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Simulation of Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) for

Voltage Profile Improvement
Nasiru B. Kadandani1* Yusuf A. Maiwada2
1. Department of Electrical Engineering, Bayero University, Kano – Nigeria
2. Department of Electrical Engineering, Hassan Usman Katsina Polytechnic, Katsina – Nigeria

Abstract
Voltage profile improvement is a very important aspect of power quality and system stability. Flexible A.C
Transmission System (FACTS) devices have been developed to provide system stability thereby enhancing
controllability and increasing the power transfer capability. Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) is a
member of FACTS devices used for voltage profile improvement as well as power quality improvement of the
net system. In this paper, a STATCOM is simulated in Simpower Simulink of MATLAB environment for
voltage regulation in a nominal π medium transmission line. The simulation results show that a STATCOM
without droop is a perfect voltage regulator and follows exactly the reference voltage. When the results are
compared to one with droop regulator, it was found that the sooner performs better than the later. However, the
droop extends the linear operating range of the STATCOM.
Keywords—STATCOM, FACTS, power quality, voltage regulation, grid

1. Introduction
Power quality is significant to both utility operators and consumers at all level of usage especially to non-linear
loads and sensitive devices placed in both industrial and domestic environment (Krishna & Reddy 2013). Power
quality refers to the proper characteristics of supply voltage and also a reliable and effective process for
delivering electrical energy to consumers. In other words, it is the power that enables equipment to work
properly (Srinivas & Reddy 2011). The measure of power quality depends on the nature and type of equipment.
Thus, power quality that is considered good for one equipment may not be good for another equipment. Hence,
power quality can be directly related to maintaining a smooth sinusoidal waveform of bus voltages at rated
frequency and also to be free from noise and harmonic distortion (Kumba & Sumanthi 2012). Therefore, any
deviation of magnitude, frequency or purity from the ideal sinusoidal voltage waveform can be considered as
power quality issue (Earnest & Wizelius 2011).
Binding standards and regulations are currently being imposed on suppliers and consumers, the
obligations to maintain the required power quality parameters at the point of interconnection, POI (Hiren et al
2010). These obligations become necessary due to the widespread use of power electronics equipments that are
sensitive in nature such as computers, converters, programmable logic controllers and energy efficient lightning
(Mohod & Aware 2011). These loads are very sensitive, hence, can lead to power quality disturbances such as
voltage dip, voltage swell, voltage flicker, voltage transient, and harmonic distortion. Among such disturbances,
voltage dip is the most dangerous one because it can leads to equipment failure, industrial shut down and
tripping of protection devices (Omar & AbdRahim 2008).
However, when good power quality is required, some kinds of compensation devices are necessary to
overcome the power quality disturbances (Kanaujia & Srivastava 2013). Thus, to restore the required power
quality, FACTS devices have been introduced (Das & Moharana 2012). Among such devices, STATCOM is the
latest development in that regard capable of interfacing between the utility and the consumer with the aim of
providing voltage profile improvement by compensating the reactive and harmonic power generated or absorbed
by the load (Khadem & Basu 2010). Thus, FACTS controllers provides an avenue for the regulation of
transmission of alternating current thereby increasing or diminishing the power flow in specific lines and
providing a quick response to stability problems (Mohanty and Barik 2014).

2. Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)

Static synchronous compensator, popularly known as STATCOM is a shunt connected reactive power
compensation device used on alternating current electricity transmission network. It is capable of generating and
or absorbing reactive power and its output can be varied to control certain power parameters. It is a power
electronic based voltage source converter (VSC) that can act as either a source or a sink of reactive power in an
a.c power system.

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Figure 1. Basic Configuration of a STATCOM

STATCOM is a member of FACTS devices used for voltage profile improvement. It makes use of VSC to inject
a compensation current of variable magnitude and frequency into the system at the bus PCC. It is thus a three
phase VSC with capacitance on its d.c link. STATCOM is thus a solid-state switching converter capable of
generating or absorbing independently controllable real and reactive power at its output when it is fed from an
energy source or energy storage device as its input terminal. The d.c voltage can be provided by a battery or an
energy-storage capacitor. The output of a STATCOM is a set of three phase voltage, each in phase and coupled
to the corresponding a.c system voltage through a small reactance. The reactance can be provided by a leakage
inductance of the coupling transformer or by an interface reactor. STATCOM is a very fast acting device that is
analogous to an ideal synchronous machine, which generates a balanced set of three sinusoidal voltages at the
fundamental frequency, with controllable amplitude and phase angle. It is based on VSC topology that utilizes
either Gate-Turn-off Thyristor (GTO), or Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) devices. Thus, a STATCOM
is a VSC that converts a d.c input voltage into an a.c output voltage for active and reactive power compensation
(Kamarposhti & Alinezhad 2010).
In general, STATCOM can be operated to perform the following objectives:
• Voltage regulation
• Power factor correction
• Load balancing
• Harmonic compensation

3. Components of a STATCOM
STATCOM is basically comprised of four major components, namely
• Voltage source converter (VSC)
• Coupling transformer
• Controller
• DC energy storage

Figure 2. Basic Components of a STATCOM

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3.1 Voltage Source Converter (VSC)

VSC is a power electronic device capable of generating a sinusoidal voltage of desired frequency, magnitude and
phase angle. It converts the d.c voltage across the storage device into a set of three phase a.c output voltages
(Sivakoti et al 2013). The voltages are in phase and coupled with the a.c system through the reactance of the
coupling transformer. The function of VSC as an integral part of STATCOM is to contribute in mitigating power
quality disturbances either by completely replacing the voltage or by injecting the missing voltage. The missing
voltage in this case is the difference between nominal and actual voltage. The VSC is usually based on some
kind of energy storage that will supply the d.c voltage. The desired voltage can then be obtained by switching the
solid state electronic devices in the converter circuit.

Figure 3. A three phase Voltage Source Converter

3.2 Coupling Transformer

Coupling Transformer is required to step down the system voltage to match that of the utility grid. A coupling
reactor is usually incorporated in order to filter out the current harmonic components that are generated by
pulsating output voltage of the VSC. The AC voltage difference across the leakage reactance produces reactive
power exchange between the STATCOM and the power system, in such a way that the AC voltage at the bus bar
can be regulated to improve the voltage profile of the power system, which is the primary duty of the
STATCOM. Alternatively, a secondary damping function can be added into the STATCOM to enhance power
system oscillation stability.

3.3 Controller
The controller performs feedback control and outputs a set of switching signals to drive the main semiconductor
switches of the power converter. It generates switching signal for the STATCOM to enable the STATCOM
injects a reactive current into the grid to behave as an over-excited synchronous generator (or capacitor) thereby
supporting the grid voltage or absorbs reactive current and behave like an under-excited synchronous generator
(or inductor) and tends to decrease the grid voltage. The STATCOM compensator is varied according to the
control strategy (Tajavoth et al 2013).
The main function of the controller is to maintain the voltage magnitude constant at the point where sensitive
load is connected, under system disturbances. It does this by measuring and comparing the r.m.s voltage at the
load point with the reference voltage. The difference between the two values is the error signal which serves as
input to the controller. The output is the power angle δ which is provided to the PWM signal generator. Thus, the
processed error signal generates the required power angle, δ, that will drive the error to zero, thereby restoring
the r.m.s value of the load voltage to the reference voltage value.

Figure 4. Block Diagram of a STATCOM Controller

3.4 DC Energy Source

The d.c voltage source can be provided by a capacitor connected on the d.c side of the VSC or by a battery
energy storage system (BESS). The dc energy source is connected in parallel with the d.c capacitor. It carries the
input ripple current of the converter. The capacitor can be charged by the VSC or by BESS. The function of the
BESS is to support the real power source under power fluctuating condition. Thus, in order to achieve the
required voltage regulation, the BESS is connected in parallel to the d.c capacitor of the STATCOM thereby
making it as energy storage element. The BESS will then inject or absorbs the reactive power required to
stabilize the grid system while maintaining the d.c capacitor voltage constant. In other words, it charges and
discharges to improve the voltage profile. Thus, the d.c energy storage is responsible for supplying and
absorbing the real power that is being exchanged by the transmission system at its d.c terminals (Malarvizhi &

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Baskaran 2010).

Figure 5. DC Energy Source

4. STATCOM Topology for Voltage Profile Improvement

STATCOM generates a set of balanced three phase sinusoidal voltages at the fundamental frequency, with
rapidly controllable amplitude and phase angle (Appala-Naranya et al 2013). In other words, the VSC in the
STATCOM generates a controllable AC voltage source behind the leakage reactance. This voltage is compared
with the AC bus voltage of the system; if the voltage magnitudes are equal, the reactive power exchange is zero.
If the VSC voltage magnitude is higher than that of the AC bus voltage magnitude, the AC system sees the
STATCOM as a capacitance connected to its terminals. Conversely if the VSC voltage magnitude is lower than
that of the AC bus, the A.C system sees the STATCOM as an inductance connected to its terminals (Usha &
Kumar 2013).
Consider the following Figure:

Figure 6. Single line diagrem of a STATCOM

Where
E = System voltage (Line voltage of the transmission line)
V = Voltage generated by the VSC
X = Equivalent reactance of the coupling transformer
δ = Phase angle of E with respect to V
P = Active power dissipated in the system
Q = Reactive power generated or absorbed by the STATCOM

The active power, P and reactive power, Q, can be expressed in terms of the system voltage, converter voltage
and the reactance of the coupling transformer (Nazrul-Islam & Kazushige 2013):

δ (1)
δ (2)

While the phase angle, δ is given as:

δ (3)
The STATCOM based current controlled VSC injects compensation current into the grid thereby making the
source current harmonic free with a corresponding shift in the phase angle with respect to the source voltage to a
desired value. The injected current will then cancel out the reactive and harmonic parts of the load and induction
generator current, thereby improving the voltage profile. Thus, the impedance of the shunt controller, which is
connected to the line voltage, causes a variable current flow, and hence, represents an injection of current into
the line. If the STATCOM has a DC source such as BESS or an energy storage device like capacitor on its DC
side, it can supply real power to the power system. This can be achieved by adjusting two parameters, namely;
the phase angle of the STATCOM terminals (or VSC) and the phase angle of the AC power system. If the phase
angle of the AC power system lags that of the VSC, the STATCOM supplies real power to the AC system.
Conversely, if the phase angle of the AC power system leads the VSC phase angle, the STATCOM absorbs real

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power from the AC system. The main function of the BESS is to serve as an energy storage element purposely
for voltage regulation and to keep the d.c capacitor voltage constant.
The STATCOM can be operated in two modes of operation as under
• In voltage regulation mode (the STATCOM voltage is maintained within specified limits)
• In VAR control mode (the STATCOM reactive power , Q is maintained at a fixed value)
In voltage regulation mode, the STATCOM implements the following V-I characteristic:

Figure 7: V-I Characteristics of a STATCOM in Voltage Regulation Mode

The voltage is said to be regulated at the reference value,Vref, provided the compensation current, I stays within
the minimum and minimum current values (-Imax, Imax) imposed by the converter rating. However, in order to
extend the linear operating range of the STATCOM, a voltage droop is normally used (usually between 1% and
4% at maximum reactive power output), and the V-I characteristic has the slope depicted in Figure 10. In the
voltage regulation mode, the V-I characteristic is described by the following equation:
+ (4)
Where = Positive sequence voltage (pu)
= Compensation current (pu/Pc)
= Slope or droop reactance
Pc = Three phase power of the converter

STATCOM has no moving parts; hence, it generates or absorbs reactive power at a faster rate than other FACTS
devices. It is capable of generating as well as absorbing reactive power thereby regulating the voltage profile of
the bus to which it is connected.

5. Simulation Results and Discussion

The entire system is simulated in Simpower Simulink of MATLAB environment. It consists of a 100MVA
STATCOM located at the centre of a nominal medium transmission line. The control parameters of the
STATCOM were first set to voltage regulation mode without any droop. The system reference voltage (i.e the
p.u voltage used by the regulator) was initially set to 1p.u and decreased to 0.98pu at t = 0.3s. It is further
increased to 1.02pu at t = 0.6s and finally brought back to 1p.u at t = 0.9s.

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Figure 8: Simulink Diagram of a STATCOM for Voltage Regulation

5.1 Null Droop Condition
It can be seen from Figure 9a that under null droop condition, the STATCOM measured voltage, Vm follows the
reference value, Vref. This implies that STATCOM is a very good voltage regulator. Figure 9b shows the
reactive power absorbed/generated by the STATCOM, Qm together with the reference one, Qref. Positive value
of Qm represents the reactive power absorbed by the STATCOM while negative value indicates the reactive
power generated. The two Figures certify that the STATCOM absorbs reactive power when the A.C system
voltage rises and generates reactive power when the A.C system voltage falls.
Measured Voltage, Vm with Reference Voltage, Vref
1.025
Vm
1.02 Vref

1.015

1.01
Vm(p.u), Vref(p.u)

1.005

0.995

0.99

0.985

0.98
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Time(s)

Figure 9a. STATCOM Measured and Reference Voltage under Null Droop Condition
Reactive Power Generated/Absorbed, Qm with Reference Value, Qref
0.5
Qm
0.4 Qref

0.3

0.2
f(p.u)

0.1
.u), Qre

0
m(p

-0.1
Q

-0.2

-0.3

-0.4

-0.5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Time(s)

Figure. 9b. Reactive Power Absorbed/Generated by the STATCOM with Reference Value under Null Droop
Condition

5.2 Droop Condition

Figure 10a shows the STATCOM measured and reference voltage (Vm and Vref) under droop condition.

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Specifically, a droop of 2% was set. The corresponding reactive power, Qm absorbed/generated by the
STATCOM is shown in Figure 10b. It can be seen from Figure 10a that, because of the droop, the STATCOM
measured voltage, Vm does not follow the reference value, Vref perfectly.
Measured Voltage, Vm with Reference Voltage, Vref
1.025
Vm
1.02 Vref

1.015

1.01
Vm(p.u), Vref(p.u)

1.005

0.995

0.99

0.985

0.98
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Time(s)

Figure 10a. STATCOM Measured and Reference Voltage under Droop Condition
Reactive Power Generated/Absorbed, Qm with Reference Value, Qref
0.4
Qm
0.3 Qref

0.2
Qm(p.u), Qref(p.u)

0.1

-0.1

-0.2

-0.3

-0.4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Time(s)

Figure 10b. Reactive Power Absorbed/Generated by the STATCOM with Reference Value under Droop
Condition

5.3 During Fault Condition

Figure 11 shows the measured voltage and the reactive power generated by the STATCOM when a remote fault
is applied. It can be seen from the Figure that the STATCOM generates reactive power in order to provide
voltage support to the system during the fault period.
Measured Voltage, Vm and Reactive Power Generated by the STATCOM, Qm
1.5
Vm
Qm
1

0.5
Vm(p.u), Qm(p.u)

-0.5

-1

-1.5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Time(s)

Figure 11. Measured Voltage and Reactive Power Generated by the STATCOM

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5. Conclusion
The paper has presented a technological review of STATCOM for voltage profile improvement. Its basic
structure, configuration, component parts and topology were also presented. Simulation results reveal that
STATCOM is an excellent voltage regulator especially when operated without droop. It can provide both
capacitive and inductive compensation. It has the capability of controlling output current over the rated
maximum capacitive or inductive range independent of the a.c system voltage and it has increased transient
rating in both capacitive and inductive operating regions as well as maintaining full compensating current at
depressed line voltage.

References
Krishna, A.R, & Reddy, K.R (2013), “Power Quality Problems and its Improvement Using FACTS Devices”,
Int. Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology”, Vol.4, Issue 5, May 2013, pp 1462 – 1466
Srinivas, D., & Reddy, M.R.S. (2011), “Power Quality Improvement in Grid Connected Wind Energy Systems
Using FACTS Devices and PID Controller”, IOSR Journal of Engineering, Vol.2, Issue 11, November
2011, pp 19-26
Kumbha, V., & Sumanthi, N. (2012) “Power Quality Improvement of Distribution Lines Using DSTATCOM
Under Various Loading Conditions”, Int. Journal of Modern Engineering Research, Vol.2, Issue 5,
September – October 2012, pp 3451 – 3457
Earnest, J., & Wizelius, T. (2011) “Wind Power Plants and Project Development”, PHI Learning Private
Limited, New Delhi,
Hiren, P., Krishna, V., & Roy, R. (2010) “Shunt Compensation for Power Quality Improvement Using a
STATCOM Controller”, ACEEE Int. Journal on Electrical and Power Engineering, Vol.1, Issue 2, July
2010, pp. 40-44
Mohod, S.W., & Aware, M.V. (2011) “Power Quality Issues and its Improvement in Wind Energy Generation
Interface to Grid System”, MIT Int. Journal of Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering, Vol.1, No.-
2, August 2011, pp 116-122
Omar, R., & Abd Rahim, N., (2008) “Modeling and Simulation for Voltage Sags/Swells Mitigation Using
Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR)”, Australasian Universities Power Engineering Conference, pp 1- 8
Kanaujia, M.K., & Srivastava, S.K. (2013) “Power Quality Enhancement with D-STATCOM Under Different
Fault Conditions”, Int. Journal of Engineering Research and Applications”, Vol.3, Issue 2, March –
April 2013, pp. 823 – 833
Das, S.K., & Moharana, J.K. (2012) “Design and Simulation of Small Signal Model of a STATCOM for
Reactive Power Compensation on Variation of D.C Link Voltage”, Int. Journal of Engineering and
Innovative Technology, Vol.2, Issue 5, November 2012, pp. 134 – 140
Khadem, S.K., Basu, M., & Conlon, M.F. (2010) “Power Quality in Grid Connected Energy System: Role of
Custom Power Devices”, International Conference on Renewable Energies and Power Quality”, March
2010.
Mohanty, A.K., & Barik, A.K. (2014)“Power System Stability Improvement Using FACTS Devices”, Int.
Journal of Modern Engineering Research, Vol.1, Issue 2, pp. 666 – 672
Kamarposhti, M.A., & Alinezhad, M., (2010) “Comparison of SVC and STATCOM in Static Voltage Stability
Margin Enhancement”, Int. Journal of Electronics Engineering, Vol.4, Issue 5, pp. 323 – 328
Sivakoti, K.K., Kumar, Y.N., & Archana, D. (2013) “Power Quality Improvement in Distribution System Using
D-STATCOM in Transmission Lines”, Int. Journal of Engineering Research and Application, Vol.1,
Issue 3, pp. 748 – 752
Tajavoth, C., Trishulapani, M., Mohan-Rao, V.K.R., & Yambabu, Y. (2013) “Power Quality Improvement for
Grid Connected Wind Energy System Using STATCOM Control Scheme”, IOSR Journal of
Engineering, Vol.3, Issue 7, July 2013, pp. 51 – 57
Malarvizhi, K., & Baskaran, K. (2010) “Enhancement of Voltage Stability in Fixed Speed Wind Energy
Conversion System Using FACTS Controllers”, Int. Journal of Engineering Science and Technology,
Vol.2, Issue 6, pp. 1800 – 1810
Appala-Narayana, C.H., Annanth, D.V.N, Syam-Prasad, K.D, Saibabu, C.H, Saikiran, S., & Papi-Naidun, T.
(2013) “Application of STSTCOM for Transient Stability Improvement and Performance
Enhancement for a Wind Turbine Based Induction Generator”, International Journal of Soft
Computing and Engineering, Vol.2, Issue 6, January 2013, pp. 158 – 163
Usha, N. & Kumar, M.V (2013) “Enhancement of Power Quality in Thirty Bus System Using ZSI Based
STATCOM”, Int. Journal of Modern Engineering Research, Vol.3, Issue 2, March – April 2013, pp.
773 – 778
Nazrul-Islam, M. & Kazushige, Y. (2013) “Design and Simulation of STATCOM to Improve Power Quality”,
Int. Journal of Innovation and Applied Sciences, Vol.3, No-3, July 2013, pp 871 – 878

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Design of a 4-Junction Road Intersection Intelligent Traffic

Controller System in Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria
Abe Omoloye E1, Adu Michael K2*
1, Department of Civil Engineering, Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
2, Department of Computer Science, Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria

Abstract
Most roads in Nigeria cities are usually congested, some throughout the day, others during rush hours. Larger
part of this problem is as a result of congestion at road-intersections. However, traffic-light systems have long
been invented to control this problem. Most of these traffic light control systems are imported thereby making
them expensive to acquire and adapted to the local circumstances that most time depend on the attitude and the
way of life of the people. Traditional traffic light control systems are designed to function at only a particular
type of traffic intersection. For example, a control system that was designed for a cross-junction may not serve at
T-junction.This paper presents a design with a microcontroller-based traffic light control system that has the
ability to control any type of 4-junction and cross traffic intersections based on traffic density, in an attempt at
curbing traffic offences. It is indigenous as well as versatile in its control functions and has the effect of
drastically reducing the design cost.
Keywords: Congestion, Road-intersection, Traffic-light, Cross-Junction, T-Junction, Microcontroller

1 Introduction
In Nigeria today, most especially in the city of Ado-Ekiti, the capital of Ekiti State, many cases of road crashes
and fatal accidents are recorded on daily basis. These are as a result of increase in vehicular movements
accompany with traffic congestions most especially at the junctions where vehicles from different directions
struggle for space to access next route within a very short time. However, the tendency to outsmart the incoming
vehicles in opposite or adjacent routes often result into road crashes, accidents, gridlocks and loss of productive
hours (Tzafestas, A. et al., 2000). The infrastructure only provides limited resources which cannot handle the
current traffic problems. This has called for urgent attentions for a more efficient techniques to solving traffic
problems. There is a need for an improved strategy with greataccuracy to providing lasting solution to the traffic
problem. This paper aims at designing a 4-junction intelligent and cross- traffic light control system which can
be deployed at road intersections for traffic control with the overall objectives which include the study ofthe
traffic control, design, possible implementation of the 4-junctioin road intersection intelligent traffic controller
and subsequent evaluation of the functionality.This intelligent traffic light control system is intended to control a
wide range of 4-junction and cross-road intersections such as automobile/automobile cross-junction and
automobile/pedestrian cross-junction.Conventional methods for traffic signal controls have failed to deal
efficiently with the complex and varying traffic situations. They are based on the pre-set cycle time to change the
signal status without any analysis of traffic situation. Due to the fixed cycle time, such systems do not consider
which intersection has more load of traffic, so should keep green light on or should terminate earlier rather than
complete cycle time. In case of intersections, conventional control systems only consider waiting time of signals
on different directions but not the vehicle directions.In this paper, the micro-coded ROM-based method is used.
This enabled us to develop instruction codes (program) using a Top-Down design approach to determine the
functionality of the entire system embedded in a microprocessor device. This design method provides us with a
lot of flexibilities which enables us to incorporate control for many types of traffic intersections as well as give
enough room for further modifications. More sub-programs can be developed to represent more tasks that may
be added to the system at any time.

2 Background Information
Traffic lights, which may also be known as stoplights, traffic lamps, traffic signals, stop-and-go lights, are
signalling devices positioned at road intersections, pedestrian crossings and other locations to control competing
flows of traffic. Traffic lights have been installed in most cities around the world. They assign the right of way to
road users by the use of lights in standard colours (Red-Amber-Green), using a universal colour code (and a
precise sequence, for those who are colour blind) (Ram, B. 2008).The most common traffic lights consist of a set
of three lights: red, amber, and green. When illuminated, the red light indicates for vehicles facing the light to
stop, the amber indicates caution, either because lights are about to turn green or because lights are about to turn
red and the green light is to proceed

3 Traffic Light Technologies

There are several technologies associated with traffic light control systems. They are of two perspectives: Optics

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and Lighting, and the control module technologies.

3.1 Optics and Lightning
3.1.1 Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
In the mid1990s, cost-effective traffic light lamps using light-emitting diodes (LEDs) were developed; prior to
this traffic lights were designed using incandescent or halogen light bulbs. Unlike the incandescent-based lamps,
which used a single large bulb, the LED-based lamps consist of an array of LED elements, arranged in various
patterns. When viewed from a distance, the array appears as a continuous light source.LED-based lamps have
numerous advantages over incandescent lamps, among them are, much greater energy efficiency, much longer
lifetime between replacements, measured in years rather than months. Part of the longer lifetime is due to the
fact that some light is still displayed even if some of the LEDs in the array are dead, brighter illumination and
less ‘phantom light’ resulting from reflection of direct sunlight, the ability to display multiple patterns from the
same lamp.Individual LED elements can be enabled or disabled, much faster switching, instead of sudden burn-
out like incandescent-based lights, LEDs start to gradually dim when they wear out, warning transportation
maintenance departments well in advance as when to change the light.
3.1.2 Programmable Visibility Signals
Signals such as the 3M High Visibility Signal and McCain “Programmable Visibility” signal, utilize light
diffusing optics and a powerful Fresnel lens to create the signal indication. Lit via a powerful 150W PAR46
sealed-beam lamp, the light from the lamp in these “programmable visibility” signals passes through a set of two
glass lenses at the back of the signal. The first lens, a frosted glass diffusing lens, diffuses the light into a
uniform ball of light around five inches in diameter. The light then passes through a nearly identical lens known
as an optical limiter (3M’s definition of the lens itself), also known as a “programming lens”, five inches in
diameter as well.
3.1.3 Conventional Lighting Systems
Conventional traffic signal lighting, still common in some areas, utilizes a standard light bulb. Typically, a 67
watt, 69 watt, or 115 watt medium base light bulb provides the illuminationlight then bounces off a mirrored
glass or polished aluminium reflector bowl, and out through a polycarbonate plastic or glass signal lens (Zvonko,
S. B.2005). In some signals, these lenses were cut to include a specific refracting pattern.

3.2 Control Module

There are several technologies that can be used to process Boolean algebra which is the brain behind the control
logic which now in turn controls the sequencing operation of the lighting system. These are as follows:
3.2.1 Standard-Cell
Numerous chips are available that realize some commonly used logic circuits. They usually conform to an
agreed-upon standard in terms of functionality and physical configuration (Albagul. A, et al, 2006). Each
standard chip contains a small amount of circuitry (usually involving fewer than 100 transistors) and performs a
simple function. To build a logic circuit, the designer chooses the chips that perform whatever functions are
needed and then defines how these chips should be interconnected to realize a larger logic circuit.
3.2.2 Programmable Logic Devices.
In contrast to standard chips that have fixed functionality, it is possible to construct chips that contain circuitry
that can be configured by the user to implement a wide range of different logic circuits. These chips have a very
general structure and include a collection of programmable switches that allow the internal circuitry in the chip
to be configured in many different ways. The designer can implement whatever functions needed for a particular
application by choosing an appropriate configuration of the switches. The switches are programmed by the end
user, rather than when the chip is manufactured. Such chips are known as programmable logic devices (PLDs).
3.2.3 Micro-Code ROM-Based Devices
Another set of devices in use are the micro-instruction coded ROM-based microprocessor devices. The
microprocessor is a digital integrated circuit that can be programmed with a series of instructions to perform
various operations on data. A microprocessor serves as the central processing unit (CPU) of many devices such
as the computer (Watkinson, J. 2002). It can do arithmetic operations, move data from one place to another, and
make decisions based on certain conditions. The microprocessor and its derivatives are highly used in embedded
systems. Basically, a microprocessor consists of an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), instruction decoder, a register
array, and a control unit (Sun,W., et al 2000).

4. Limitations of Existing Traffic Light Control System

Most of the existing traffic light control systems are faced with several limitations such asflexibility issue due to
their hardware nature which cannot be changed as desired when such need arises to meet with traffic trend
demand (Marcovitz, A. B.2002), high cost because they are imported and thus attract some duty, most of traffic
light control systems are junction specific, there are no traffic light trainers available to handle them.At present
in the city of Ado-Ekiti, the traffic situation with the present control system is quite worrisome and unbearable.

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The following data were collected to corroborate our observations and findings.

5. Materials and Methods

People were employed for the purpose of data collection. Each person was stationed at each arm of the two
major intersections in Ado-Ekiti. The following data were collected for the two intersections:
i. The number of vehicles entering the intersections every hour, from each approach, for a period of
12 hours.
ii. The number of vehicle entering the intersections every 5 minutes, from each approach, for the peak
period in the morning and in the afternoon and the average thus found.
iii. Vehicle volumes for each traffic movement from each approach, classified by vehicle type i.e.
motorcycles, light trucks, medium trucks and heavy trucks during traffic movement at the
intersections.

5.1 Traffic volume data analysis

The hour count from 7.00am to 7.00pm was collected and analysed. The analysis is shown below.
Time (hours) Traffic Volume (PCU)
7-8am 3000
8-9am 2800
9-10am 2600
10-11am 2600
11-12noon 2500
12-1pm 2500
1pm-2pm 2200
2-3pm 2500
3-4pm 2800
4-5pm 2200
5-6pm 2500
6-7pm 2400
Table 1: 12-hours traffic volume at Ejigbo/Federal Poly intersection

Traffic Volume (PCU)

3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0

Time (hours)
Figure 1: 12-hours traffic volume at Ejigbo/Federal Poly intersection

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Time(hours) traffic volume (pcu)

7-8am 3000
8-9am 2900
9-10am 2600
10-11am 2000
11-12noon 2600
12-1pm 2600
1pm-2pm 2700
2-3pm 2400
3-4pm 2400
4-5pm 2600
5-6pm 2200
6-7pm 2600
Table 2: 12-hours traffic volume at Bashiri/Adebayo/Fajuyi Roundabout Intersection

Traffic Volume (PCU)

3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0

Time (hours)
Figure 2: 12-hours traffic volume at Bashiri/Adebayo/Fajuyi Roundabout Intersection

5.2 Average Daily Traffic (ADT) of the Intersections

The average daily traffic is the number of vehicles that pass a particular point on a roadway during a period of
24hours consecutive hours average over a period of 356 days. The volume collected for 12 hours (V12) in
Passenger Car Unit (PCU)is made use as shownin table 3.
Ijigbo/Federal Poly Road Intersection Bshiri/Adebayo/Fajuyi Intersection

V12=29,545 V12=30,943
But V12=80% ADT But V12=80% ADT
The average volume for 24 The average volume for 24
hours is thus hours is thus
V24=ADT=V12/0.8=29,545/0.8 V24=ADT=V12/0.8=30,943/0.8
ADT=36,931 vehicle/day ADT=38,678 vehicle/day
Table 3: Table shows the average daily traffic (ADT) of the intersection

5.3 Results and Discussions

From the analysis above, the two major intersections operates at a low level of control. Therefore a better control
scheme is necessary for better performance.

6 The Design of 4-Junction Road Intersection Intelligent Traffic Controller

The design of the Intelligent Traffic Light Control System will enable the following;
- It can be configured to serve at the following types of traffic intersection, 4-junction with left turn,
automobile pedestrian crossing, 4-Junction with LED display and 4-junction with lamps (when interfaced). Just
by selecting the right control input, the control system is meant to behave as a control for the selected road

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intersection (Dan, E., et al 2003).

- This control system/training kit can serve as training equipment for all types of road users. It can be
used in schools, driving schools and even at home to educate road users on traffic behaviour and rules governing
traffic flow at road intersections and pedestrian crossings.
- It is meant to replace the imported traffic light heads, this being indigenous.The traffic control will have
advanced technology, ranging from auto-sensing and control to dynamic time slot allotment. Traditionally,
traffic light timings are fixed in nature. This can cause a lot of time waste and delay making some busy lanes
wait almost indefinitely while the less busy lanes enjoy free flow since all lanes are assigned equal time intervals
both for wait-and-go phases (Tanenbaum, A.S. 2006).

INPUT CONTROL OUTPUT

SUBSYSTEM SUBSYSTEM SUBSYTEM

CONTROL
ALGORITHM
(IN MEMORY)

Figure 3: Block Diagram Overview

As indicated in Figure 3 above, the input subsystem comprises a switch panel that passes input signals to the
control system which in turn invokes control algorithm from the system’s memory for its control operations.The
input signal is used to configure the system to behave as a particular type of traffic junction controller. The user
can select one out of the four types of junction controls at the time of configuration prior to installation of the
panel. When used as a trainer, selection is also made in a similar manner.The timing signals are used to control
the sequencing of light. The light change cycles through GREEN, AMBER and RED in response to the timing
requirements of the system.

6.1 Timing Requirements of the System

The period of time in which only green LED is on and other LEDs are off on a traffic light head is T1 = 100
seconds. This applies for red only on time.The amber-green as well as amber-red on period is T2 = 20 seconds.
At this time, the red LEDs to mean stop is also on for the lanes without the right of way.The pedestal ‘go’ time is
T3 = 80 seconds. We see that the ‘go’ and ‘stop’ exclusive period is 20s while the ‘getready-to-go’ and ‘get-
ready-to-stop’ time is 19 seconds. At the pedestrian ‘go’ time all the lanes show red LEDs on.

6.2 Flexibility Factor

The system will be flexible in that it can be modified to accommodate new functions. To make this possible, a
reprogrammable microcontroller is used. Programs will be modularized so that more modules can be added
when more functionality is required. An unwanted function can be removed from the system by simply removing
the program module responsible for it.

6.3 The Software Subsystem

The various road junctions to be controlled in this work are software driven and thus require a software program
to be written and embedded in the system’s memory. The language of choice for this problem is Assembly
language. The approach adopted is a modular structure in which different types of junction controls are designed
as small program modules which now combine into a fairly complex program.

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Figure. 4 Software control modules

Figure 5 Cross-junction traffic flow with no left turn

6.4 Software Subsystem Implementation

The entire software driving the traffic light control system is Assembly language coding. The source code was
developed in an integrated development environment (IDE) and compiled using an Assembler to generate Intel
Hex file.

Figure 6 Log In And Log Out Interface

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Figure 7: This Display the Features Present Inside The Software

Figure 8: Map of Fajuyi Pack

Figure 9: Traffic Offence Report View

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Figure 10: Traffic Offence Report When Login

Figure 11: A View of The Data Saved

Figure 12: Vehicle Traffic Control Systems

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7 Conclusion
This control system can be deployed to any road junction for traffic controls.Like every research and practical
work, diverse kinds of problems are often encountered. The problems encountered in this work and how they
were solved and manoeuvred were quite challenging. Based on our analysis of the present traffic control system,
the following assumption became necessary in order to develop a feasible system, the system will only work for
four-way junction with traffic coming from the four cardinal directions with left turn and traffic only move in
one direction at a time.In the course of developing this prototype, the real challenging problems encountered
were the analysis of road junctions and the design of control algorithm. However these problems were combated
by careful analysis and design having in mind some factors such as traffic application design, availability of
component and research material, efficiency, compatibility, portability, and also durability.Apart from using the
system as an intersection controller, it could be adopted to traffic volume measurement, using the same basic
design, it can also be expanded for the traffic control of wide area network (WAN) for the traffic control of any
number of intersection and approaches. These offer the feature of centrally controlling the traffic movement
within the city, this prototype can be adopted for real life usage by using state switching devices such as relay,
silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) to actuate the traffic lights.

Reference
Albagul. A, et al, (2006), Developing of Sensor-Based Traffic Light System, American Journal of Applied
Sciences 3(3):pp1745-1749.
Dan, E., et al (2003), Designing Embedded Internet Devices, 2nd Edition, Newness
Marcovitz, A. B.(2002), Introduction to Logic Design, 1st Edition, McGraw Hill, USA
Ram, B. (2008), Fundamentals of Microprocessor and Microcomputers, 6th Edition, Dhanpat Rai
Tanenbaum, A.S. (2006), Structured Computer organization,Prentice-Hall, New Delhi
Tzafestas, A. et al., (2000), Advances in Intelligent AutonomousSystems, Microprocessor based and Intelligence
Engineering,Kulwer Academic Publishers
Sun,W., et al (2000), Network-Wide Traffic ResponsiveSignal Control in Urban Environments. Proceedings of
the 4th International Conference, Computational Intelligence and Neurosciences, Atlantic City New
Jersey.
Watkinson, J. (2002), An Introduction to Digital Audio, 2nd Edition,Focal Press, Woburn, MA 01801-2041
Zvonko, S. B.(2005), Fundamentals of Digital Logic with VHDL, 2nd Edition, McGraw Hill

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