Emilio Aguinaldo

College
1113-1117 San Marcelino St, Ermita, Manila
Chapter I: Lesson 1 – A Preview on Reading

Learning Outcomes:
 Improved impression about reading
Ability to discuss reading in positive ways
Acquired motivation to improve reading skills

How people of great minds think of reading:

“Reading early in life gives a youngster a multitude of friends to guide intellectual
and emotional growth” (Carol Gray)
“Reading is to the mind that what exercise is to the body.” (Richard Sleete)
“After three days without reading, talk become flavorless.” (Chinese proverb)
“Once you learn to read you will forever free.” (Frederick Douglass)
“The delights of reading impart the vivacity of youth even in old age.” (Isaac
d’isrelli)
“Reading maketh a full man.” (Francis Bacon)
“The greatest gift is a passion for reading. It is cheap, it consoles, it excites, it gives
you knowledge of the world and experience of a wide kind. It is a moral
illumination.” (Elizabeth Hardwick)

Books which contain reading materials:

“A book is a garden carried in a pocket.” (Chinese proverb)
“A man without books is as a body without a soul” (Cicero)
“The book is man’s best invention so far.” (Carolina Maria de Jesus)
“I have sought rest everywhere, and only found it in corners, and books.” (Thomas
a Kempis)
“You don’t have to burn books to destroy a culture. Just get people to stop reading
them.” (Ray Bradbury)
“Books we must have thought we lack bread.” (Alice Williams Brotherston)
“Books are the treasured wealth of the world and thee fit inheritance of
generations.” (Henry David Thoreau)

Chapter I: Lesson 2 – The History of Reading

Learning Outcomes:
Acquired appreciation of the wondrous origin of reading
Ability to highlight the epic periods that gave us reading today
Experience the broader aspect of reading body language

Let’s look at the distant past

The first man was a latecomer on earth and appeared on the planet only about
100,000 years ago.
He employed grunts and body language using gestures and postures to convey
his ideas and needs to others.
In time, various circumstances such as the need to communicate to others who are
distant in place caused man to devise symbols corresponding to his oral
messages.
 We have evidence of this in the Old Stone Age rock painting and cuneiform or
picture writing. From these we have knowledge of the earliest human act of picture-
writing and reading.
Picture-writing during the Sumerian civilization between 3000 to 4000 B.C were
incised on baked tablets.
Egyptians civilization along the river Nile carved their pictorial symbols known as
hyroglypics on the stone wall of temples and tombs, or carefully painted them on
wooden coffins.
The Egyptians also invented paper derived from the papyrus plant which they
wrote their signs with a reed pen and ink y mixing water, gum and soot.
Phoenicia and Palestine used more permanent writing materials such as leather
rolled into scrolls.
The greatest contribution to the progress of ancient civilization came from the
Phoenicians who adopted and spread the use of letter-symbols or the alphabet.
The Roman system of writing in turn became the basis for all the systems of writing
being read by modern people today.

Chapter I: Lesson 3 – Reading as a Physiological Process

Learning Outcomes:
Acquaintances with reading in terms of its physiology or internal process in the
human organism
Retention of scientific terms related to the physiology of reading
Appreciation of the wondrous process of reading

Here are known facts about reading:

Reading involves both an organic or physiological process and a mental or
cognitive process. It is difficult to put a demarcation line between these two
processes as they overlap since the mind controls all human activities. Thus some
reading experts simply refer to this process as being neuro-physiological in
nature.
In the physiological process, the most basic step is for eyes to see, identify, and
recognize the printed word or images (illustration, diagram, picture).
The light patterns form the printed symbols hit the foveal areas or closely packed
sensory cells of the retina.
In turn, this induces chemical changes that create patterns of nerve currents into
the optic nerve fiber.
Then these currents travel to a center in the mid-brain.
The stage of reading revolves around the ability to identify and recognize words
which are the smallest unit of visual identification and meaningful recognition. The
act of reading does not take place if the letters are perceived in isolation.
Finally, using the currents that travel to the mid-brain, the cerebral cortex
interprets the symbols (with the help of traces of the memory’s store of past
experiences, also by associations that enable the reader to perceive the meaning of
the word).
 Studies show eye movement in reading with the eye perceiving and causing on the
printed material horizontally from left to right and top to bottom (from the westerner)
or right to left and bottom to top (for Asians as the Chinese)
Scientific experiments have also shown that there are several eye movements:
 Fixations – the eyes stopping or getting fixated on the word or words. The
duration of fixation is the length of time the eyes has to pause.
 Inter-fixation – the eyes moving from stopping point to the other.
 Return sweeps – with the eyes swinging back from the end line to the
beginning of the next line
 Saccades – short quick hop and jump movements done especially by
literate people, to move ahead on a line of print
 Regression – backward right to left movement in case there is need to
double check what is being read.
 Span of recognition – the eyes’ recognition of a group of words. It is
believed that readers can add to their reading stability by widening the span
of recognition by means of chunking of phrases, a focus on the total word
pattern. As the span widens, fixation decreases resulting in increased speed
in reading.

Chapter I: Lesson 4 – Reading as a Cognitive Process

Learning Outcomes:
Appreciation of the wondrous work of the mind in reading
Understanding the steps in reading comprehension
Familiarity with the levels of reading comprehension

Expand our knowledge about reading

Similar to the neuro-physiological aspect in reading, the mental or cognitive process
in the perception of meaning, also known as comprehension, is also complex.

Two basic steps in reading comprehension

1. The extraneous process that creates a stimulus on the visual centers of the brain.
This stimulus consists in two essential aspects:
a) Word recognition or the written symbols
b) Attentive adjustment by the reader on these symbols

2. Fusion/ interpretation/ construction of “meaning” by the mind out of the stimuli.

These two steps involve other complex processes to include:

 Immediate arousal of associations in the recognition of the written symbols –
their pronunciation, vocabulary meaning, context, etc.
 Other stimuli inclusive of what is kinesthetic or auditory.
 These stimuli are distributed to brain centers (instinct, feelings, imagination,
reason, abstract intelligence, will)
 Synthesis or the fusion of related inputs from brain centers resulting in the
recognition of the meaning of the printed symbols.
Scientist have described the cognitive process in reading:
“Selecting and combining relevant items of experience that are implied by the
immediate context, by the author’s mood, tone, or intention, and by everything the
reader knows that makes clear the meaning of the passage.” (Richards)
“Selecting the right elements of the situation and putting together in the right
relations and also with the right amount of weight of influence or force for each”
(Thorndike)

Level of comprehension making us aware of faculties of the mind at work in each

particular reading activity:
1. Literal – knowing what’s read as is (5W and H)
2. Interpretative – what is read combined with one’s subjective ideas
3. Applied – forming opinions and applications
4. Evaluative – judgement on the reading material such as on the information data, the
event, persons involved, etc.

Reference to meta-cognition which refers to higher comprehension skill

characterized by:
 Self-awareness
 Careful reading and greater retention
 Making previous assumptions or hypothesis
 The deliberate and combined ability to reflect, question, classify, summarize and
predict
 Information reading which gives attention to SQ3R (Survey, Questions, Read,
Recite, Review)

Chapter I: Lesson 5 – Reading as a Communication Process

Learning Outcomes:
Understanding the close relationship between reading and language
Acquaintance with the characteristic of clear and stimulating language

What language experts tell us

Language is a code system used by humans to communicate. And as there are
diverse languages, there are diversities in the code system or symbol system as
devised and used by man. In language there are certain characteristics that can
evoke effective and positive reactions on man.

Characteristics in Language:
1. Clarity – the reader can more easily immediately understand language when the
code symbols are concrete rather than abstractions (universal ideas) and
generalizations.
Compare:
 Many students attended the student council meeting.
Ninety-five college students attended Tuesday’s student council meeting
  The Philippines became a sovereign nation in the late 1890s.
The Philippines was freed from the Hispanic colonial rule when our
forebears led by General Emilio Aguinaldo declared Independence on June
12, 1898.

2. Simplicity – complex wording written for the sake of verbal erudition is less easily
understood, compared with what is expressed directly and to the point.
Compare:
 Shall we partake of our repast?
Shall we eat?

 Mother’s culinary dishes are exquisite.

 Mother cooks well.

3. Adapted language – words of expression should relate to the reader’s age,

educational attainment, gender, ethnic origin, other personal factors. The inappropriate
use of technical or specialized words should also be avoided.
Instances for examples:
 When preachers caused a stir talking about sexuality to a group of women.
 Luzon politicians were not well received by Mindanao groups.

4. Forceful – stimulating language provides color, interest and excitement.

Compare:
 He speaks at length while saying little.
He spews forth words-and says nothing.

5. Vivid language – vivid wording is descriptive and stirs the senses of the reader.
Comprare:
 Very good salesman ---------- crackerjack persuader
 Dishonest and evil ------------- festering corruption
 Trouble spot --------------------- seething hell

Chapter I: Lesson 6 – Reading as Skill/Skills

Learning Outcomes:
Acquaintance with the reading skill ladder
Ability to apply the skills ladder in lesson planning
Motivation to see the skills ladder as a pedagogical challenge to teacher

Reading skill ladder

Grace Goddel, reading consultant of New York, developed a priceless concept by
devising a reading skills ladder.
 16. Reading from the internet

15.Exposure to reading from mass media

14. Starting your private library collection

13. Borrowing library books from search and enjoyment

12. Using the encyclopedias and other reference books

11. Using the dictionary

10. Using parts of the book

9. Classifying and organizing facts

8. Interfering meaning, drawing conclusions

7. Finding the supporting details

6. Finding the main idea.

5. Vocabulary building

4. Using contextual clues

3. using structural analysis

2. Using Phonetic analysis

1. Basic sight words.

Chapter I: Lesson 7 – Reading as a Psycho-Social Process

Learning Outcomes:
Broadened awareness of the impact of reading to the world
An appreciation of purposeful social communication
Motivation to further develop one’s reading abilities

Global facts about reading

 Reading is a social activity that engages humans in the world. It is also purposeful
social communication, as it involves all facets of life from what is private to what is
official, from what is personal to one that is public.
Reading is also professional as it is a form of communication done in all the
professions and human pursuits including scientific and technological research and
studies.
Reading is a unique activity which you can adopt every day. Speaking reading as a
skill like other skills – dancing, writing, acting, sports – it is something you can
continually improve upon.
In sum, reading can mean the difference between the amateur and professional, as
well as successful career person you wish to become.

Chapter I: Lesson 8 – Reading as a Process of Development

Learning Outcomes:
Clear grasp of the concept of developmental reading
Applied knowledge of general developmental reading strategies
Motivated mastery of teaching abilities in developmental reading

Prepare for learning

In 1983, the Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) required
students enrolled in Bachelor of Elementary Education (BEED) to take up a 3-
unit course in Developmental Reading, and another 3 u-unit course in Teaching
Strategies in Communication Arts, Focus on Reading.
In 1986, the agency required students enrolled Bachelor in Secondary Education
to take up Developmental Reading and Research and Study Skills.

Begin with basic concepts

Reading as a process of development involves a program for acquiring and
developing reading concepts and skills. This is based on the perception that the
periods or stages in developing reading skills coincide with the developmental
stages of individual growth.
There are stages of individual development in reading.
The stages are interrelated, each stage being a preparation for the next.
Development needs sequentially in an upward movement starting with the simplest
to increasing levels of complexity.
There are levels of difficulties in reading skills acquisition.
Development is influenced by one’s personal maturation, social demands, values
and aspirations.

The Reading Stages/Periods are:

1. Reading readiness – Nursery and kindergarten pupils
In this stage, the teacher:
 Prepares pupil for learning how to read
 Guides the child in acquiring functional listening and speaking vocabulary
  Initiates activities using real/concrete objects such as alphabets blocks, toys
picture books, etc.
 Imparts skills in auditory and visual discrimination, motor-ocular coordination
 Introduces fun experiences such as listening to stories, reading rhymes and
children’s poem
 Imparts acquisition by the child of a basic sight vocabulary using pictures,
configurations, actions and context clues
 Introduces phonetic and structural lessons
 Imparts lessons to make the child ready for other studies such as in Language,
Science, Mathematics, Social Studies and the Arts

2. Beginning reading – Grades 1 and 2

This is stage for the child to recognize and remember words, phrases, and sentences
as symbols for ideas that correspond to early experience.
For this purpose, the teacher:
 Introduces words, seeing to it that these words relate to real-life situations
 Initiates both oral and silent reading, with preference to oral reading in order to
aid the child in recall, correct pronunciations and clear enunciation of words
 Engages the child in repetitive, interesting and meaningful vocabulary building
activities

3. Period of rapid growth or expanding ability - Grade 3 and 4

The teacher guides the child in the mastery of reading techniques by:
 Enriching vocabulary, deepening comprehension, awakening critical thinking
through answer-search to problems
 Encouraging free reading
 Applying skimming and scanning techniques in the use of table of contents,
glossary and index of books
 Introducing the use of the dictionary to locate meaning of new words
 Assigning summaries, outlines, and book reports

4. Period of refinement in the use of the reading tool – Grade 6, high school and
college
This is a period of serious and interpretative reading in which the high school teacher
guides the student in the use of reading as a tool for effective study of other required
subjects.
The teacher:
 Encourages independent reading and ample use of library materials such as
reference books (encyclopedia, almanacs, fact books, etc)
 Introduces research work as would be useful in problem-solving in science,
social studies, mathematics, etc.
 Encourages the practice of note-taking, efficient organization of notes, and wide
reading pleasure
 Engages the student in oral reading using poetic, exhortative and dramatic
materials
 For college teacher, intensive and extensive reading are intended to further refine
vocabulary, comprehension, literary and study skills.
In particular, the college teacher:
 Guides college students in careful, detailed and analytical reading
 Induces mastery language which leads to facility with words, functionality of
reading for writing, and innovative study work
 Helps students in familiarity with technical words/terms as adopted in specific
disciplines such as science, mathematics, the arts, etc.
 Builds the students’ literary appreciation

Chapter I: Lesson 9 – Obstacles to Reading

Learning Outcomes:
Awareness on factors that may affect the student’s reading abilities
Sense of understanding on the part of teachers for the students’ growth in reading

Facts discovered by specialists

Children display dominance in two spheres of their brain, such is the case with
those who are left-handed or left-eye dominant. But researches have shown that
such manifestation doesn’t affect the ability to read. So, it is advised that children
be allowed to display their left-handed or left-eye dominant tendencies.
Handicapped children may display spatial or directional disorientation. Thus,
they have difficulties in differentiating letters, especially in case of letters which are
alike such as f and t, p and b, g and d.
Intellectual or emotional maturation lag is a cause for reading retardation.
There is a close correlation between intelligence and reading achievement.
Those with high I.Q. will acquire higher reading skills faster than those whose lower
I.Q.
Basic success in reading are:
a) Visual acuity with eyes integrating images well
b) Auditory acuity with clear hearing of the sounds of words
Reading is intertwined with language, and so non- speakers of a language will have
more difficulties reading a second language.
Reading and listening (particularly sounds of words) are closely related. Proficiency
in listening is conductive to proficiency in reading

Facts that related to obstacle in reading achievement

Physical
 Malfunction of the visual and auditory faculties
 In particular, eye defects such as short/far-sightedness, speech impediments,
etc.
 Physical discomfort among students such as headache, stomachache, hunger,
thirst, etc.

Psychological
  Child’s lack of self-confidence, feelings of rejection and other negative
personality traits (shyness, being withdrawn, poor rapport with others, conflict
with parents and peers, etc.
 Teacher personality factors such as lack of competence, emotional immaturity,
lack of social sense, etc.
 General emotional atmosphere at home and school, including the attitude
among parents in guiding their children’s progress in school.

Environmental
 Conditions at home and school, including conditions of poor room lighting,
ventilation, seating arrangement, etc.

Socio-economic
 Low-economic status (poverty) of children of poor families
 Sensationalism and retrogressive literacy as fostered by commercialism in mass
media
 Policies and programs of government and of the schools on the development
reading program.

Chapter I: Lesson 10 – Selective Reading

Learning Outcomes:
Motivation to read, also to read what’s best
Learn to respond to class-assigned reading, as a challenge not an imposition

Thoughts about selective reading

Reading helps thinking. A man who doesn’t care to read actually undergoes
intellectual fasting.
Few people in antiquity knew how to read, a few possessed the bricks, stones or
rolls for reading. For the young students of ancient Greece, these reading materials
were a treasure in their hands.
Reading aloud was the rule among the ancients. This was a long custom even in
private reading, the rustic who moves his lips as he reads is keeping up a tradition.
In ancient days, books were few and costly. From necessity, people limited their
collection to good books.
Today, printing has gone mad and the world is in danger of being submerged by an
ocean of books.
Never read; always study as an artist studies a beautiful face. Read as you please,
and fly or skip passages as you please. Be like an anxious cyclist who has a map in
his hands anxious to find the way to his destination. As we read with intense
curiosity let us not plod with attention to mere words. Attention to words never
produces thoughts.

Chapter I: Lesson 11 – Reading Comprehension

Learning Outcomes:
 Appreciation of the importance of reading
Comprehension in developmental reading
View the significance higher reading comprehension
Practical understanding of the types of reading comprehension

Concepts about reading comprehension

The schema theory states that as we read, we are influenced by the knowledge
previously stored in our memory.
The schemata (store of past experiences) influence us in interpreting new textual
information.

Levels of comprehension
1. Literal level – refers to recognition of what is simply, directly and explicitly the textual
message.
 Literal reading is reading the lines of the textual message.
2. Inferential level – goes beyond the direct and explicit statement and adds on by
enriching the meaning of the textual message.
 Interpretative reading – reading between the lines combining information with
inferred meanings
3. Critical level – the reader raises questions and evaluates the printed text for its
veracity, style, patter, etc.
 Critical reading – reading beyond the lines
4. Creative level – the reader sees new ideas/insights from the textual material.
 Creative reading

The case of metacognition

Reading comprehension characteristics:
A self-awareness while reading
A dynamic and interactive process of constructing meaning
An interaction between the reader and the text/context
The incidence of constructive/creative process which happens not only during
reading, but after the reading activity
While reading, the reader makes judgments (confirming, testing, sampling,
hypothesizing)
The reader takes corrective action when comprehension fails
On reading for information, SQ3R (Survey, Question, Read, Recite and Review) is
now adopted as an effective reading formula

Chapter I: Lesson 12 – A Basic technique in Reading Comprehension

Learning Outcomes:
Application of the suggested techniques in reading comprehension
Acquired regard for reading as an art form

Learn from the experts

 They perceived that the poor reader loafs along the print material, compared with
the excellent reader whose eyes race over the lines gathering meaningful ideas at
each glance on the printed stage.
Poor reader – who takes in meaning word for word

“Active / reader / not / only / produces / understanding / but / allows / you / to /

appreciate / the / text / as / a / work / of / art./”

Note: The beginner reader finds this pattern for word-for-word reading comfortable
since he is still groping to learn individual words. But as the reader matures, he
would certainly find this method of reading tiresome and unnecessary.

Average reader – using the succeeding portion of the text.

“Just as you admire / the composition of a painting, / a sculpture, / a building, / or a

dance, / so you can / and should admire / the composition of a painting, / a
sculpture, / a building, / or a dance. /”

Note: The average and more mature reader has improved his reading habit by
picking up longer thought units in which he gets meaning from the text.

Good reader – who has taken in larger units at a time, taking in an increased and
longer unit of meaning

“And so you can and should admire / the composition of a text – the harmony and
shapeliness of the, / the way in which the parts fit together, refer to one another,
and support each other, / the avoidance of excess, the balance of elements.”/

Chapter I: Lesson 13 – An Overview of Speed Reading

Learning Outcomes:
Grasp of the techniques for speed reading
An inventory of present speed reading rate
Acquired experience in exercises for speed reading

What reading specialist tell us

Reading involves varied skills, there are really only two fundamentals skills, namely
reading comprehension and reading speed.

Reading speed measurement

The basic unit in measuring reading speed is the number of words read per minute
(WPM)
Average reader – 250 WPM
Very good reader – 500 – 600 WPM
Phenomenal reader – 1000 WPM
Reading for ideas
Reading one word at a time is not enough for the mind to get a synthesis of the
meaning from the whole printed text. The reader must therefore pick up thought
units, grasping meaning in increasingly longer word groups.

Poor reader: “Reading/ is / a / unique / human / activity, /also / a / skill / we /can /

improve / upon. /”

Good reader: “Reading is a unique human activity, / also a skill / we can

improve upon.”/

Using reading signposts

Good ahead signals – with such words as: and, also, likewise, moreover,
furthermore, etc.
Turn-about signals – turn the thought in a different direction in reading such
words as: but, yet, nevertheless, although, in spite of, on the contrary, etc.

Shopping before reading

Study the title (called “head” in a newspaper) to see if the material conforms to
your interest or curiosity.
Subtitle (“sub-head” in a newspaper) are door-openers to more specific
information about the book or article.
The author’s name the book cover, table of content, and photos will provide more
reasons to whet your appetite on the printed material.

Sightseeing as you read

Reading pick up significant ideas by finding the key ideas in segments of the
book or article.
Cleverly Skimming
Skimming is differentiated from scanning which is the process of locating a
particular fact or figure in a selection
In the highly developed skill of skimming, the process involves the passing over
of passages to rapidly grasp information on an entire selection.
Recommended skimming techniques:
a) Skim for the main idea only, ignoring large sections of content
b) Read only key words, omitting words of lesser importance
c) Read with the fleeting eyes sweeping vertically (normally our eyes move
with ease from left to right horizontally)
The phenomenal skimmers can grasp 3,000-4,000 words per minute using their
vertical field of version.
Chapter II: Lesson 1 – The Top-Down Approach

Learning Outcomes:
Enhance knowledge on the top-down approach
Obtain different view on top-reading model
Apply the model and determine its effectiveness

Study the top-down approach

Top-down reading model, also known as inside-out model, concept-driven model,
and whole-to-part model, uses the meaning given by the reader to the text.
“Reading does not aim to translate written language to spoken language; it does
not aim to process each word or letter, and it does not derive meaning from the
text.” (Frank Smith)
“Focus the goal of reading which is ‘constructing meaning in response to text.’”
(Kenneth S. Goodman)

Features of top-down approach

It allows approach readers to decode a text even without understanding the
meaning of each word.
It helps recognize unfamiliar words through the use of meaning and grammatical
cues.
It emphasizes reading for meaning instead of giving attention to each word, its
letters and sounds.
It engages the readers in meaning activities instead of concentrating on the
enhancement of word-attack skills.
It considers reading of sentence, paragraphs, and whole texts as the core of
instruction.
It identifies the amount and kind of information derived from reading as important
element.

Chapter II: Lesson 2 – Bottom-up Reading Model

Learning Outcomes:
Utilize in reading prior knowledge of words
Analyze written text
Apply the model

Bottom-up reading model

Bottom-up model, also known as part-to-whole model, considers the importance
of the written or printed text as it brings about reading.
Leonard Bloomfield
 Reading starts with the understanding of the code.
 Analysis of the code helps in getting easily the meaning of the text.
  Writing only records speech.
Emerald Dechant
 The hierarchical organization of the written text is important in reading.
 Reading starts with the processing of the smallest linguistic unit, and moves
gradually to putting together the smaller units, which result in recognizing and
understanding the higher units
Charles Fries
 Learning to transfer from auditory signs for language signals to a set of visual
signs for the same signals is needed in reading.
 Responding automatically to the visual patterns is essential in reading. With
the cumulative comprehension of thee meanings signaled, the reader is able
to fill in the gaps or those parts of the signals which he does not see in the
graphic representations
Phillip B. Gough
 Developing a considerable range of habitual responses to a specific set of
patterns suggests ability to learn to read.
T. McCormick
 Positive recognition of every word through phonemic encoding results from
processing letter-by-letter visual analysis.

Chapter II: Lesson 3 – Interactive Reading Model

Learning Outcomes:
Evaluate the interactive reading model
Advance student’s motivation to read
Integrate analysis of the language in reading

Interactive Reading Model

Interactive Reading Model is an attempt to combine the two models, the top-down
and bottom-up. It selects the strong points of both models and integrates them in
learning to read.
Emerald Dechant
 Meaning is constructed by the selective use of information from various
sources, without relying on anyone set order. These sources may be graphic,
phonemic, morphemic, syntax and semantics. All levels of processing are
used although the reader can rely on one source at a given time.
Kenneth Goodman
 Reading is understood at once as both a perceptual and cognitive process. To
be able to accomplish the task of reading, a skilled reader must be able to use
sensory, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic information.

Chapter II: Lesson 4 – Literary Appreciation Skills

Learning Outcomes:
Construct meaning from literary texts
Gain deeper understanding and appreciation for the value of literature
 Identify the literary merits of the literary selections

Literature
It tells you the stories of real people who grapple with problems that the urgency in
today’s living brings. It recounts the experiences of ordinary country folk who delight
at the simple joys of life. It narrates thee exploits or adventures of the immortals and
the supernatural beings who thrill us with their incredible powers.

Elements of Literature
Phonetic language
 Words or phrases that conjure up vivid pictures in your mind, that appeal to
your emotions, or that communicate ideas beyond the literal meanings of the
words are called poetic or figurative language.
 Images appeal to the senses of sight, touch, and hearing, although majority of
images are visual.
 Figurative language goes beyond its usual meaning. It is not to be taken
literally. The many types of figurative language are called figure of speech
 Alliteration  Metaphor
 Anaphora  Metonymy
 Antithesis  Onomatopoeia
 Apostrophe  Oxymoron
 Assonance  Paradox
 Chiasmus  Personification
 Euphemism  Pun
 Hyperbole  Simile
 Irony  Synecdoche
 Litotes  Understatement

Tone and Mood

 The attitude that a writer takes toward a subject is tone. It may be angry,
bitter, humorous, nostalgic, or serious.
 The feeling or atmosphere that the writer creates for the reader is mood. It
may be joyful, quiet, optimistic, or sad.
 Figurative languages, images, details, and setting convey mood.

Character
 The people or animals who take part in the action of fiction and even poetry
are characters.
 The writer’s use of characterization techniques helps in giving you an
impression of the characters. These techniques may be physical description,
the words and actions of the characters, the reactions of the other characters
to the individual, the character’s expression of her own thoughts and feelings.
Setting
 The time and place of the action compromise the setting of a literary work.
 It serves as a backdrop in which the character interacts.
 It may also use to reveal character, help develop plot and create mood.
Plot
 It is the arrangement of events in a short story.
 Conflict is a struggle between opposing forces.
 Climax is the point at which the conflict is greatest.
 Resolution is the outcome of the conflict.
Chapter III: Lesson 1 – Reading for Information
Learning Outcomes:
Enhance scanning skills
Increase reading achievement
Synthesize author’s ideas

Informative texts
To understand informative text:
 Identify text features
 Character heads
 Sub-heads
 Maps
 Other graphic representations
 Identify the text structures
 Definition
 Cause-effect
 Comparison-contrast
 Chronological order
 Paraphrase the text and organize its important points through summaries
 Understand the author’s purpose
 Compare information between and within texts.

Chapter III: Lesson 2 – Reading for Appreciation and Enjoyment

Learning Outcomes:
Heighten awareness of the structure of literary selections
Enhance appreciation of stylistic options
Compare different interpretative strategies

How to understand a poem

Who is the author of the poem? What is the purpose of the author?
What is the title of the poem? Is it related to the subject and theme of the poem?
What is the genre of the poem?
What is the format of the poem? Haiku? Tanka? Cinquain? Diamante?
Does the poem use sound devices? Is the poem in free verse or in some regular
meter?
Does the poem contain images that appeal to different senses?
Does the poem contain figures of speech? Do they help in projecting tone and in
conveying the theme?
What is the setting of the poem? How is it related to the mood of the poem?
What is the theme of the poem?
Can you infer about the speaker? If so, what is it?
What is the plot of the poem, if it is a narrative or dramatic poem?
What can you infer about the characters or about the relationships of the characters
of the poem, if it is a narrative or dramatic poem?

The most out of literature

 Poem express ideas in a tighter, more compact way than prose as they do not
include details and explanations common to the short story or the novel.
Poems are more concentrated, suggestive, and rhythmical than prose as they
resort to the use of symbols, figurative language, and imagery, which tend to leave
more to a reader’s imagination rather than giving everything the needs to know.
Lyric poem expresses the observations and feelings of a single speaker.
Narrative poem are stories told in prose. Often narrative poems, ballads have all
the elements of a short stories, such as plot, characters, setting.
Poems may take the form of a haiku, an unrhymed verse form, consisting of three
lines. The first and third line contain five syllables while the second line consists
of a seven syllables.
A tanka is another verse form. It has thirty-one syllables arranged in five lines.
A cinquain is a poetic unrhymed form consisting of five lines.
A diamente is seven-lined, diamond-shaped poem.
Short stories are also a literary type which you may find interesting as it deals with
people, places, actions events that seem familiar.
Short stories may also stir your imagination as it deals with the fantastic or the
unusual.
Elements of short stories such as plot, character, setting, point of view and theme.
Short stories are concise; they can be read in one sitting.
Short stories create a single effect, dominant impression on the reader.
Chapter III: Lesson 3 – Reading for Critical Thinking

Learning Outcomes:
Analyze the question in a discourse
Distinguish important issues in an argumentative discourse
Identify connections between arguments

Identify issues in a discourse

Reading an argumentative/persuasive discourse is an exercise in developing critical
understanding.
 Identify the issue
 Weigh the arguments
 Follow them in their logical conclusion
 Become discriminating
 Checking out the facts
 Generalizing cautiously on the basis of what you want to know

Chapter III: Lesson 4 – Reading for Study

Learning Outcomes:
Demonstrate efficiency in studies
Apply study skills for more learning
Improve performance in tackling academic tasks

Enhance our academic skills

You need to take time reading technical or scientific materials for they use jargon or
the professional language of a specialized group.
You cannot avoid such materials as your course require it.
To ensure efficient reading, give careful attention to each word and its importance
in relation to other words in the sentence or paragraph
Chapter IV: Lesson 1 – Vocabulary Skills
Learning Outcomes:
Increase learners’ word power
Demonstrate understanding of vocabulary words in context
Enhance the learners’ sense of style and form

Learn more words

Identifying the components of a word
 Stem – part of a word to which inflectional ending is added or in which
inflectional phonetic change is made.
Examples:
commend opt state
diction point suggest
large prove thought
learn quest turn
nation sect veil

 Affixes – it may be a prefix or a suffix added to a root word or base in order to

vary function, modify meaning or form a new word.
 Prefix is added to the beginning of a word
 Suffix is joined to the end of a word

Prefixes Meaning Examples

a without amoral, asexual
ab away abduct, abnormal
ante before antedate, anteroom
anti against antibiotic, anticlimax
arch highest archbishop, archangel
auto self autobiography, autograph
bi twice bicycle, bilateral
circum around circumnavigate, circumlocution
co/com with coexist, cohere, combat, compatriot
counter against countersign, counteract
de away, less debar, debase
dis not disable, disarm
epi on, over epicenter, epidermis
ex from, former exhale, ex-president
extra more extraordinary, extracurricular
fore front, before forehead, forecast
hepta seven heptagon, heptameter
hyper too much hypertensive, hyperactive
il not illogical, illiterate
in/en/em in inside, income, embrace, enclose
in/im not inactive, impossible
ir not irrational, irregular
inter between, among international, interface
 mal bad, badly maladroit, maladjusted
mini small miniskirt, minibus
mis wrong misspell, mistake
non not nonconformist, nonsense
mono one monorail, monograph
multi many multimedia, multinational
neo revived neoclassic, neocolonialism
to do something to a greater
out outdo, outpatient
degree/away from
over too much/beyond overpass, overact
para alongside, resembling paraphrase, paragraph
pre before preface, precaution
pro for pronoun, procure
post after postwar, postage
proto first, original prototype, protoplasm
pseudo false, imitation pseudonym, pseudo-classic
quad four quadrangle, quadrate
re again recall, refresh
super above supernatural, superhuman
semi half, partly semiprivate, semiannual
sub beneath, less subway, substation
trans across translate, transform
un not unhappy, untie
under beneath, too, little underwear, underweight
uni one universe, unicycle
vice deputy vice-chairman, vice-president

Suffixes Meaning Examples

denotes that something is
-able uncountable, presentable
capable of
-age denotes extent drainage, coverage
-al denotes a quality musical, critical
-ant/-ent denotes one who perform attendant, correspondent
-arian denotes quality authoritarian, totalitarian
-ary/-ory denotes a place infirmary, refectory
-ative connected with argumentative, denotative
-cian denotes a person beautician, magician
adjective form of nouns and
-ed jumped, talked
verbs
denotes the recipient of an
-ee licensee, employee
action
refers to the cause to
-en deafen, tighten
become
-ess denotes a female hostess, princess
 -esque denotes style picturesque, Romanesque
-ette refers to female or small size usherette, kitchenette
-ful denotes condition or quality truthful, helpful
-hood/-ence/
denotes state or quality brotherhood, correspondence
-ness/-cy
denotes the idea of being
-ian Parisian, magician
connected with
-ic denotes quality democratic, nationalistic
denotes the act of doing
-ion confession, retrogression
something
-ish denotes quality selfish, brownish
-ism refers to doctrine, condition absenteeism, socialism
-ity denotes a state or quality lucidity, humidity
-ive denotes quality collective, detective
-ize denotes to become popularize, hospitalize
denotes one with a
-ist technologist, anthropologist
specialized skill
-less denotes quality selfless, childless
-like denotes quality childlike, ladylike
-ling denotes smallness duckling, seedling
-ment denotes state, action arrangement, government
denotes the superlative
-most uppermost, topmost
degree
-ness denotes state, condition illness, selfishness
denotes an agent or one
-or/-er actor, teacher
who
-ous/-eous denotes quality courageous, courteous
-ship denotes status, condition friendship, hardship
-some denotes a tendency bothersome, awesome
refers to a person making
-ster trickster, gangster
something
refers to manner, direction of
-ward homeward, onward
movement
-wise denotes manner or direction clockwise, lengthwise
denotes the idea of
-worthy praiseworthy, trustworthy
deserving
-y/-ly denotes quality handy, manly

Putting two words together

Two words put together are called compounds, many of which are written as one
word without a hypen. However, there are compounds that are usually written with
a hypen. These are two words that function as adjectives found before the word
they modify.

 Compound written as one

 boyfriend boardroom postgraduate
firsthand standby steamboat
takeover landholder weekend
wellbeing chairperson jawbone
saleslady postman boatswain

 Compound written with a hypen

un-American counter-revolutionary
re-creation ex-wife
non-interference mother-in-law
hang-gliding left-handed
awkward-looking a well-known writer
up-to-date report cat’s-eye
the secretary-treasurer fairy-tale romance
four-year course fifty-five

 Compounds written as two separate words

first aid fair play chain letter
base line gold medal dish towel
best man ice plant eye contact
cash flow bank card fast track
day school bell tower hard labor
egg roll cable car land office

 Two-word verbs
backbite overdo foreclose
cablecast overturn handpick
fieldstrip backfire overlook
forgo catcall uphold

Forming links between words

Forming links between words leads to comprehension. A word may be linked to
another by its opposite, similarity, origin, characteristic, initial sound, action,
complement, classification and rank.
obstinate submissive(opposite)
querulous irritable (similarity)
eccentric eccentricity (origin)
translator accurate (characteristic)
waist waste (initial sound)
chameleon move, change color (action)
cork corkscrew (complement)
chrysanthemum flowers (classification)
bread croissant (inferior rank)
pawpaw tamarind, star apple (equal rank)

Classifying words according to sound and spelling

Ambiguity may occur with homonyms of words that sound alike but have different
spellings and meanings.
aide-aid some-sum knead-need
bale-bail two-too see-sea
break-brake air-heir their-there
bear-bare bloc-block waist-waste
meet-meat by-buy
scene-seen flower-flour

Ambiguity in word recognition may also occur with homographs or words that
produce the same sound, have the same spelling but two or more unrelated
meaning.

august eight month of the year; imposing

bald plain; lacking hair
band group of people; thin flat strip
bank an organization which keeps money; ground along the sides of a
river
bar a counter where drinks are served; an obstruction
bark outer layer covering the trunks of plants; loud cry of a dog
bat mammal; to wink your eyelids
bear omnivorous animal; to support
blossom flower; to flourish
blue color; sad
case container; example
chair seat; position
change money of smaller value; to alter
course direction; a series of lessons
edge a border; force

Understanding idioms and figure of speech

The meaning of an idiomatic expression cannot be derived from your understanding
of its individual words. Neither can it come from its grammatical construction.

above par better than average or normal

acid test a test whose findings are beyond doubt
bad blood unpleasant feelings between people
bark up the wrong tree to ask the wrong person
burn the midnight oil to stay up working late at night
call a spade a spade to speak frankly about something
call the shots to make a decision
caught red-handed caught in the act of doing something wrong
cut-and-dried fixed
down-and-out having no money or means of support
drop in the ocean just a little bit
flash in the pan someone or something that draws a lot of attention for
a very brief time
Common figures of speech include simile, metaphor, personification and hyperbole.
 Simile is an explicit comparison between two different things. It uses the words
as and like to show their similarity
 The stillness in the room was like the stillness in the air between the heaves
of storm
 Metaphor is an implicit comparison between two unlike things. It does not use
as and like to show things compared have something in common.
 Morning is a sheet of paper for you to write on.
 Personification is a figure of speech in which an object or idea is given human
qualities. It helps readers see vividly the images in the text and understand the
feelings of the writer.
 The trees are undressing and fling in many places.
 Hyperbole is an exaggerated statement. It is used to call the important points
in the text.
 He starts mowing the hanging gardens of Babylon on my head.

Using context clues

 Grammatical context
The meaning of unfamiliar word may derive from the grammatical context or the
position of a word in a phrase or sentence. Its position tells the reader that the
word is a noun, a verb, an adjective or adverb
 The two girls in front were so loquacious that I could not hear the teacher’s
question.
 The position of loquacious tells the reader that it is an adjective
as it comes after the linking verb were and the adverb so.
 The girls did not seem to be in a hurry for they exchanged jokes with one
another while they sauntered along the corridor.
 The reader learns that sauntered is a verb, an action word, as it
is found after the subject of the clause.
 He expressed acrimony over the involvement of his brother in the crime.
 The reader knows that acrimony is a noun as it comes after a
transitive verb which is always followed by a direct object

 Semantic clues
The meaning of unfamiliar word may obtain from its synonyms and antonyms
and the examination of the meaning of the other words or the semantic clues in
the sentence or group of sentences.

Types of Semantic Clues

 Definition
 He suggested a referendum, a method of giving the public a voice
in political decisions.
 They campaigned against bigotry, the expression of strong and
often unreasonable opinions.
 Restatement
 The essay he wrote was banal, or ordinary.
  If you don’t show emotion even when upsetting things happen,
you are phlegmatic, or cold.
 Example
 She avoids people with Type A personalities, such as the uptight,
compulsive, aggressive, sometimes hostile, insecure
overachievers.
 He asked us to avoid overlapping terms, such as authoritarian
and totalitarian, soap opera and serious drama, and terrorism and
guerilla warfare.
 Comparison
 Like a thief, procrastination steals not money but time.
 Like moths, maidens are ever caught by glare.
 Contrast
 The impoverished family looked out of place in a group of rich,
affluent men and women.
 She looked frantic, unlike her friend who appeared steady.

Chapter IV: Lesson 2 – Comprehension Skills

Learning Outcomes:
Generate meaning from the text
Enhance ability to answer comprehension questions
Apply different comprehension skills

Demonstrate ability to understand

Skimming for the topic sentence
To skim, examine the title and headings, read the first paragraph and last
paragraph of the text to find the main idea. The reader can read the whole first
paragraph and the first sentence of each of the succeeding paragraphs.
Scanning for important information
To scan for important information, direct your reading to specific paragraph where
you can locate the answers to your questions or which your teacher asks. read
quickly.
Noting details
To note details, read the text slowly, remember items in it, relate them to the topic
sentences of each paragraph or differentiate them from the main ideas the passage
conveys.
Getting the main idea
To get the main idea of the passage, look for the most important thing the author
says or find the central thought of the passage.
Inferring
To infer, read between the lines or look for information that is not stated in the text
by relying on clues given by the author.
Sensing cause and effect relationship
To sense cause and effect relationships, look for signal words, such as for, thus, as,
since, therefore, as a result, consequently, in order that, so that, and because.
  The cause indicates the reason for something.
 An effect shows the result of some action or cause.
Recognizing fact and opinion
To recognize fact and opinion, find out if the statement can be proved true or false
and if it expresses attitudes, evaluations, judgments, or even predicts the future
respectively.
Predicting outcomes
To predict outcomes, analyze the events and study their relationships. then decide
what happens next or make a guess about what you think may happen as a result
of several events.

Chapter IV: Lesson 3 – Study Skills

Learning Outcomes:
Demonstrate independent comprehension ability
Improve ability to retain text material
Show hierarchical relationships of associated concepts.

Different techniques in understanding and remembering text material

Taking notes
Taking notes allows you to recall what you read and heard in class. To ensure that
your notes become a useful aid, develop a format that separates the main ideas
from the supporting details or illustrates the organization of the material.
Outlining
An outline consists of the main ideas and their subordinate thoughts. Co-ordinate
ideas and thoughts are expressed in parallel form.
 Roman numerals mark the most important ideas.
 Capital letters and Arabic numerals mark the minor details.
Summarizing
Summarizing abstracts the important ideas of a selection which may be poetry or
prose, expressing them in the briefest way possible.
 Guiding in writing a summary
 Use your own words.
 Follow the original sequence of ideas.
 Reduce the original to one-third of one-fourth.
 Refrain from the use of unnecessary words of repetitions.
 Exclude examples.
 Ensure that you do not include your own opinion.
Using Graphic Organizers
Graphic organizers depict relationships between facts, concepts or ideas. They will
help you increase recall, arrange information, interpret and understand learning.
 Concept Map shows relationships associated with the concept you are
studying.
 Story Map may summarize the beginning, middle, and end of the story. It
may also focus on the setting, character, plot, problem, events, and
outcomes.
  Series-of-events chain shows the arrangement of events in chronological
order. It may also help you in discussing cause and effect of something.
 Flow chart displays the steps or stages in a process.
 T-Chart and Venn Diagram show the similarities and differences between
two things, people, events, or ideas.
 Discussion Web allows you to give the meaning of what you read. It also
privileges you to polish your own interpretation against another.

It produces one impression.

It includes only
It depicts the
those characters
action in the
necessary for the
Charcteristic of shortest possible
artistic results
a short story time without
necessary for the
sacrificing the
most artistic
highest effect.
results.

It shows little or no change

of scene.
Concepts Map
 Story Map (The Piece of String)

Master Hauchecome picked

up a piece of string at the
square at Gradesville.

(Beginning)
Master Houlbreque lost
his Wallet at Godesville.
Master Hauchecome
(Prinicpal Character)

Goderville (Problem)
(Setting) People suspected that
Master Hauchecome Action
kept it The major
summoned him. The
major discharged him,
unable to find the wallet.
Marius Paumelle
restored the wallet.
People suspected
Hauchecome was an
accomplice
 Samples of Events Cherin (The Necklace)

Initiating Event

The husband showed Madame Loisel the

invitation of the Minister of Public Education

Madame Loisel borrowed a necklace of

diamonds.

She made a great success at a ball.

She realized, at the end of a party, the lost

the necklace.

The couple borrowed a lot of money and

replaced the necklace.

They worked hard to be able to pay their

debt.

Final Event
Madame Loisel learned from Madame
Forester that the necklace she borrowed
was paste.
 Flow Chart

Topic: Writing a Composition

Taking a specific aspect of the topic

Deciding on the introduction of the topic

Developing the topic

Giving the conclusion

 Venn Diagram (Odysseus and Achilles as epic heroes)

Odysseus is an Achilles is not a

accomplished orator. Odysseus great speaker.
and
Odysseus is shrewd Achilles Achilles is an
counselor. are both impulsive person.
great
warriors.

T-Chart (Moped and Motorcycle)

Similarities Differences

Both moped and motorcycle can lurch The moped is not as weighty as the
away from bumper-to bumper traffic and motorcycle.
a throng of people.

Both moped and motorcycle are The moped does not have the power of a
inexpensive and easy to maintain. motorcycle.

Discussion Web
Relatives allow it only to Should doctors Should equipment would
get rid of financial withdraw only prolong the patient's
burden. lifesupporting suffering. Such
Doctors Shouls save equipment from equipment is a constant
lives at all costs. patients who have no source of anguish for the
hope to return to a patients' families. Such
Doctors have no right to
meaning ful life? eqipmment causes
put an end to anyone's
life financial burden.

Conclusions
Moral questions prevent doctors from making serious decisions that go
against the interest of the patients or the families.