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Faculty of Chemical Engineering

Universiti Teknologi MARA

Fires and Explosions:

Part II

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CGE653
Acknowledgement to Dr Syed Shatir A. Syed-Hassan

Explosion
• Explosion is a sudden and violent release of energy.
• The violence of the explosions depends on the rate at
which energy is released.
• The energy release must be sudden enough to cause a
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local accumulation of energy at the site of location.

• This energy is dissipated by a variety of mechanisms,
including formation of pressure wave, projectiles,
thermal radiation, and acoustic energy.
• The damage from an explosion is caused by the
dissipating energy.

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Explosion
• If the explosion occurs in a gas, the energy causes the
gas to expand rapidly, initiating a pressure wave that
moves rapidly outward from the blast source.

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• The pressure wave contains energy, which results in
damage to the surroundings.

Explosion
• To understand explosion impacts, we must understand
the dynamics of the pressure wave.
• A pressure wave propagating in air is called a blast
wave because the pressure wave is followed by a
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strong wind.
• A shock wave or shock front results if the pressure
front has an abrupt pressure change.
• The maximum pressure over ambient pressure is
called the peak overpressure.

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 Shockwave

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 Injury
Injury

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Parameters Affecting the

Behaviour of Explosions
• Ambient temperature
• Ambient pressure
• Composition of explosive material
Physical properties of explosive material

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•
• Nature of ignition source: type, energy and duration
• Geometry of surroundings: confined and unconfined
• Amount of combustible material
• Turbulence of combustible material
• Time before ignition
• Rate at which combustible material is released

Detonation and Deflagration

• The explosions from combustion are of two kinds:
 Detonation
 Deflagration
• A deflagration is a very fast moving and hot fire that
moves as heated materials ignite cold ones.
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• A detonation is an even faster-moving fire that can also

create a shock wave
• Detonation: Reaction front propagates above the sonic
velocity.
• Deflagration: Reaction propagates at a speed less than the
sonic velocity.
• A detonation generates greater pressures and is more
destructive than a deflagration.

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 Detonation and Deflagration
Detonation and Deflagration

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Detonation and Deflagration

DETONATION

VAPOR CLOUD DEFLAGRATION

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OVERPRESSURE

TIME

Blast Damage from

Overpressure
• The explosions (either detonation or deflagration)
results in a reaction front moving outward from the
ignition source preceded by a shock wave or pressure
front.
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• After the combustible material is consumed, the

reaction front terminates, but the pressure wave
continues its outward movement.
• A blast wave is composed of the pressure wave and
subsequent wind.
• It is the blast wave that causes most of the damage.

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 Overpressure
Overpressure

Blast Damage from

Blast Damage from

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Some damage approximations

based on overpressure

psig kpa Damage

0.15 1.03 Glass breakage

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0.4 2.76 Limited minor structural damage
0.7 4.8 Minor damage to house structure
2 13.8 Partial collapse of walls and roofs of houses
5-7 34.5-48.2 Nearly complete destruction of houses

Estimation of overpressure
• Experiments with explosive have demonstrated that
the overpressure can be estimated using an
equivalent mass of TNT (mTNT) and the distance from
the ground-zero point of the explosion (r).
• The empirically derived scaling law is:
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r
ze  …………………………………(1.1)
mTNT
1/ 3

Where ze is the scaled distance (m kg-1/3)

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You can get scaled overpressure,

(Ps) if you know ze

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Estimation of overpressure
Po
Ps  …………………………………(1.2)
Pa
Where
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Ps  scaled overpressu re

Po  peak side - on overpressure

Pa  ambient pressure

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You can also use this equation

  z 2 
1616 1   e  
  4.5  

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Po
 …(1.3)
Pa  z 
2
 z 
2
 z 
2
1  e  1  e  1  e 
 0.048   0.32   1.35 

Example
Question
One kg of TNT is exploded. Compute the overpressure
at a distance of 30 meter from the explosion

Solution
r
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ze 
mTNT
1/ 3

30 m
ze   30 m kg-1/3
1.0 kg1/ 3

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You can get scaled overpressure,

(Ps) if you know ze

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Example

From the figure, scaled overpressure is 0.055

Po
0.055 
101.3 kPa
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Po  0.055  101.3
Po  5.6 kPa or 0.81 psi

This overpressure will cause minor damage to house

structure (slide no. 15)

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Using Probit to estimate

the impact of explosion

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Probit equation

Y  k1  k 2 lnV
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Where:
Y = Probit Variable
k1 and k2 = constants
V = Causitive Variable

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Example
A blast produces a peak overpressure of 47,000 N/m2.

a) What fraction of structures will be damaged by

exposure to this overpressure?
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b) What fraction of people exposed will die as a result

of lung hemorrhage?
c) What fraction will have eardrums ruptured?
d) What conclusions about the effects of this blast can
be drawn?

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Solution
Probit Equation
Y  k1  k 2 lnV
Structural damage:
Y  23.8  2.92 lnPo

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Death from lung hemorrhage:
Y  77.1  6.91 lnPo
Eardrum ruptures:
Y  15.6  1.93 lnPo

Solution

For Po  47,000 N/m 2

Structural damage:
Y  7.61
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Death from lung hemorrhage:

Y  2.76
Eardrum ruptures:
Y  5.163

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Percent Affected
From probit-percentage conversion table
Percent Affected (%)

Structural Damage 99.6

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Death (Lung Hem) 0 (Y is negative)

Eardrum ruptures 56

The blast is not serious enough to expect fatalities,

but serious enough to cause extensive damage to
surrounding structures and to rupture eardrums of
more than half of the people exposed.

Vapour Cloud Explosions

• The most dangerous and destructive explosions in the
process industries.
• The explosions occur in a sequence of steps:
 Sudden release of a large quantity of flammable vapour (e.g.
a vessel containing a superheated and pressurised liquid
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ruptures).
 Dispersion of the vapour throughout the plant site while
mixing with air.
 Ignition of the resulting vapour cloud.
• Any process containing quantities of liquefied gases,
volatile superheated liquid, or high-pressure gases is
considered a good candidate for a VCE.

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Vapour Cloud Explosions

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Vapour Cloud Explosions
Example: Flixborough, England (1974)
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http://www.hse.gov.uk/comah/sragtech/caseflixboroug74.htm

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http://www.hse.gov.uk/comah/sragtech/caseflixboroug74.htm

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U V C E
N A L X
C P O P
O O U L
N R D O
F S
I I
N O

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E N
D S

• An overpressure happens when a gas cloud detonates or

deflagrates in open air rather than simply burns.

What Happens to a Vapor Cloud?

• Cloud will spread from too rich, through flammable range to too
lean.

• Edges start to burn through deflagration (steady state

combustion).
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• Cloud will disperse through natural convection.

• Flame velocity will increase with containment and turbulence.

• If velocity is high enough cloud will detonate.

• If cloud is small enough with little confinement it cannot explode.

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What Favors Hi Overpressures?

• Confinement • Large Vapor Clouds
• Prevents escape, increases • Higher probability of
turbulence finding ignition source;
more likely to generate
• Cloud composition overpressure
• Unsaturated molecules –

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‘all ethylene clouds • Source
explode’; low ignition
energies; high flame • Flashing liquids; high
speeds pressures; large, low or
downward facing leaks
• Good weather
• Stable atmospheres, low
wind speeds

Vapour Cloud Explosions

• Some of parameters that affect VCE behaviour:
• The type and quantity of material released and vaporised
• The time span from the onset of the leakage until the ignition
• The configuration of the space where the leakage took place.
• Probability of ignition of the cloud (position & number of ignition
sources)
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• Distance traveled by the cloud before ignition

• Efficiency of explosion
• Studies have shown that:
• Ignition probability increases as the size of vapour cloud increases
• The explosion efficiency is usually small (approx 2%)
• (i)Turbulent mixing of vapour and air and (ii) ignition of the cloud
at a point remote from the release increases the explosion’s
impact.

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TNT Equivalency Method

• According to this method, the power of the vapor
cloud explosion equates to an equivalent mass of TNT
(tri-nitrotoluene) that would produce the same
explosive power.
Mass of Energy of

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hydrocarbon explosion/ Heat
Empirical explosion
of combustion
1
efficiency
m H c
Equivalent
mTNT  MW
mass of TNT
ETNT Molecular
The energy of explosion of the weight of
TNT = 4686 kJ/kg hydrocarbon

TNT Equivalency Method

• The explosion efficiency is one of the major problems
in the equivalency method.
• The method calculates the overpressure of an
explosion without taking into consideration the space
configuration where the explosion takes place (degree
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of confinement/congestion) – an explosion in the

middle of an area full of equipment, or in a closed
space, will exhibit different power from an equivalent
one in an open space.
• The advantage of this method is that it is easy to apply
because the calculations are simple.

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TNT Equivalency Method

• Procedure to estimate the damage associated with an
explosion using the TNT equivalency method:
 Determine the total quantity of flammable material involved
in the explosion.
 Estimate the explosion efficiency, and calculate the

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equivalent mass of TNT .
 Use the scaling law to estimate the peak side-on
overpressure.
 Estimate the damage for common structures and process
equipment.
NOTE: The procedure can be applied in reverse to estimate the
quantity of material involved based on damage estimates.

Example 1
One thousand kilograms of methane escapes from a
storage vessel, mixes with air, and explodes.

a) Determine the equivalent amount of TNT

b) Determine the side-on peak overpressure at a
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distance of 50 m from the blast, and estimate the

possible impact to the structure.

Assume an explosion efficiency of 2%.

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Solution to Example 1
a)
0.02 1000  (1 / 0.016)(802.3)
mTNT   214 kg TNT
ETNT

b) r

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ze   8.4 m/kg1/3
m 1/ 3
TNT

Po From the figure, Ps = 0.25

Ps 
Pa So, Po= 25.3 kPa
This overpressure will demolish steel panel
buildings or ruptures oil storage tanks

TNO Multi-Energy Method

• TNO is the Netherlands Organization for Applied
Scientific Research.
• This method suggests that damaging explosion can
only occur when flame acceleration takes place within
a plant structure – truly unconfined explosions are
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unlikely to occur.
• The basis for this model: the energy of explosion
depends highly on the level of congestion and
depends less on the fuel in the cloud.

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TNO Multi-Energy Method

• Main factors affecting vapour cloud explosions in
chemical plant structures:
• Turbulence effects causing accelerating flame speed as the
flame passes obstacles in a plant structure, eventually giving
explosive overpressure effects.

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• Highly congested plant structures give high overpressures
• Flammable gases with high laminar burning velocity give high
overpressures
• The degree to which leaks of flammable gases fill a structure
– larger the volumes of structure give higher overpressures
• Longer flame path lengths through the structure give higher
overpressures.

TNO Multi-Energy Method

• Procedures :
• Determine the charge combustion energy, E, where E is
determined by multiplying the confined volume occupied by
a vapour cloud with the heat of combustion of a
stoichiometric hydrocarbon-air mixture (3.5 x 106 J/m3).
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• Estimate the blast strength (between 1 – 10).

• Determine the Sachs-scaled distance using the following
equation:
Distance from
the charge (m)
r
R
Sachs-scaled
distance E / Pa 1/ 3
The charge combustion Ambient
energy (J) pressure (Pa)

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TNO Multi-Energy Method

• Procedures :
• The Sachs-scaled blast side-on overpressure is read from the
blast chart.
• The overpressure is given by:

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Po  Ps  Pa

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Example 2
Consider the explosion of a propane-air vapour cloud
confined beneath a storage tank. The tank is supported
1 m off the ground by concrete piles. The concentration
of vapour in the cloud is assumed to be at
stoichiometric concentrations.

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A cloud of 2094 m3 confined below the tank,
representing the volume underneath the tank.
Determine the overpressure from this vapour cloud
explosion at a distance of 100 m from the blast using
the TNO multi-energy method. Assume the blast
strength of 7 for this explosion.

Solution to Example 2

E  (2094 m3 )(3.5  10 6 J/m3 )  7.329  10 9 J

7.329  10 J/101,325 P 
r 100 m
R   2 .4
E / Pa 1/ 3
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9 1/ 3
a

From the blast chart, Ps  0.13

Po  Ps  Pa  0.13 101.3 kPa   13.2 kPa  1.9 psi

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BLEVE
• BLEVE, pronounced /ˈblɛvi/ ("blevvy"), is an acronym
for “Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion".
• It is the result of a liquid within a container reaching a
temperature well above its boiling point at
atmospheric temperature, causing the vessel to

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rupture into two or more pieces.
• A BLEVE can occur when fire impinges on the tank
shell at a point or points above the liquid level of the
contents of the tank.
• This impingement causes the metal to weaken and fail
from the internal pressure.

BLEVE
• BLEVEs can also be caused by an external fire near the
storage vessel causing heating of the contents and
pressure build-up.
• Such explosions can be extremely hazardous.
• BLEVEs can result from mechanical damage to a tank,
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as well.
• This damage can be the result of a train derailment,
traffic accident, or other physical shock.
• When a BLEVE occurs, debris may travel hundreds of
feet, with tremendous force, and the escaping fuel
can ignite causing an expanding fireball.

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BLEVE

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• If the vessel is ruptured — the vapour portion may
rapidly leak, lowering the pressure inside the
container and releasing a wave of overpressure from
the point of rupture.
• This sudden drop in pressure inside the container
causes violent boiling of the liquid, which rapidly
liberates large amounts of vapour in the process.

BLEVE
• The pressure of this vapour can be extremely high,
causing a second, much more significant wave of
overpressure (an explosion) which may completely
destroy the storage vessel and project fragments over
the surrounding area.
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• If the substance involved is flammable, it is likely that

the resulting cloud of the substance will ignite after
the BLEVE has occurred, forming a fireball and
possibly a fuel-air explosion, also termed a vapour
cloud explosion (VCE).
• If the materials are toxic, a large area will be
contaminated.

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BLEVE
• The most common type of BLEVE is caused by fire.
• The steps are as follows:
• A fire develops adjacent to a tank containing a liquid.
• The fire heats the walls of the tank.
• The liquid-filled portion stays cool due to heat-sink effects,

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but the steel around the vapor space rapidly heats up.
• If the flames reach the tank walls or roof where there is only
vapour and no liquid to remove the heat, the tank metal
temperature rises until the tank loses its structural strength.
• The tank ruptures, explosively vapourising its contents.
• Often, the boiling and burning of liquid behaves as a
rocket fuel, propelling vessel parts for great distances.

BLEVE
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Summary
• Blast wave
• Shock wave
• Explosion injury
• Explosion behavior parameters
• Detonation and deflagration

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• Overpressure
• Blast damage from overpressure
• Usage of probit to estimate impact of explosion
• VCE
• TNT Equivalency Method
• TNO Multi-Energy Method
• BLEVE

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