scattering of the conduction electrons;381,384
HY zeolite supercages.361
this decrease of intensity of the SPB as particle size
AuNPs have been manipulated to form highly
ordered 1D,65,362-364 2D,141,365 or 3D59,366,367 (Figure 35) decreases is accompanied by broadening of the plas-
nanonetworks and superstructures.60,368 Synthetic mon bandwidth); and (iii) steplike spectral structures
opals369,370 were fabricated using a layer-by-layer indicating transitions to the discrete unoccupied
process.370 AuNPs have been formed in lipids follow- levels of the conduction band with monodispersed
ing electrostatic entrapment of AuCl4-,371 and bio- AuNPs with core diameters between 1.1 and 1.9
molecular templating allowed site-specific organiza- nm.382,383
tion of AuNPs.372 AuNPs have been used to decorate Thus, the SPB is absent for AuNPs with core
latexes via conducting polymer templates (Figure diameter less than 2 nm, as well as for bulk gold.
36).373a The spin-coating method was shown to be far For AuNPs of mean diameter of 9, 15, 22, 48, and 99
superior to the traditional immersion method for the nm, the SPB maximum λmax was observed at 517,
fast fabrication of AuNPs attached to APTMS-modi- 520, 521, 533, and 575 nm, respectively, in aqueous
fied fused silica.373b media. The SPB maximum and bandwidth are also
AuNP-containing materials, whose assembly is influenced by the particle shape, medium dielectric
mentioned in this section, will be also discussed for constant, and temperature. The refractive index of
their applications in the sensors and catalysis sec- the solvent has been shown to induce a shift of the
tions. SPB, as predicted by Mie theory.385,386 For instance,
solutions of dodecanethiolate AuNPs of 5.2 nm aver-
4. Physical Properties age diameter reveal an 8-nm shift in SPB as the
solvent refractive index is varied from nd20 ) 1.33 to
4.1. The Surface Plasmon Band (SPB) 1.55. The ligand shell alters the refractive index and
The deep-red color of AuNP sols in water and causes either a red or blue shift, so that the spectro-
glasses reflects the surface plasmon band (SPB; see scopic data obtained often deviate from the prediction
also section 2 for background), a broad absorption of Mie theory that deals with naked nanoparticles.
band in the visible region around 520 nm. The SPB The agreement with Mie theory is obtained only
is due to the collective oscillations of the electron gas when the shift induced by this ligand shell is taken
at the surface of nanoparticles (6s electrons of the into account. This shift is especially significant with
conduction band for AuNPs) that is correlated with thiolate ligands, which are responsible for a strong
the electromagnetic field of the incoming light, i.e., ligand field interacting with the surface electron
the excitation of the coherent oscillation of the cloud. In fact, since all AuNPs need some kind of
conduction band. The study of the SPB has remained stabilizing ligands or polymer, the band energy is
an area of very active research from both scientific rarely exactly as predicted by Mie theory if the shift
and technological standpoints, especially when the of this stabilizer is not considered. With elliptical
particles are embedded in ionic matrices and particles, the SPB is shifted to higher wavelength as
glasses.374,375 For instance, a driving force for this the spacing between particles is reduced, and this
interest is the application to the photographic pro- shift is well described as an exponential function of
cess.376 Thus, the SPB provides a considerable body the gap between the two particles. It becomes neg-
of information on the development of the band ligible when the gap is larger than about 2.5 times
structure in metals and has been the subject of the short-axis length.386c A red shift for a polarization
extensive study of optical spectroscopic properties of parallel to the long particle axis and a blue shift for
AuNPs.375,377-379 the orthogonal polarization were reported and ratio-
The nature of the SPB was rationalized in a master nalized by a dipolar interaction mechanism.386d The
publication authored by Mie in 1908.379 According to optical thickness could be used as a measure of
Mie theory, the total cross section composed of the efficiency, this parameter being critically dependent
SP absorption and scattering is given as a summation on particle size and refractive index. Therefore,
over all electric and magnetic oscillations. The reso- impurities can be easily detected since the refractive
nances denoted as surface plasmons were described index of AuNPs greatly differs from that of gold oxide
or gold chloride.386g
Another influential parameter is the core charge.
Excess electronic charge causes shifts to higher
energy, whereas electron deficiency causes shifts to
lower energy.386,387 A convenient theoretical expres-
sion has been derived for the SPB position as a
function of the changes in free electron concentra-
tion:
λfinal/λinitial ) (Ninitial/Nfinal)1/2
For instance, in the AuNPs of 5.2 nm diameter

containing 2951 Au atoms, the authors assume that
there is one free electron per Au atom (e.g., Ninitial )
2951 free electrons per AuNP); AuNPs charged to
+0.82 V vs Ag leads to the removal of 19 electrons Figure 37. (a) UV/vis solution spectra of 4-mercaptoben-
per AuNP, and thus Nfinal is 19 electrons less (Nfinal zoic acid-capped AuNPs as a function of the addition of
) 2932). This corresponds to a predicted red shift of NaOH(aq) and (b) the variation of the intensity of the
1.7 nm, which is much smaller than that observed plasmon absorbance, at 525 nm, as a function of the pH of
experimentally (9 nm from 516 to 525 nm, which the solution. Points i, iii, v, vii, ix, and xi in (b) were
obtained from curves i, iii, v, vii, ix, and xi in (a),
would theoretically correspond to the removal of 100 respectively. Reprinted with permission from ref 93 (Evans’s
electrons from the AuNP). The reason for this dif- group). Copyright 1998 American Chemical Society.
ference is not clear, and tentative explanations
involve a much reduced number of free electrons and extinction of the SPB was observed.394,395 Picosecond
large shift amplification by the thiolate ligand shell.386 dynamics of AuNPs was studied by laser excitation
The SPB width was found to increase with decreas- close to the SPB at 66 nm, leading to the formation
ing size in the intrinsic size region (mean diameter of “hot” non-Fermi electronic distribution within the
smaller than 25 nm) and also to increase with AuNPs.396 Visible-laser-induced fusion and fragmen-
increasing size in the extrinsic region (mean diameter tation could be induced by thionicotamide, and ag-
larger than 25 nm). A small temperature effect was gregation effects disappear following laser pulse
also found. It was proposed that the dominant excitation.397a Softening of the coherently excited
electronic dephasing mechanism involves electron- breathing mode on AuNPs was observed by time-
electron interactions rather than electron-phonon resolved spectroscopy, showing that the period of
coupling.387a Femtosecond light scattering of AuNPs breathing mode increases with pump laser power.397b
of 80 nm diameter showed, on the other hand, that The coagulation (along with Oswald ripening) of
both electron-phonon and phonon-phonon coupling AuNPs dispersed in organic liquids was dramatically
processes occur in the individual AuNPs.387b In Au- accelerated by visible light, and the process was
SiO2 core-shell particles (Au@SiO2), varying the SiO2 shown to be wavelength dependent; UV irradiation
shell thickness and the refractive index of the solvent caused coalescence.398 Laser irradiation at the SPB
allowed control over the optical properties of the of suspended AuNPs in 2-propanol causes coagulation
dispersions, and the optical spectra were in good or dispersion, depending on concentration, the pho-
agreement with Mie theory.356 The SPB position in tochemical reaction being due to electron transfer
Au@SiO2 (including films) was accurately predicted from a solvent molecule to the AuNP.399 AuNPs were
by the Maxwell-Garnett model, and it was concluded pulverized into smaller AuNPs with a desired aver-
that it is possible to synthesize composite materials age diameter and a narrow distribution by a suitable
with optical properties that lie anywhere between selection of laser irradiation.400 When a molecular
those of transparent glass and those of metallic linker, 4-aminobenzenethiol, attached several AuNPs
gold.388-390 together, the optical absorption differed, consistent
A near-field optical antenna effect was used to with plasmon-plasmon interactions between the
measure the line shape of the SPB in single AuNPs, AuNPs of the assembly (Figure 37).401
and the results were found to be in agreement with Applications of the sensitivity of the position of the
Mie theory; double-peak shapes caused by electro- SPB are known, especially in the fields of sensors and
magnetic coupling between close-lying particles were biology. A shift of the SPB of AuNPs has been
observed.391 measured upon adsorption of gelatin, and quantita-
From optical spectra of oriented AuNPs/polyethyl- tive yield measurements of the adsorbed amount
ene, the SPB extinction maxima of AuNPs for inci- were obtained.402 Rhodamine 6G was shown to pro-
dent fields polarized parallel to the direction of voke morphological changes and particle growth upon
nanoparticle orientation (λmax - (0)) were found to laser irradiation of the SPB as a result of melting
be red-shifted relative to the extinction maxima for and fusion of AuNPs, and the multiphoton process
perpendicular polarization (λmax - (90)).392 For rodlike leading to the fusion process has been elucidated
particles, the extinction maximum for incident elec- using picosecond laser flash photolysis (Figure 38).403
tric fields polarized along the long axis occurs at a Increasing the solution temperature from 10 to 40
longer wavelength than the λmax for polarization °C thermally triggered the reversible hydrophilic-to-
along the particle radius.393 Selective suppression of hydrophobic phase transition of the adsorbed elastin-
Figure 38. Schematic diagram illustrating the possible

morphological changes associated with laser irradiation of
the AuNP-dye assembly. Au@SCN, AuNPs obtained by
reduction of AuCl4- with SCN-. Reprinted with permission
from ref 402 (Kamat’s group). Copyright 2000 American
Chemical Society.
like polypeptide, a thermally responsive biopoly-

mer.404 Formation of large aggregates caused a
reversible change in color of the AuNP suspension
from red to violet due to coupling to surface plasmons
in aggregated colloids. The SPB was used to study
the dispersibility of AuNPs in a variety of solvents
(Figure 39).405 Phase transfer of dodecylamine-capped
AuNPs dispersed in an organic solvent into water
containing the surfactant cetyltrimethylammonium
bromide (CTAB) was monitored by color changes
initiated upon shaking.406 Surface interaction of
AuNPs with functional organic molecules was probed
using the shifts of the SPB. For instance, a red shift
was observed with an increase of the solvent dielec-
tric constant with solvents that do not coordinate the
gold core, but the SPB is unaffected in polar solvents
that do not bind to the core.407 AuNPs consisting of
a mixture of triangular/hexagonal and smaller, close-
to-spherical particles display two SPBs at 540 and
680 nm, respectively, as expected. UV-visible data
indicate preferential adsorption of the flat AuNPs on Figure 39. Optical absorption spectra of AuNPs 8.3 nm
polyelectrolyte films and the development of a new in diameter dispersed in (a) water, (b) ethanol, and (c)
band at 650 nm as the number of bilayers in- chloroform. The dashed lines represent the values calcu-
creased.408a Compared to solid AuNPs of similar size, lated from the Mie equation. The solid lines represent the
nanorings produced on soda-glass substrates using experimental data. Reprinted with permission from ref 404
(Huang’s group). Copyright 2002 American Institute of
colloidal lithography exhibit a red-shifted localized Physics.
SPB that could be tuned over an extended wave-
length range by varying the ratio of the ring thick- the interaction between thiolate ligands and the gold
ness to its radius.408b core.411 Capping fluorescent groups are pyrenyl,413
The magnetic circular dichroism (MCD) spectra of polyoctylthiophenyl,415 fluorenyl,419 and other
AuNPs and Au9(PPh3)83+ encapsulated in optically probes.414,416-418 Indeed, resonant energy transfer was
transparent xerogels have been shown to be temper- observed in fluorescent ligand-capped AnNPs, this
ature dependent between 5 and 295 K only for the phenomenon being of great interest in biophotonics420
former, and indicate that the MCD spectra of the and materials science.421-423 Both radiative and non-
latter reflect an excited-state phenomenon with a radiative rates critically depend on the size and shape
strong intermixing of the excited spin-orbit states.382b of the AuNPs, the distance between the dye mol-
The hot electron dynamics of AuNPs was character- ecules, the orientation of the dipole with respect to
ized using femtosecond two-color pump-probe spec- the dye-nanoparticle axis, and the overlap of the
troscopy in the SPB region.382c molecule’s emission with the nanoparticle’s absorp-
4.2. Fluorescence tion spectrum.418 Orders-of-magnitude higher ef-
Fluorescence studies of AuNPs have been carried ficiencies were obtained with nanometer-dimension
out under various conditions,409-419 including femto- metal samples.424-426 The observed increase in the
second emission410 and steady-state investigation of fluorescence yield reflected the suppression of the
nonradiative decay upon binding to AuNPs.414 Visible

luminescence has been reported for water-soluble
AuNPs, for which a hypothetical mechanism involv-
ing 5 d10 f 6 (sp)1 interband transition has been
suggested.409 On the basis of the ability of discrete
photoisomeric states of spiropyrans to exhibit distinct
physical properties, photoswitchable AuNP assem-
blies of various amino acids were designed by an-
choring spiropyrans to allow the release of the outer Figure 41. Combination of electro-oxidative deposition of
sphere of amino acids on irradiation.427 PdNPs attached with biferrocene-terminated thiolates and
that of AuNPs with the same thiolates, to form a thin
4.3. Electrochemistry redox-active film with a layered hybrid structure. Reprinted
with permission from ref 440 (Nishihara’s group). Copy-
The electrochemistry of thiolate-stabilized AuNPs right 2002 The Royal Society of Chemistry.
showing the formation of core charge has been
indicated in section 2 (staircase blockade).39,40 More- trodes by scanning around the potential region
over, the quantized capacitance charging of AuNPs around the FeII/FeIII waves.251,252 Nishihara’s group
self-assembled monolayers on electrode surfaces could has modified alkanethiol-stabilized AuNPs by thiol
be rectified by certain hydrophobic electrolyte ions, ligands bearing biferrocenyl434-437 or anthraquino-
such as PF6-, in aqueous solution (Figure 40).39c In ne436,437 using the thiolate-exchange method. The
the presence of some p-nitrothiophenolate ligands, second oxidation process of the biferrocenyl units of
the peak spacings corresponding to the quantized AuNPs-biferrocenylthiolate led to a uniform redox-
capacitance charging were found to decrease slightly active AuNP film on an electrode. AuNPs-an-
compared to those obtained in the absence of p- thraquinonethiolate was found to be aggregated by
nitrothiophenolate ligands, corresponding to a small two-electron reduction of anthraquinone groups. These
decrease of the particle capacitance due to the pres- findings confirmed that AuNPs containing multiple
ence of more polar ligands.428a Magnetoelectrochem- redox molecules could assemble according to charge
istry of AuNP quantized capacitance charging showed accumulation. The multielectron system seemed to
the influence of a magnetic field on the electrochem- be indispensable for these deposition phenomena, as
istry of AuNPs, and in particular the effect of electron they were not observed for AuNPs linked via thiolate
parity upon their charging states.428b Double-layer ligands with a single redox species such as ferro-
capacitance was obtained in aqueous media by dif- cenyl.49b This property also allowed Yamada and
ferential pulse voltammetry.428c The voltammetry of Nishihara to construct alternating multilayed struc-
small AuNPs containing respectively 11429a and 38429b tures of palladium and gold nanoparticles connected
core Au atoms has been reported. with biferrocenyl groups (Figure 41).440 Ferrocenyl-
Viologen thiols and dithiols have been synthesized dendronized AuNPs also adsorb very well, a useful
and connected to AuNPs.430,431 In particular, viologen property for molecular recognition (vide infra).251,252
thiols have been used as redox-active linkers in order C60-functionalized AuNPs, synthesized using the
to study electron transfer between the linked ligand-exchange procedure, can form a derivatized
AuNPs.430a AuNPs have been shown to tune the electrode upon immersion of a gold electrode, and this
electrochemical properties of the electrode/solution modified electrode showed two peaks corresponding
interface using the Fe(CN)63-/4- redox system.432 to the reduction of C60 that were stable upon
The electrochemistry of functional AuNPs contain- scanning.441a The charge injection energetics between
ing thiolate ligands bearing ferrocenyl49b or amido- a solution redox couple and hexanethiol-AuNPs has
or silylferrocenyl140,250-252,433 and biferrocenyl groups been probed by scanning electrochemical micros-
has been reported, and these ferrocenyl- or biferro- copy.441b Altogether, electrochemistry has been used
cenyl-derived AuNPs have been deposited on elec- in several ways to fabricate and deposit
AuNPs,251,252,436-441 inter alia on porous silicon.441c A
APTMS-supported AuNP electrode was constructed;
therefore, the preparation procedure using 3-mer-
captopropionic acid-bridged copper hexacyanoferrate
multilayers on a planar macroelectrode was copied
to the as-prepared AuNP electrode.441d AuNPs formed
from ferrocenylthiophenol (2.5 nm) were studied inter
alia by voltammetry, showing only 15% coverage with
the composition Au490Fc80.441e AuNP microelectrodes
have been prepared with uniform Pt group over-
layers.442a
4.4. Electronic Properties Using Other Physical

Methods
Figure 40. Schematic chart of electron tunneling through
It was found that, for 2D superlattices consisting
surface-confined AuNP layers. Reprinted with permission of large (5 nm) AuNPs, the electronic behavior was
from ref 39c (Chen’s group). Copyright 2001 American dominated by the Coulomb blockade effect at low
Chemical Society. temperature, while the I-V response was ohmic at
AuNPs as electrons were transferred from TiO2 to

AuNPs (Figure 42).442b TiO2 films cast on conducting
glass plates were modified by adsorbing AuNPs (5
nm diameter) from a toluene solution, and selective
formation of Au islands and larger particles on the
TiO2 suface was observed by TEM and AFM (Figure
43).459 A technique was described in which a AuNP
was connected to two Cr electrodes, and electron
transport in this sample could be fitted to orthodox
Figure 42. Charge distribution between TiO2 and AuNPs,
leading to equilibration with the C60/C60- redox couple (a) theory of electron tunneling.443a Scanning electro-
in the absence and (b) in the presence of metal nanopar- chemical microscopy was used to investigate the
ticles. EF and EF′ refer to the Fermi levels of TiO2 before kinetics of electron-transfer reactions between methyl
and after attaining equilibrium, respectively. Reprinted viologen (MV2+) and protons, giving H2 and MV+•,
with permission from ref 442b (Kamat’s group). Copyright catalyzed by AuNPs supported on an insulating
2003 American Chemical Society. substrate. This technique allows investigation of
AuNP size effects on the kinetics and study of
reactions at semiconductor nanoparticle surfaces in
the absence of a metallic conductor.443b An electronic
conductivity study of composites made from 1,10-
decanethiol and AuNPs using pressed pellets be-
tween 1-µm electrode gaps showed that the I-V curve
was sigmoidal (Figure 44).438 The rectifying effects
of electrolyte ions on interfacial electron transfer
were investigated with AuNP monolayers anchored
by bifunctional chemical bridges containing viologen
groups (Figure 45).439 X-ray absorption near-edge
structure (XANES) of 2-nm AuNPs capped with
dendrimer and thiol revealed the gain of a 5d electron
relative to the bulk when capped with weakly inter-
acting dendrimers and the loss of a 5d electron when
capped with strongly interacting thiol ligands.444a The
Figure 43. Charge separation in a AuNP-modified nano- chemical states of the self-assembled AuNPs ab-
structured TiO2 electrode. OTE, optically transparent sorbed onto the surface of a silane were studied by
electrode. Reprinted with permission from ref 459 (Kamat’s angle-resolved X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, which
group). Copyright 2000 American Chemical Society. made it possible to distinguish bound thiolate ligands
and unbound thiols444b and to investigate the size-
room temperature.61 TiO2 nanoparticles exhibited a dependent systematics of lattice contraction and
blue coloration due to stored electrons within the charge redistribution.444c Using a pump-probe tech-
particles when subjected to UV. A partial disappear- nique, the dynamics of the hot carriers in nanodots
ance of the blue color was seen upon contact with induced by femtosecond laser pulses showed that
Figure 44. Schematic illustration of the micro-gap electrodes which are connected with the network of organic dithiols
and AuNPs. Shaded circles indicate AuNPs, and lines indicate organic dithiol molecules. Reprinted with permission from
ref 438 (Ogawa’s group). Copyright 2001 Elsevier.
upon photoirradiation.419
AuNPs have a remarkably low melting tempera-
ture (between 300 and 400 °C), due to the large ratio
of surface atoms to inner atoms, compared to that of
bulk gold (1064 °C). This property was used in the
process of printing and laser-curing of AuNP solu-
tions, a laser irradiation time of 1 ms being suf-
ficient.447b
5. Chemical, Supramolecular, and Recognition

Properties
5.1. Reactions of Thiolate-Stabilized AuNPs
Some of the thiolate ligands in alkanethiolate-
stabilized AuNPs can be substituted by reaction with
other thiols at rates depending on the chain length50
and steric bulk53 of the leaving thiolate and incoming
thiols448a and on the charge of the AuNPs. For
instance, oxidation of the AuNPs largely enhances
the proportion of thiolate ligands that can be
Figure 45. (A) Sequential anchoring of AuNPs to viologen replaced.448b Various functional thiols could be par-
dithiol self-assembled monolayers, (B) hypothetical hex- tially incorporated into AuNPs using this efficient
agonal distribution of surface-immobilized AuNPs, and (C) reaction. For instance, incorporation of 11-mercap-
Randle’s equivalent circuit, where RΩ is the solution
(uncompensated) resistance, RCT is the charge-transfer toundecanoic acid gave amphiphilic AuNPs that were
resistance, and CSAM and CEL are the interfacial capaci- soluble in basic aqueous media but aggregated in
tances from the collective contributions of all surface- acidic media due to hydrogen-bonding. This property
anchored AuNPs and the interparticle void space, respec- was controlled by adjusting the pH,133 and in par-
tively. Reprinted with permission from ref 439 (Chen’s ticular biomimetic ion-gating recognition has been
group). Copyright 2002 American Chemical Society. reported.449a The chelating properties of the carboxy-
late group with metal have been used for metal
detection449b and formation of AuNP films.450,451 Com-
plexation of pyridine-functionalized thiol AuNPs also
led to solid substrate assembly,452 and such bifunc-
tional ligands were used to link AuNPs, which led to
electron-hopping studies and applications as sen-
sors.453 Various other electroactive45,455-460 and pho-
toactive groups,460-467 spin labels,468 and catalysts,469,470
as well as simple groups such as halides, nitriles,
alkenes, and sulfonates,48,471 were similarly intro-
duced using this ligand-exchange reaction.52c
Nucleophilic substitution of bromide in ω-bromoal-
kanethiolate-functionalized AuNPs follows an SN2
Figure 46. Scheme showing how the AuNPs are locked mechanism with alkylamines, the rate being largely
in the hydrogel network. Reprinted with permission from dependent on the steric bulk (Figure 47). Similarly,
ref 445 (El-Sayed’s group). Copyright 2001 Elsevier.
nucleophilic substitution of the hydroxy group by
alkyl halides could be carried out with ω-hydroxy-
changing the surrounding matrix led to large varia- functionalized AuNPs.52c C60 was introduced into
tions in the relaxation times of both the electron- AuNPs by nucleophilic addition of 4-aminophenoxide
phonon and phonon-phonon coupling (Figure 46).445 ligands to C60 double bonds (Figure 48).288 Nucleo-
High-resolution electron energy loss spectroscopy philic addition of ω-maleimido thiol-AuNPs onto a
(HREELS) was used to study low-energy electron sulfidryl group was used to attach AuNPs to proteins,
impact on films of AuNPs passivated with dialkyl peptides, and oligonucleotides.472,473 The nucleophilic
sulfide.446a Metal-containing molecular rods were self- reaction of amino groups of SAMs on a gold surface
assembled on a Au disk electrode, and AuNPs were with carbonyl groups of functional AuNPs was used
deposited electrochemically; cyclic voltammetry in- to attach AuNPs onto the SAMs.276 Nucleophilic
dicated that the electron could transport rapidly reaction of the amino group of ω-aminothiol-AuNPs
through this structure between the Au electrode and with the aldehyde group of glycoproteins, generated
Fe(CN)63-/4-.446b The effect of spin-orbit scattering by oxidation of ribose cis-diols, could be used to label
on discrete energy levels in AuNPs and other nano- carbohydrates.474 Carboxylic acid-alcohol coupling
particles showed level-to-level fluctuations of the was used to link 2-naphthaleneethanol, ferrocen-
effective g-factor from Zeeman splitting, and the emethanol, phenothiazine, anthraquinone, R-D-glu-
statistics were found to be well characterized by cose, and uridine to AuNPs.475 Propionic anhydride
random matrix predictions.447a Energy transfer from reacted with p-mercatophenol-AuNPs, giving only
a surface-bound arene to the gold core was observed partial esterification due to the steric constraint.47
Figure 47. Nucleophilic substitution reaction between AuNPs containing alkanethiol bromide and alkylamines.
The thiolate-stabilized AuNPs can be decomposed

inter alia by reaction of cyanide to give mononuclear
gold cyanide and the free thiols or by photoirradiation
in the presence of bromine-containing trihalo-
methanes.482
5.2. Supramolecular Chemistry

Acid-base chemistry483,484 has been involved in
molecular recognition and has been studied using
various techniques.484,485 For instance, the structures
formed by adsorption of carboxyalkylphosphonic ac-
ids on metal oxides were compared to those formed
with ω-mercaptocarboxylic acids and AuNP cores
using 1H fast magic angle spinning (MAS), hetero-
nuclear correlation (HETCOR), and 1H double-
quantum (DQ) MAS solid-state NMR.486 Infrared
reflection spectroscopic data were used to character-
ize the interfacial structures derived from the inter-
facial reactivity at the interconnecting linkages of
Figure 48. C60-linked AuNPs. Reprinted with permission core-shell nanoparticle networks and pH-tunable
from ref 287 (Shon’s group). Copyright 2002 The Royal networks consisting of head-to-head hydrogen-bonded
Society of Chemistry. carboxylic acid terminals.487,488 Nanoparticle arrays
obtained by mixing anionic bilayer membranes and
The radical polymerization precursor 2-bromoisobu- cationic, quaternary ammonium-stabilized AuNPs
tyronitrile bromide reacted with 11-mercaptounde- were immobilized densely into the hydrophilic inter-
canol-AuNPs, providing the ester linkage.476 Carbox- layers of dispersed lamellar structures to form a
ylic acid-amine coupling was used to link TEMPO, quasi-1D structure.489 A pseudorotaxane assembly
pyridine, glutamic acid, pyrene, fluorescein,50,475 car-
was achieved at the surface of AuNPs, pointing to
bon nanotubes,477,478 ferrocenyl, and viologen to AuNPs
similarities with the binding of a drug molecule by
(Figure 49).479 AuNPs functionalized with sulfo-N-
hydroxysuccinimide react with primary amines, which the receptor sites on the surface of a cell (Figure
allows any protein bearing a primary amine to be 50).490 Evidence for film formation was also found in
linked to AuNPs. AuNPs could be polymerized when the case of AuNPs terminated by carboxylic acid
they bore a thiol functionalized with an atom-transfer- groups.491-493
radical (ATR) polymerization initiator such as For amide-functionalized AuNPs, IR and 1H NMR
CuBr/tris(2-dimethylaminoethyl)amine212 or CuBr/ studies revealed that intramolecular H-bonding was
1,4,8,11-tetramehyl-1,4,8,11-tetraazacyclotetrade- highly dependent on the distance of the amide from
cane.476 AuNPs could be subjected to cationic polym- the core.494 Polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxanes
erization, giving dense brushes if they were func- functionalized by diaminopyridines self-assembled
tionalized with ω-trifluoromethanesulfonate, using
with complementary thymines into spherical ag-
2-phenyl-2-oxazoline or N,N-di-n-octadecylamine as
gregates.495 IR spectroscopy and cyanide-mediated
a monomer and terminating agent, respectively.
AuNPs functionalized with a thiolate ligand bearing decomposition of the gold cores of amide-stabilized
a norbornyl group could be submitted to ROMP using AuNPs showed a strong correlation between the
Grubb’s catalyst [RuCl2(PCy3)2(dCHPh)], and two strength of the intramolecular H-bonding and the
kinds of electroactive ferrocenyl groups could be rate of decomposition.496 Interaction of nitroxyl radi-
incorporated. Spherical hollow-sphere capsules were cals with AuNPs, monitored by paramagnetic probes,
formed by ROMP of AuNPs functionalized with a resulted in loss of the EPR signal, due to exchange
tripodal ligand followed by etching.480 Polymerization interaction of the unpaired electron with conduction
of ω-siloxane-AuNPs formed AuNPs that were sur- band electrons of the AuNPs. Catalytic oxidation of
rounded by polysiloxane shells.481 a probe was also found when dioxygen was present.497
Figure 49. Examples of amide coupling reactions between AuNPs containing carboxylic acid termini and amine derivatives.
obtained upon addition of the salt.498 The difference

of potential, ∆E° ) E°free - E°bound, between these two
waves is 220 mV and provides access to the ratio of
apparent association constants between the AuNPs
and the salt in the ferrocenyl (K0) and ferrocenium
(K+) forms:
∆E° ) E°free - E°bound )

0.059 log(K+/K0) ) 6210 ( 620 at 25 °C
The hydrogen-bonding between the amido group

and the H2PO4- anion and the electrostatic attraction
between the anion and the cationic ferrocenium form
upon anodic oxidation are two factors partly respon-
sible for the variation of redox potential signifying
recognition.499 The addition of the salt [n-Bu4N+]-
Figure 50. Programmed pseudorotaxane assembly at the [H2PO4-] to a monomeric amidoferrocenyl derivative
surface of AuNPs by heterosupramolecular chemistry. that is not connected to the AuNP provokes only a
Reprinted with permission from ref 490 (Fitzmaurice’s weak shift of 45 mV. Thus, an additional key factor
group). Copyright 1999 Wiley-VCH. is the topological one created by the AuNP environ-
ment, i.e. the dense thiolate ligand shell that forces
the anion to penetrate into a narrow channel between
5.3. Molecular Recognition the thiolate ligands. This steric factor compares with
that of a nonakis-amidoferrocenyl dendrimer, but is
5.3.1. Redox Recognition Using Functionalized AuNPs as less marked than that in an 18-amidoferrocenyl
Exoreceptors
dendrimer, because the recognition process follows
Alkanethiolate-stabilized AuNPs in which a pro- a positive dendritic effect in dendrimers due to the
portion of the alkanethiolate ligands have been increased steric bulk at the periphery.500 AuNPs
exchanged by amidoferrocenyl-alkanethiol recognize containing various proportions of amidoferrocenyl-
H2PO4- and HSO4- as their n-Bu4N+ salts using the alkanethiolates and similar ligands with various
variation of the ferrocenyl redox potential.433 Thus, chain lengths were synthesized as well as analogues
they are exo-receptors501a for these anions. These containing the pentamethylamidoferrocenyl-alkaneth-
salts can be titrated by cyclic voltammetry using this iolate ligand or the 1-acetyl-1′-amidoferrocenyl-al-
variation of redox potential as a function of the kanethiolate ligand in order to study the influence
addition of the salt, since a one-to-one interaction of the stereoelectronic factors on the recognition. The
occurs between each amidoferrocenyl group and the chain proportion and length did not show a signifi-
anion. The case of H2PO4- corresponds to a square cant influence, but the electron-withdrawing acetyl
scheme with a strong interaction in the Echegoyen- group of the amidoferrocenyl system favored the
Kaifer model, whereby a new ferrocenyl wave is recognition, whereas the electron-releasing methyl
Figure 51. Titration of ATP2- with ferrocenyl-dendronized

AuNPs. Decrease of the intensity of the initial CV wave
([) and increase of the intensity of the new CV wave (9)
vs the number of equivalents of [n-Bu4N]2[ATP] added per
ferrocenyl branch. Nanoparticles, 3.8 × 10-6 M in CH2Cl2.
Conditions: supporting electrolyte, [n-Bu4N][PF6] 0.1 M;
reference electrode, Ag; auxiliary and working electrodes,
Pt; scan rate, 0.2 V/s; solution of [n-Bu4N]2[ATP], 5 × 10-3
M; internal reference, FeCp2*. Reprinted with permission
from ref 251 (Astruc’s group). Copyright 2003 American
Chemical Society. Figure 52. Titration of ATP2- with dendronized AuNPs
in the presence of [n-Bu4N][Cl] and [n-Bu4N][HSO4] (both
substituents provided a decrease of the ∆E° values. anions, 5 × 10-2 M, 0.5 equiv per ferrocenyl branch). Cyclic
This latter finding indicated that the most important voltammograms of AuNPs (a) alone, (b) in the course of
the titration, and (c) with an excess of [n-Bu4N]2[ATP].
hydrogen-bonding interaction in the chelating group Reprinted with permission from ref 251 (Astruc’s group).
was that between the negatively charged oxygen Copyright 2003 American Chemical Society.
atom of the anion and the positively charged NH
group of the AuNP ligand.140
The case of HSO4- corresponds to the square dendrimers were prepared upon cycling the potential
scheme, with a weak interaction in the Echegoyen- region around the ferrocenyl redox potential. These
Kaifer model (K0 , 1), whereby there is no new platinum electrodes modified with the large AuNP-
ferrocenyl wave upon addition of the salt, but only a cored silyferrocenyl dendrimers easily and selectively
cathodic shift of the original wave. ∆E° is now the recognize the anion in a mixture of several anions,
potential shift of this wave at the equivalence point, such as HSO4- and halides. Gratifyingly, the recog-
and its measure now gives access to the absolute nized salt could be removed by washing with meth-
value of K+:498 ylene chloride, but the attached AuNP-cored silyl-
ferrocenyl dendrimer remained attached, and the
∆E° ) 0.059 log [cK+] at 25 °C modified electrodes could be reused many times for
the recognition procedure (Figure 53).140
This shift (30 mV) was smaller than that found in
polyamidoferrocenyl dendrimers and only equal to 5.3.2. Miscellaneous Recognition and Sensors
that of a tripodal tris-amidoferrocenyl derivative,
although it was larger than that in monoamidofer- The controlled assembly of nanoparticles in solu-
rocene (<10 mV). To combine the advantages of both tion based on supramolecular chemistry, i.e., non-
AuNPs and dendrimers, dendronized AuNPs were covalent bonding,501a is a general strategy leading to
synthesized with amidoferrocenyl groups or silylfer- well-organized AuNP materials. Thus, approaches
rocenyl groups at the periphery. For this purpose, the have been reported using hydrogen-bonding,501b
direct synthetic method proved more useful than the π-π,501c host-guest,501d van der Waals,501e electro-
place ligand substitution method, the latter being static,501f charge-transfer,501g and antigen-antibody501h
marred by the steric effect in this case. These interactions.
ferrocenyl dendrimers with an AuNP core contained Amide-functionalized AuNPs were also used as
up to 360 ferrocenyl groups and were more efficient optical sensors for anions.502 AuNPs functionalized
than the ferrocenyl-alkanethiolate-containing AuNPs. with 15-crown-5 recognize K+ in water,503a and Li+ 503b
Positive dendritic effects were observed; i.e., AuNP- (Figure 54) and heavy metal ions28,504 were recognized
cored ferrocenyl dendrimers assembled with nonakis- using AuNP-based sensors. The recognition proper-
silylferrocenyl dendrons showed larger values than ties based on H-bonding were used to assemble
those assembled with tris-silylferrocenyl dendrons AuNPs into micelles using polymers (Figure 55).505
(Figures 51 and 52). In addition, one of the most AuNPs have also been used for vapor sensing.507a,b
interesting properties of these AuNP-cored large The sensitivity of the plasmon band with the core
ferrocenyl dendrimers was their great ability to environment is obviously a source of sensing, and the
adsorb on metal surfaces. For instance, very stable optical response (SPB) has been modelized.506 (See
platinum electrodes modified with these AuNP-cored also the SPB section and that on biological applica-
Figure 53. Recognition of ATP2- with a Pt electrode

modified with dendronized AuNPs. Cyclic voltammograms
of dendronized AuNP-modified electrodes (a) alone, (b) in
the course of the titration, (c) with an excess of [n-Bu4N]2-
[ATP], and (d) after removal of ATP2- by washing the
modified electrode with CH2Cl2. Reprinted with permission
from ref 251 (Astruc’s group). Copyright 2003 American Figure 55. (a) Diblock copolymers 1-3, Thy-Au, and non-
Chemical Society. hydrogen-bonding control MeThy-Au. (b) Scheme demon-
strating an increase in both core diameter and outer corona
as the polymer size increases. Reprinted with permission
from ref 505 (Rotello’s group). Copyright 2002 American
Chemical Society.
6. Biology
6.1. DNA−AuNPs Assemblies and Sensors
Conjugates of AuNPs-oligonucleotides are of great
current interest because of the potential use of the
programmability of DNA base-pairing to organize
nanocrystals in space and the multiple ways of
providing a signature for the detection of precise
DNA sequences. Applications in the fields of biosen-
sors, disease diagnosis, and gene expression are
clearly called for. The two groups of Mirkin-
Letsinger at Northwestern508-516 and Alivisatos-
Figure 54. Detection scheme for Li+ with functionalized Schultz at Berkeley473 have pioneered strategies for
AuNPs. AuNPs are surface-derivatized with a ligand Y that
binds to lithium ions in a bidentate fashion. Upon intro- the organization of functionalization of AuNPs with
duction of lithium ion (small dark circles) into the solution, oligonucleotides. The former group used DNA as a
AuNP aggregation is induced, which is manifested as a linker to form macroscopic assemblies consisting in
visible color change in the solution. Reprinted with permis- discrete 13-nm-diameter particles. The DNA attached
sion from ref 503b (Murphy’s group). Copyright 2002 to the nanoparticles retained its ability to hybridize
American Chemical Society. with complementary DNA, and the annealing process
was thermally reversible and nondestructive. The
reaction was sequence-specific (Figure 56).509 The
tions, in particular the color sensitivity of the AuNP- latter group used DNA as a template to prepare
DNA assemblies.) Electrochemical genosensors for nanocrystal molecules consisting of two or three 1.4-
the detection of the Factor V Leiden mutation from nm-diameter particles on a single oligonucleotide
polymerase chain reaction amplicons using the oxi- strand.473 DNA-driven assemblies of AuNPs have
dation signal of AuNPs at +1.20 V were described.507c indeed attracted considerable interest,510-536 and a
DNA-AuNP assemblies, which are discussed in the new colorimetric technique based on the sensitivity
next section, have also been used as colorimetric lead of the SPB to monitor DNA modification was de-
biosensors.507d N-Methylimidazole-functionalized signed by the Mirkin-Letsinger group.508-517 In this
AuNPs were reported to recognize bis- and tris-Zn- strategy, AuNPs are used as building blocks, allowing
porphyrins.507e the assembly of alkanethiol-capped oligonucleotides
changes are inversely dependent on the oligonucle-

otide linker length (between 24 and 72 base pairs,
i.e., from 80 to 24 Å). An interesting result was that
the most important parameter that controls the SPB
shift of these AuNPs-DNA materials is the ag-
gregate size. This aggregate size is under kinetic
control, and it is the growth rate that depends on the
linker length. Annealing of the kinetic structures
formed at temperatures just below their melting
points lead to a SPB shift. This growth, leading to
the red shift of the SPB, occurs through an Oswald
ripening mechanism whereby larger aggregates grow
at the expense of smaller ones.
Electrodynamics modeling contributes to show that
these SPB shifts are much more consistent with
changes in aggregate size than with interparticle
distance. Thus, DNA linkers could be more useful as
kinetic controllers of aggregate growth than as spacer
units, a valuable indication for the development of
Figure 56. Preparation of “nanocrystal molecules” con- quantitative assays for DNA.515
sisting of two or three DNA modified Au particles attached Another important characteristic of the AuNP-
to a complementary DNA template, using phosphine- based pair detection is the “melting” transition of the
stabilized 1.40nm AuNPs modified with a single thiol-
capped oligonucleotide and two different DNA template complementary DNA strand. The AuNPs are linked
lengths and sequences. Reprinted with permission from ref in the presence of the complementary strand. These
509 (Mirkin’s group). Copyright 1997 Kluwer. H-bonded connections of the links are broken at
sufficiently high temperatures, which unzips the
oligonucleotides, “melting” the DNA and releasing
the particles.513 Calculations using AuNP polariz-
abilities determined from Mie theory, an iterative
conjugate-gradient solution algorithm, and fast Fou-
rier transform methods for efficient solution of the
electrodynamics of interacting AuNP equations show
that the UV extinction lowering and the shift and
broadening of the SPB of the DNA-linked AuNPs are
explained as the collective electromagnetic response
of thousands of AuNPs.510
Supramolecular aggregates were shown to form by
self-assembly of DNA-streptavidin adducts.519 Het-
erologous chemical systems including DNA have been
scaffolded into precise 2D geometrical arrange-
Figure 57. TEM images of the binary AuNPs network ments.524 The conformation of oligonucleotides at-
materials supported on holey carbon grids: a AuNP satel- tached to AuNPs has been probed by the electro-
lite structure obtained from the reaction involving 120/1 phoretic mobility determined on 2% agarose gels, and
1-modified 8-nm particles/2-modified 31-nm AuNPs and the effective diameter of the DNA-AuNP conjugates
linking oligonucleotide. Reprinted with permission from ref has been determined (Figure 59).525
511b (Mirkin’s group). Copyright 1998 American Chemical
Society. Multiple thiolate and phosphine anchors improved
the AuNP-nucleotide stability.529,530 DNA was coated
such as single-stranded DNA and complementary with cationic, metastable AuNPs.537 Several reports
linker oligonucleotide (DNA) strands (Figure 57). indeed showed the efficacy of electrostatic AuNP-
Aggregation of AuNPs linked by the oligonucle- DNA assembly,537-539 including for the fabrication of
otides provokes a red-to-blue color change (red shift linear superstructures.538 Interestingly, however,
from 520 to 600 nm of the SPB) that is most useful DNA also wraps around negatively charged AuNP
for this DNA-sensing method. The parameters that cores.530 Ring aggregation of AuNPs can be induced
are controlled are the AuNP composition, the peri- by DNA hybridization even without cross linking.539c
odicity, and the aggregate thermal stability. These DNA-nucleotides and AuNP-DNA nanostruc-
parameters are organized in order to influence the tures were analyzed using electrochemical tech-
optical, mechanical, and electrical properties of the niques,540-546 including scanning electrochemical
AuNPs. In particular, the optical properties due to microscopy.544a Imaging of DNA-AuNPs assemblies
the SPB of AuNPs from 13 to 17 nm diameter led to by TEM, AFM, and near-field scanning optical mi-
the development of a highly selective diagnostic croscopy was provided.544b Other techniques used
method for DNA, based on the distance-related SPB were SPB (Figure 60),510-514 luminescence,420 Fourrier
of AuNPs (Figure 58). The effect of the length of the transform infrared and Raman spectroscopy,533,540
DNA strands that control the interparticle distance surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy,547 labeling
was studied, and it was found that the SPB frequency and scanning force microscopy,533,548 differential light-
Figure 58. Fluorescence-based method for determining (a) the surface coverage and (b) the hybridization efficiency of
thiol-capped oligonucleotides bound to gold thin films and AuNPs. Reprinted with permission from ref 516 (Mirkin’s group).
can be eliminated, however, using ethylene glycol

core protection.549g
6.2. AuNP-Enhanced Immuno-Sensing

Immunolabeling with AuNPs and imaging of cells,
biomolecules, and other biological components have
been extensively reviewed in the book edited by
Hayat in 1989,14 and this area continues to attract
the attention of biochemists and biophysicists.555 The
Figure 59. Different possible configurations of DNA recognition of proteins has been for some time the
molecules attached to the surface of AuNPs. Reprinted with subject of research of biodevices for diagnostics based
permission from ref 525 (Alivisatos’s group). Copyright on the interaction between AuNP-antibody conju-
2003 American Chemical Society. gates and their antigens.14 Only recent progress is
reviewed here. The great sensitivity of the SPB by
AuNP adsorption led to their use in bioassay applica-
scattering spectroscopy,549a and quartz-crystal mi- tions. The investigated AuNP-protein conjugate
crobalance (QCM).535,536,549 The latter technique was architectures involve either direct binding of antigen:
shown to be especially useful for the design of new AuNP-biocongugate to an antibody-modified surface
DNA sensors535,536 involving dendritic amplification or the exposure of an antibody-derived surface to free
of DNA analysis.536 Using 50-nm-diameter AuNPs, antigen and then to a secondary antibody-AuNP
with QCM it was also possible to reach a sensitivity conjugate. This classic type of immunoassay allows
of 10-14 M of DNA analyte, a fragment of P 53 gene the evaluation of AuNP tags in a standard mode of
near codon 248 which has significance in cancer antigen detection.550-552 Biosensors for immunoassays
diagnosis.535 Microcantilevers were used to detect in human serum have been developed.553,554
DNA strands with a specific sequence using AuNP-
modified DNA. This method is analogous to QCM in
the vibration-working mode, but it has various
6.3. AuNP Sugar Sensors
advantages over QCM.549b When the size of the AuNPs coupled with biomolecules are attracting
AuNPs is 50 nm, a sensitivity of 10-15 M for single- increasing attention because of the potential applica-
base mutation detection has been achieved with this tions of these new materials in biology-related chal-
method.549c Dry-reagent strip-type biosensors based lenges.555,556 Mannose-encapsulated AuNPs have been
on AuNP-DNA interaction enabled visual detection shown by TEM to specifically bind FimH adhesin of
within minutes, and quantitative data were obtained bacterial type 1 pili in Escherichia coli, and to do so
by densitometric analysis.549d AuNP-streptavidin more strongly than free mannose in the competition
conjugates covered with 6-ferrocenylhexanethiol were assay. This process represents a new method of
attached onto a biotinylated DNA detection probe of labeling specific proteins on the cell surface using
a sandwich DNA complex, and the amplified volta- carbohydrate-conjugated AuNPs, whereby the visu-
mmetric signal was recorded. A detection level down alization of the target receptor on the cell surface is
to 2.0 pM for oligonucleotide was obtained.549e Single- relatively easy under an electron microscope.55 AuNPs
stranded and double-stranded DNA were shown by functionalized with a monolayer of 11-thioacetate-
electrophoresis and fluorescence to bind nonspecifi- undecanol-derivatized neoglycoconjugates of lactose
cally to the AuNP surface, despite their negative disaccharide and trisaccharide antigens can be used
charge.549f Nonspecific binding of biological molecules to mimic glycophosphinolipid clusters in plasma
Figure 60. Control of the optical properties of DNA-linked AuNPs assemblies by modulating the length of the DNA
linker molecule (1, 2, 3) and the thiol 12 base oligomer (A and B) one. Reprinted with permission from ref 514 (Mirkin’s
group). Copyright 2000 American Chemical Society.
membranes in order to investigate a new mechanism structures and properties, especially in conjugates
of cell adhesion through carbohydrate-carbohydrate with AuNPs.566,567 Water-soluble AuNPs based on
interactions.558,559 Spontaneous formation of AuNPs thiopronin have been prepared.568,569 Other Au-NP-
was observed in aqueous solutions of sugar-persub- based receptors providing H-bonds recognize fla-
stituted PAMAM dendrimers without the addition of vin.570,571 Ligand design optimizes bioconjugation in
any additional reductant.560 AuNPs coated with hap- various AuNPs frameworks.572-576 Enzymatic activity
tenated mercaptodextrans containing 15 mercapto of fungal protease-AuNP bioconjugates was re-
groups bind specifically to paramagnetic beads coated
ported577 as well as a method to construct a third-
with the corresponding antibody.561a A mannose
generation horseradish peroxidase biosensor by self-
derivative has been self-assembled onto preformed,
citrate-capped water-soluble AuNPs, and, through assembling AuNPs.578 Phthalocyanine-stabilized
the use of a C2 tether, a rapid colorimetric detection AuNPs were shown to be a potential delivery vehicle
test has been developed for the protein canavalinin for photodynamic therapy.579 The biochemical prepa-
A.561b Multivalent interactions of glycono-AuNPs ration of AuNPs was reported whereby the biological
containing galactosyl and glucosyl headgroups with organisms played the roles of reductant, protecting
the HIV-associated recombinant glycoprotein gp 120 agent, and precipitating agent.175b,580-582 AuNPs bound
have been studied.561c on APTMS-functionalized Na-Y zeolite could be used
for the immobilization of pepsin, whose catalytic
6.4. Other AuNP Bioconjugates: Peptides, Lipids, activity in the bioconjugate was comparable to that
Enzymes, Drugs, and Viruses of the free enzyme.583a Assembly of AuNPs on poly-
Phospholipids were used for the formation of urethane spheres could be used to immobilize en-
AuNPs,563-565 in particular as dispersants in the zymes such as pepsin; these bioconjugate catalysts
preparation of AuNPs.562 Helically patterned arrays can also be reused as free enzymes.583b Raleigh
of AuNPs were formed using lipid tubules as tem- resonance spectroscopy was reported on single brome
plates.563 The assembly of relatively short polypep- mosaic virus capsids (28 nm) with AuNPs (2.5-4.5
tides on a template can provide protein-like complex nm) inside.583c
Control over the morphology of ceramic crystals by With AuNPs impregnated on Mg(OH)2, it was indi-
biomimetic processes is of increasing interest. For cated that, below 1 nm diameter, AuNPs have icosa-
instance, large changes in the morphology of barite hedral symmetry, whereas above 1 nm, the AuNPs
crystals occur on templates of varying dimension- are in face-centered cubic cuboctahedral symmetry.
ality.584a In a strategy aimed at nuclear targeting in This showed that the geometrical factor is also
biological systems mimicking viruses, the most ca- important in catalytic activity.601 New methods for
pable peptides were combined on a 20-nm bovine preparation of AuNPs for catalytic oxidation of CO
serum albumin-AuNP platform, and the trajectories include arc melting, chemical vapor deposition, co-
inside cells of these assemblies were monitored using sputtering,602 and pulsed laser deposition (PLD).603
a combination of video-enhanced color microscopy The exceptionally high catalytic activity of the AuNPs
and differential interference contrast microscopy.584b deposited onto Fe2O3, Co2O3, and TiO2604-607 supports
was interpreted in terms of the formation of an active
6.5. AuNP Biosynthesis AuNP/support interface along the perimeter of
Macroscopic quantities of microorganisms such as AuNPs.608,609 The morphology, electronic structure,
fungi could be used as living templates with AuNPs and catalytic activity in CO oxidation over a Au/FeOx/
to organize presynthesized nanoscale components SiO2/Si(100) model sample prepared by PLD have
into ordered structures.584c Reaction of AuCl4- ions been investigated by X-ray photoelectron spectros-
with the extract of geranium leaves and an endo- copy and TEM, which showed that activity in CO
phytic fungus, Colletotrichum sp., present in the oxidation increased after oxidation, the higher activ-
leaves, leads to the formation of AuNPs.584d ity being associated with amorphous iron oxide with
Fe 2p binding energy ) 711.3 eV.610-613 The intrinsic
catalytic activity of the AuNPs was shown to increase
7. Catalysis with decreasing particle size. When an Au/FeOx
Gold is very popular for being chemically inert. It interface was created by FeOx deposition on large
is indeed one of the most stable metals in the group AuNPs, a significant increase in the rate of the CO
8 elements, and it is resistant to oxidation. In the oxidation was observed, and these data correlate the
1970s, however, Parravano’s group reported the catalytic activity with the valence bond density of
investigation of the activity of gold in oxygen/hydrogen- states of the AuNPs.614 Spherical aberration-free
transfer reactions585,586 and the reduction of NO by phase image analysis showed that catalytically active
dihydrogen,587 but these studies remained isolated. AuNPs form single crystals having a cuboctahedral
Therefore, the discovery by Haruta et al., reported shape, and that the atomic structure on the surface
in 1989, that AuNPs supported on Co3O4, Fe2O3, or and interface is largely deformed from the bulk
TiO2 were highly active catalysts, under high disper- structure by stress produced by the atom-missing
sion, for CO and H2 oxidation,588,589 NO reduction,590 structure, the reconstructed structure surface, and
water-gas shift reaction,591 CO2 hydrogenation,592 strong interaction with the substrate.615 It has been
and catalytic combustion of methanol593 was a sur- suggested that a synergistic mechanism occurs at the
prise, and was considered important by the chemical AuNP-metal oxide interface, with the oxide support
community. Catalysis with AuNPs, in particular the being part of the catalytic process. Adsorption of CO
very active oxide-supported ones, is now an expand- would proceed on the AuNP on a site adjacent to a
ing area, and a large number of new catalytic systems metal oxide site occupied by an adsorbed O2 molecule.
for various reactions are now being explored. The reaction would involve an intermediate carbon-
ate-like species decomposing to CO2 upon desorption
7.1. Catalysis of CO Oxidation from the surface.593 AuNP-FeOx catalysts, prepared
Most of the recent research on the catalytic activity by coprecipitation, containing ferrihydrite, a struc-
of oxide-supported AuNPs concerned CO oxida- turally disordered material with approximate com-
tion.588-621 In particular, the mechanism of the cata- position Fe5HO8‚4H2O, and a noncrystalline phase
lytic process was actively investigated, and particle AuOOH‚xH2O, showed 100% conversion after 20 min
size effects and metal/support interactions were at room temperature.616 AuNPs prepared by chemical
examined. The gold cluster [Au9(PPh3)8(NO3)3] was vapor deposition (CVD) of dimethyl gold acetylaceto-
highly dispersed by impregnating Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, nate are active catalysts for CO oxidation below 0
or Cu hydroxide with a solution of this cluster, and °C.617 Extensively varying the conditions of prepara-
activity in CO oxidation was found even at subam- tion of AuNP-MOx catalysts (M ) Si, Ti, Zr, Al) of
bient temperatures (below 0 °C and even at -70 1-6 nm size, followed by characterization using
°C).595 Further studies on the AuNP/Fe(OH)3 system TEM, XPS, and EPR, made it possible to investigate
showed that the catalytic activity was extremely high the structure-reactivity of the catalysts.618 AuNPs
after calcination, which was ascribed to the stabiliza- supported on a TiO2 surface by calcination first at
tion of [Au(PPh3)]+, leading to small particles.596 500 °C under vacuum and then at 400 °C in air
Alternatively, it was suggested that the catalytic showed low-temperature activity on CO oxidation
activity was due to the presence of ferrihydrate (Figure 61).621 The size of the most active AuNPs was
activating O2,597 and Au+ species were found to be determined by low-frequency Raman modes, provid-
more active than Au0 particles.598 Small AuNPs were ing a signal at 11 ( 1 cm-1 that corresponded to a
stabilized by insertion into zeolite supercages, and particle diameter of 8 ( 1 nm, and combination of
129
Xe and DRIF studies showed the presence of Auδ+ this technique with microscopy techniques gave
species,599 which were found to be highly active.599,600 information on size distribution and structural 3D
perse, quasi-regular array of AuNPs (diameter 4.8

( 1.3 nm).627b
AuNPs electrodeposited on a gold electrode by
applying a 5-s potential step from 1.1 to 0 V with a
0.5 M H2SO4 solution containing 0.11 mM Na[AuCl4]
were shown to be very active catalysts for the
reduction of O2. Two electrocatalytic reduction waves
recorded at +50 and -250 mV indicated a two-step,
four-electron reduction path of O2:628a
O2 + 2H+ + 2e- f H2O2
H2O2 + 2H+ + 2e- f 2H2O
AuNPs deposited on boron-doped diamond with an

average diameter of 60 nm were shown to be 20 times
more active than polycrystalline gold for the electro-
catalytic O2 reduction.628a
7.3. Catalysis of Hydrogenation of Unsaturated

Substrates
More recent investigations have shown that AuNPs
that were adsorbed and dispersed on oxide support
Figure 61. Novel method of preparation of a AuNP by reduction of AuCl4- or AuCl3, and then calcinated,
catalyst supported on TiO2. Reprinted with permission from were also efficient catalysts for other reactions,
ref 621 (Sayo’s group). Copyright 1999 Elsevier. including hydrogenation of unsaturated substrates.
For instance, such AuNPs of 1-5 nm diameter,
arrangement.622 DFT calculation for O2 chemisorp- supported on titania or zirconia, were active in the
tion showed a typical binding energy of 0.5-1.5 eV, regioselective hydrogenation of acrolein to allylic
increasing for negatively charged clusters.623 alcohol at 180-280 °C (total pressure, 2 MPa), a
particularly difficult reaction. Following TEM and
7.2. Electrochemical Redox Catalysis of CO and EPR studies, it was suggested that the origin of the
CH3OH Oxidation and O2 Reduction selectivity of CdO vs CdC hydrogenation might be
The electrooxidation of CO624 and CH3OH,126,625,626 attributed to quantum size effects that alter the
both leading to CO2 (CO32- in alkaline medium), i.e., electronic properties of sufficiently small AuNPs.629-631
Active sites were identified as edges.631 AuNPs were
CO + 2OH- - 2e- f H2O + CO2 prepared by dispersion on an amorphous silica sup-
port, wherein silanol groups of the surface of fumed
(CO32- in alkaline) silica spontaneously reduced AuCl4- ions. These
supported AuNPs were found to be catalytically
CH3OH + 6OH- - 6e- f 5H2O + CO2 active in the hydrogenation of cyclohexene at 80 °C
and 200 psi H2.632 PVP-stabilized Au/Pd bimetallic
(CO32- in alkaline) nanoparticles201 showed high activity for the hydro-
genation of cycloocta-1,3-diene (COD), with 100%
has been reported using alkanethiolate-AuNPs that selectivity for cyclooctene formation. The high activity
were precipitated onto a glassy carbon electrode by was ascribed to electronic deficiency of the active
cross-linking the AuNPs with 9-nonanedithiol, lead- surface Pd atoms (required for π back-donation from
ing to a 3D network thin film. The electrocatalytic the coordinated olefin) due to electron transfer to the
processes were shown by cyclic voltammetry. A wave gold atoms (Figure 62).26,180 Reduction of eosin by
observed at +50 mV on the negative sweeping in the NaBH4 at 29 °C was catalyzed by AuNPs of 10-46
presence of CO was characteristic of CO oxidation, nm diameter, prepared by a seed-mediated growth
whereas a wave observed at +250 mV in the presence method, and the reaction rates were shown to in-
of MeOH was characteristic of MeOH oxidation. The crease both above and below 15 nm diameter.633
oxidation current was found to increase with concen-
tration of CO or MeOH, observed only after a
potential polarization around +800 mV that provoked
7.4. Catalysis by Functional Thiolate-Stabilized
catalytic activation. This activation was confirmed by
AuNPs
matching the oxidation potential with that of Au Since imidazoles play a key role as catalysts in
oxide formation, and by quartz-crystal microbalance, many hydrolytic systems, N-imidazole-functionalized
infrared reflection spectroscopy, and AFM experi- thiolate-AuNPs were investigated as catalysts, in 6:4
ments.627a This electrocatalytic CO oxidation was also methanol-water solution, for the cleavage of 2,4-
demonstrated using AuNPs synthesized by block dinitrophenyl acetate with more than an order-of-
copolymer micelle encapsulation, whereby the dip- magnitude rate acceleration with respect to acetyl-
coating method of synthesis produced a highly dis- N-methylhistamine.470 A thiol terminated with a
pending on the dendrimer structure (PPI more ef-

ficient than PAMAM).640
8. Nonlinear Optics (NLO)

Glasses, polymers, and other shell materials with
NLO properties are becoming viable alternatives to
the expensive inorganic crystals LiNbO3, KH2PO4,
and BaB2O4 to change the wavelength of laser light
through parametric processes. Indeed, the latter
crystals are also cumbersome to tailor into the
waveguide configurations that are compatible with
Figure 62. Cross section of a model for Au/Pt (1/4) AuNPs
catalytically active for hydrogenation reaction, prepared by
optical fiber systems. Besides organic chromophores,
a successive (Pt then Au) reduction. Reprinted with per- nanoparticles including AuNPs represent a very
mission from ref 196b (Toshima’s group). Copyright 1993 important category of NLO dopants.
American Chemical Society. The nonlinear response of glasses containing metal
nanoparticles is dominated by two relaxation pro-
cesses:641 (i) a fast relaxation process due to electron-
phonon coupling, leading to thermal equilibrium
between the electron and lattice in a metal nanopar-
ticle system after excitation of the hot electron by the
incident pulse, and (ii) a slow relaxation process due
to thermal diffusion of the excess heat from metal
nanoparticles to the matrix.
AuNPs have a large third-order nonlinear suscep-
tibility and a near-resonance nonlinear response642
that is fast on the 50-ps time scale, and glass with
dispersed AuNPs is therefore a candidate material
for use in nonlinear optical devices.643 Their produc-
tion requires the dispersion of a large amount of
Figure 63. Interfacial charge-transfer processes in a AuNPs. Although the AuNP concentration is low in
metal-semiconductor nanoparticle. Reprinted with per- glasses prepared by conventional methods due to the
mission from ref 461b (Kamat’s group). Copyright 2001 vaporization and low solubility of raw materials, a
American Chemical Society. large amount of AuNPs can be dispersed in matrices
by ion implantation, because this technique is free
of these restrictions.644 Glass produced by ion im-
hexadiene functionality was coordinated to alkaneth-
plantation has a large third-order nonlinear optical
iolate-AuNPs and to RuCl3, and the functional
susceptibility (χ(3) ) 1.2 × 10-7 esu).645 In glass with
AuNPs catalyzed the heterogeneous polymerization
dispersed AuNPs, the growth of AuNPs leads to an
of norbornene. The FTIR spectra are consistent with
increase in third-order optical susceptibility and
the presence of Cl-bridged dimeric Ru catalytic spe-
concurrently an increase in absorption coefficient.644
cies.634
For practical applications, it is desirable to have a
low absorption coefficient and a large third-order
7.5. Other Types of Catalysis optical susceptibility. With silica glass in which
AuNPs supported on highly hydrophobic ethane- AuNPs were synthesized by ion implantation, AuNPs
bridged Ti-incorporated mesoporous organosilica cata- were found to grow through an Ostwald ripening
lyzed vapor-phase epoxidation of propene using H2 mechanism controlled by diffusion in the silica
and O2 at 90-120 °C.635 Clear red-gold microemul- glass.645,646 The third-order nonlinear optical suscep-
sions of Na[AuCl4] and NaBH4 supported on activated tibility, χ(3), of this glass was found to be proportional
carbon were active catalysts for the oxidation of glycol to the fourth power of the radius of the colloid
to glycolate by O2,82 although Au/C catalysts of particles or the fourth power of the absorption
comparable medium-size particles show higher con- coefficient at the peak of the SPB when the total
version.636,637 Semiconductor/AuNP composites syn- volume of the AuNPs was constant. χ(3) was also
thesized by reducing HAuCl4 on the surface of inversely proportional to the third power of the total
preformed TiO2 nanoparticles of 10-40 nm diameter volume of AuNPs when the absorption coefficient of
were grown by laser-induced melting/fusion, and the the SPB was constant.646 Crystallization effects were
particles modified by this treatment were shown to found to influence the NLO response of transparent
undergo photocatalytic charge transfer, probed using glass-ceramics with AuNP nuclei. The temporal
thiocyanate oxidation at the semiconductor interface absorption change at the SPB showed that the fast
(Figure 63).461 Miscellaneous catalytic applications component of the relaxation process was hardly
involve lithography,638 synthesis of onions,639a com- changed with crystallization, while the relaxation
bustion,639b and the reaction between CS2 and time of the tail component decreased with an increase
NaBH4.69b AuNPs-dendrimer composites prepared in crystallite size.647 The relaxation time was also
by laser irradiation were shown to catalyze the found to increase with a decrease of the AuNP radius,
reduction of 4-nitrophenol by NaBH4 at rates de- and the tail of the decay curve due to the slow
Although glass-AuNPs have attracted the most

attention, other AuNP materials with interesting
NLO properties are also known in which the AuNPs
are in suspension650 or embedded in other supports,
such as pores of mesoporous silica,112 polymer ma-
trices,651 and thiolate ligand shells.652-656 Indeed,
second-order NLO activity for liquid dispersion of
AuNPs has been disclosed.657,658 AuNPs in polydi-
acetylenes induce an enhancement of the third-order
susceptibility, χ(3), by 2 orders of magnitude in
comparison with that of the polymer alone.659 In
addition, hyper-Raleigh scattering (HRS) has been
used to study the NLO response of AuNP suspen-
sions,650 and molecularly bridged thiolate-AuNPs
showed very large responses. Both symmetry and
distance were found to be key factors in determining
NLO behavior.653 NLO-active chromophores have also
been anchored onto AuNPs in order to combine the
NLO properties of both the core and ligand compo-
nents of thiolate-stabilized AuNPs.651 Surface second
harmonic generation (SSHG) was used as a new
technique, sensitive to resonant plasmon excitation,
to characterize AuNPs at the air/toluene interface.
Figure 64. SSHG spectrum for the underivatived AuNPs Wavelength analysis of these thiolate-stabilized
at the air/toluene interface (circles). The adsorption band AuNPs indicated the narrow frequency band of the
corresponds to surface plasmon excitations and has a AuNP surface plasmon (Figure 64).652 NLO proper-
maximum at 520 nm. The solid line represents the calcu- ties of C60-containing nitrogen ligands bound to
lated SSHG spectrum for AuNPs in toluene, taking size AuNPs were investigated, and optical limiting effects
effects into accounts (Leff ) 6 and 5 nm). The solid line is were measured for 8 ns at 532 nm. The NLO
for λP ) 138.5 nm, corresponding to bulk gold; the dotted
line is for a material with a free electron concentration 10%
properties of these composites, investigated by the
lower than that of bulk gold, for λP′ ) 146 nm and vf′ ) Z-scan technique, could be attributed to the strong
1.342 × 106 ms-1 (and Leff ) 6 nm). Reprinted with excited-state absorption of the ligands and the SP
permission from ref 652 (Schiffrin’s group). Copyright 1997 resonance of the AuNPs. The main absorptive mech-
The Royal Society of Chemistry. anisms are the nonlinear absorption and the absorp-
tion-induced nonlinear scattering. The stronger non-
relaxation component increased with an increase of linear refractions enhance further the refractive
the AuNP size.648 Dielectric periodic structures in optical linear effects (Figure 65).654-656
which some frequencies of light cannot penetrate
because photon modes at these frequencies do not 9. Miscellaneous Applications
exist in the structure were called photonic crystals. AuNPs have been used to manipulate the selectiv-
In such photonic crystals with AuNPs dispersed in ity between solutes in capillary electrophoresis. There-
layers as a defect structure, the defect mode shift fore, the AuNPs serve as large surface area platforms
could be attributed to the Kerr effect inside the defect for organofunctional groups that interact with the
structure. NLO effects were found in these photonic capillary surface, the analytes, or both. The apparent
crystals.649 mobilities of target analytes as well as the electro-
Figure 65. Synthetic routes leading to (a) a [60]fullerene-substituted oligopyridine and (b) the AuNPs stabilized by it.
Reprinted with permission from ref 656 (Li’s group). Copyright 2002 Elsevier.
osmotic flow could be altered, which led to enhanced Fascinating aspects are the optoelectronic proper-
selectivities.660 The use of AuNPs has also been ties of AuNPs related to the surface plasmon absorp-
extended to chip-based capillary electrophoresis de- tion, reflecting the collective oscillation of the con-
vices, the AuNPs in the microchannels acting as a ducting electrons of the gold core, a feature relevant
rectifier.661 Electromagnetic coupling effects with to the quantum size effect. NLO applications of
lithographically produced AuNPs were investigated AuNPs are also rapidly growing. The combination of
by photon scanning tunneling microscopy. The sur- this photonics discipline with biology and medicine
face plasmon propagation on microstructured metal has already been demonstrated by the seminal work
thin films was examined in order to provide an on AuNP-DNA assemblies and is very promising for
interface between the nano-optical device and clas- future biomolecular manipulations and applications,
sical far-field optics.662 such as labeling, detection, and transfer of drugs,
The optical manipulation of particles on waveguide including genetic materials.
surfaces offers a controllable tool for application to Electronic conduction correlated with single-elec-
particle sorting, sensing, and atomic mirrors. In this tron tunneling is a possible basis for future nano-
context, potassium-ion-exchanged optical waveguides electronic digital circuits in connection with self-
in glass for evanescent field propulsion of AuNPs assembled monolayers, although the quantized capaci-
were optimized.663 tance involved will require ultrapure AuNP materi-
Encapsulation techniques are currently used to als.
reduce photo-oxidation in commercial devices. In Excellent sensory and environmental devices are
particular, utilization of AuNPs in optoelectronic becoming available by tuning the spectroscopy, fluo-
devices often enhances the optical and electrical rescence, luminescence, and electrochemical charac-
properties as well as the stability; this technique teristics of AuNPs with those of substrates including
effectively inhibits photoluminescence decay.664 DNA, sugars, and other biological molecules or
systems. Another promising electrochemical field
that has just started to develop is that of AuNP ultra-
10. Conclusion and Perspectives microelectrodes. Thus, it is becoming possible to
AuNPs, which have been known for 2500 years, are control molecules at a resolution well below that
the subject of an exponentially increasing number of offered by photolithography. In particular, DNA is a
reports and are full of promises for optical, electronic, candidate for this task because of its excellent
magnetic, catalytic, and biomedical applications in specificity in base pairing, and it can be easily
the 21st century, using the “bottom-up” approach addressed at the nanoscale for applications in bio-
with the hybrid organic-inorganic and biological- sensing and bionanotechnology.
inorganic building blocks derived therefrom. From Finally, although bulk gold is well known for being
the fascination produced by the more or less virtual inert, the reactivity of the gold cores in AuNPs has
medical uses of soluble gold in the past millenaries, recently proven very useful in catalytic applications,
it remains at least that AuNPs are completely bio- even at subambient temperatures, and the field of
compatible. The reasons for the present excitement AuNP-catalyzed CO and methanol oxidation and O2
in AuNP research are also the stability of AuNPs, reduction is now also developing at a rapid rate. Here
the extraordinary diversity of their modes of prepa- again, the variety of synthetic possibilities using
rations (including biosynthetic modes and template AuNP components and the understanding of the
synthesis) involving ceramics, glasses, polymers, AuNP nanostructures and their role on the catalytic
ligands, surfaces, films, oxides, zeolithes, biomol- events is a key toward future applications.
ecules, and bioorganisms, and their essential proper- In conclusion, an extraordinary variety of struc-
ties and role in nanoscience and future nanotechnol- tures, properties, and applications is available for
ogy. AuNPs and will motivate fundamental studies and
The classic Turkevitch-Frens synthesis with cit- applications in connection with those of other molec-
rate stabilizer is practical and still very much used ular, inorganic, and biological nanomaterial compo-
to prepare precursors. However, the stabilization of nents in interdisciplinary research involving chem-
AuNPs by alkanethiolate and various functional istry, physics, biology, and medicine.665
thiolate ligands forming very stable, relatively mono-
disperse materials and the two-phase Schiffrin syn- 11. Acknowledgment
thesis have been a breakthrough. These facile syn-
The helpful assistance of Jocelyne Moncada for the
theses have been shown to be particularly favorable
preparation of this manuscript and financial support
for easy manipulations, such as place-exchange reac-
from the Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), the
tions and extensive physical characterizations, for-
University Bordeaux I, and the Centre National de
mation of superlattices and crystals, and rich molec-
la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) are gratefully
ular chemistry. For instance, multiple redox states
acknowledged.
(up to 15!) of AuNP-alkanethiolate were beautifully
characterized at room temperature as charge injec-
tion in the core is quantized, and 2D and 3D AuNP 12. Abbreviations
superlattices are now common, easily controlled 2D two-dimensional
assemblies that use supramolecular principles and 3D three-dimensional
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Chem. Rev.

2004, 104, 293−346 293

Gold Nanoparticles: Assembly, Supramolecular Chemistry,

Received August 6, 2003

Contents 6.3. AuNP Sugar Sensors 323

(vide infra), that “gold must be present in such a

the particle size, interparticle distance, nature of the

3. Synthesis and Assembly

attained an icosahedral structure upon freezing.63c

3.4. Other Ligands lecular wires,76f and 1,4-diisocyanide-AuNP forms

3.6. Seeding Growth

3.7. Physical Methods: Photochemistry (UV,

Figure 8. TEM image of larger gold particles prepared

produced alkyl-groups-passivated AuNPs of 26 nm.118a

Figure 9. Taping-mode AFM images of the species formed

diameter of 2.4-2.6 nm, were prepared by reduction

gold cores by thiolate ligands139 was due to large

AuNPs. They showed that the loss of hydrogen could

Figure 15. Schematic illustrating the proposed inter-

on TiO2 (1,1,0) surfaces.160b The surface of AuNPs was

proved recent understanding of the parameters lead-

Linear polymers having cyano or mercapto groups

Figure 22. Schematic illustration for the synthesis of

Figure 27. Tapping-mode AFM images (2 µm × 2 µm) of

form multistructures whose photocurrent responses

Figure 28. Schematic configuration of the experimental

Figure 31. Fullerene-induced network of γ-cyclodextrin-

Figure 29. Schematic illustration of sequential surface

Figure 32. Schematics of the formation of the defects in

Figure 34. Schematic illustration of AuNPs in a silicate

any aggregation of particles has been reported.335

Figure 33. SEM images of plasmonic waveguide struc-

quantitatively by solving Maxwell’s equations for

For instance, in the AuNPs of 5.2 nm diameter

Figure 38. Schematic diagram illustrating the possible

like polypeptide, a thermally responsive biopoly-

nonradiative decay upon binding to AuNPs.414 Visible

4.4. Electronic Properties Using Other Physical

AuNPs as electrons were transferred from TiO2 to

5. Chemical, Supramolecular, and Recognition

The thiolate-stabilized AuNPs can be decomposed

5.2. Supramolecular Chemistry

obtained upon addition of the salt.498 The difference

∆E° ) E°free - E°bound )

The hydrogen-bonding between the amido group

Figure 51. Titration of ATP2- with ferrocenyl-dendronized

Figure 53. Recognition of ATP2- with a Pt electrode

changes are inversely dependent on the oligonucle-

can be eliminated, however, using ethylene glycol

6.2. AuNP-Enhanced Immuno-Sensing

perse, quasi-regular array of AuNPs (diameter 4.8

O2 + 2H+ + 2e- f H2O2

H2O2 + 2H+ + 2e- f 2H2O

AuNPs deposited on boron-doped diamond with an

7.3. Catalysis of Hydrogenation of Unsaturated

pending on the dendrimer structure (PPI more ef-

8. Nonlinear Optics (NLO)

Although glass-AuNPs have attracted the most

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