Errata To Roadside Design Guide, 4 Edition

Errata to Roadside Design Guide, 4th Edition
Page Existing Text Corrected Text
3-3 In Table 3-1, U.S. Customary units, the The attached replacement page shows the
backslopes for the Design Speed ≤40 mph were correct backslope values as follows:
listed as
Design ADT Backslope Design ADT Backslope

1V:3H 1V:5H to 1V:4H 1V:6H or Flatter 1V:3H 1V:5H to 1V:4H 1V:6H or Flatter
Under 750 7–10 7–10 7–10 Under 750 7–10 7–10 7–10
750–1500 12–14 12–14 12–14 750–1500 10–12 10–12 10–12
1500–6000 14–16 14–16 14–16 1500–6000 12–14 12–14 12–14
Over 6000 16–18 16–18 16–18 Over 6000 14–16 14–16 14–16
3-21 Example 3-D does not have “Discussion” text to Add the following text:
follow after the figure. “Discussion—Since the critical foreslope is within
the suggested clear-zone distance of 9 to 10.5 m
[30 to 34 ft], it should be flattened if practical or
considered for shielding. However, if this is an
isolated obstacle and the roadway has no
significant crash history, it may be appropriate to
do little more than delineate the drop-off in lieu of
foreslope flattening or shielding.”
3-26 Example 3-K, Curve 2—The cross sections in Substitute Example 3-K with the attached
the figure need to be banked the opposite revised figure.
direction in order to correspond to the plan
view as shown on page 3-27.
Also, the dimension “[11 to 15 ft]” should be

changed to “[10 to 15 ft].”
3-28 Example 3-L, Curves 2 and 3—The cross Substitute Example 3-L with the attached
sections in the figure need to be banked the revised figures.
opposite direction in order to correspond to the
plan view as shown on page 3-29.
Also, the dimension “[10.5 to 15 ft]” for Curve 2

should be changed to “[10 to 15 ft].”
3-29 Example 3-L, Curve 4—The dimension “[14 to Substitute Example 3-L with the attached
16.8 ft]” for Curve 4 should be changed to “[14 revised figure.
to 16 ft].”
5-12 For NU-GUARD by Nucor Marion in Table 5-3, Change the Test Level for NU-GUARD to “3
the Test Level is listed as “3” and the FHWA and 4” and the FHWA Acceptance Letter to
Acceptance Letter is listed as “B-162.” “B-162 and B-162B.”
5-42 The second sentence of the last paragraph reads Change the text to read “The design
“The design incorporates 2.74-m [9-ft] long incorporates 2.74-m [9-ft] long steel posts . . .”
posts . . .”
5-43 In Figure 35(a), the U.S. customary drawing is Substitute Figure 5-35(a) with the attached
missing a dimension line on the far left side; the revised figure.
metric drawing has an extra line connecting a
dimension line to the top of the pavement.
RSDG-4-E5 1 July 2015

© 2015 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
September 2011 Errata
7 m [23 ft] 4 m [13 ft] Runout Area

Through
Traveled Way
1
10 1
3.5
1
8
Discussion—Since the non-recoverable foreslope is within the recommended suggested clear-zone distance of the 1V:10H foreslope,
a runout area beyond the toe of the non-recoverable foreslope is desirable. Using the steepest recoverable foreslope before or after the
non-recoverable foreslope, a clear-zone distance is selected from Table 3-1. In this example, the 1V:8H foreslope beyond the base of
the fill dictates a 9 to 10 m [30 to 32 ft] clear-zone distance. Since 7 m [23 ft] are available at the top, an additional 2 to 3 m [7 to 10
ft] could be provided at the bottom. Since this is less than the 3 m [10 ft] recovery area that should be provided at the toe of all the
non-recoverable slopes the 3 m [10 ft] should be applied. All foreslope breaks may be rounded and no fixed objects would normally
be built within the upper or lower portions of the clear-zone or on the intervening foreslope.
EXAMPLE 3-D
Design ADT: 12,000
Design Speed: 110 km/h [70 mph]
Suggested clear-zone distance for 1V:6H foreslope: 9 to 10.5 m [30 to 34 ft] (from Table 3-1)
Through 3 m [10 ft] 4 m [13 ft] 2 m [7 ft]

Traveled Way
Shoulder
6
1
Discussion—Since the critical foreslope is within the suggested clear-zone distance of 9 to 10.5 m [30 to 34 ft], it should be flattened
if practical or considered for shielding. However, if this is an isolated obstacle and the roadway has no significant crash history, it may
be appropriate to do little more than delineate the drop-off in lieu of foreslope flattening or shielding.
Roadside Topography and Drainage Features 3-21

Highlighted Text Changed in July 2015 Errata
EXAMPLE 3-K
5.3 m to 6.8 m [18 ft to 21 ft] 3.5 m to 4.5 m [12 ft to 14 ft]

Clear Zone for Outside Radius Clear Zone for Inside Radius
Shoulder Ramp Shoulder
1 1
6 6
Clear Zone for Simple Ramps Cross Section Curve 1
Curve 1
Design ADT: < 750
Radius: 300 m [1000 ft]
Suggested clear-zone distance for 6:1 foreslopes along the inside of curve: 3.5 to 4.5 m [12 to 14 ft] (from Table 3-1)
Suggested clear-zone distance for 6:1 foreslopes along the outside of curve: CZc = (Lc)(Kcz) = 3.5 to 4.5 m [12 to 14 ft] × 1.5 = 5.3 to
6.8 m [18 to 21 ft] (from Tables 3-1 and 3-2)

Clear Zone for Inside Radius Clear Zone for Outside Radius
1 1
6 6
Clear Zone for Simple Ramps Cross Section Curve 2

Curve 2
Design ADT: < 750
Radius: 73 m [240 ft]
3-26 Roadside Design Guide


1 1
4 4
Clear Zone for Complex Ramps Cross Section Curve 2
Curve 2
Design ADT: < 750
Radius: 73 m [240 ft]

1 1
4 4
Curve 3
Design ADT: < 750
Design Speed: 60 km/h [40 mph] assuming traffic is accelerating to enter freeway.
Radius: 300 m [1,000 ft]
Suggested clear-zone distance for 4:1 foreslopes along the outside of curve: CZc = (Lc)(Kcz) = 2.0 to 3.0 m [7 to 10 ft] ×1.2 = 2.4 to
3.6 m [8.4 to 12 ft] (from Tables 3-1 and 3-2)

July 2015 Errata

Clear Zone for Outside Radius Clear Zone for Inside Radius
1 1
6 6

Curve 4
Design ADT: < 750
Design Speed: 80 km/h [50 mph] assuming traffic is accelerating to enter freeway.
Radius: 300 m [1,000 ft]
Suggested clear-zone distance for 6:1 foreslopes along the outside of curve: CZc = (Lc)(Kcz) = 3.0 to 3.5 m [10 to 12 ft] ×1.4 = 4.2 to
4.9 m [14 to 16.8 ft] (from Tables 3-1 and 3-2)
Clear Zone for Outside Curve 1

Radius of Curve 1 Cross Clear Zone for Inside
Section Radius of Curve 1
Deceleration Lane
Clear Zone for Outside Clear Zone Freeway Clear Zone
Radius of Curve 2
Clear Zone for Inside Freeway Clear Zone

Radius of Curve 2
Curve 2
Cross Section Clear Zone for Inside
Radius of Curve 3
Curve 4
Curve 3 Cross Section
Cross Section
Clear Zone for Outside
Radius of Curve 4
Clear Zone for Outside
Radius of Curve 3
Clear Zone for Inside

Radius of Curve 4 Freeway Clear Zone
Freeway Clear Zone
Acceleration Lane
Clear Zone
Clear Zone for Complex Ramps Plan View
Discussion—Refer to the bold line in the above figure for the overall suggested clear zone. As an alternative, the clear zones for ramp
may be set at 9 m [30 ft] if previous experience with similar projects or designs indicates satisfactory experience. See Example J for
the speed-change lane clear zones.
Roadside Topography and Drainage Features 3-29

July 2015 Errata
Table 5-3. Roadside Barriers and NCHRP Report 350 Approved Test Levels
FHWA System Reference

System Test Level
Acceptance Letter Designation Section
FLEXIBLE SYSTEMS
W-Beam (Weak Post) 2 B-64 SGR02 5.4.1.3

Three-Strand Cable (Weak Post) 3 B-64 SGR01a and b 5.4.1.1
High-Tension Cable Barriers 3 and 4 Various Various 5.4.1.2
Modified W-Beam (Weak Post) 3 B-64 SGRO2 5.4.1.3
Ironwood Aesthetic Barrier 3 B-56, 56-A, and 56-B 5.4.1.4
SEMI-RIGID SYSTEMS
Steel Post with Steel Blockout 2 B-64 SGR04a 5.4.1.6
Box Beam (Weak Post) 3 B-64 SGR03 5.4.1.5
Steel or Wood Post with Wood or Plastic Blockout 3 B-64 SGR04a and b 5.4.1.6
NU-GUARD by Nucor Marion 3 and 4 B-162 and B-162-B 5.4.1.8
Trinity T-31 and Trinity Guardrail System 3 B-140 5.4.1.8
Gregory (GMS) 3 B-150 5.4.1.8
Midwest Guardrail System (MGS) 3 B-133 5.4.1.7
Blocked-out Thrie-Beam (Strong Post) 3 B-64 SGR09c 5.4.1.9.1
SGR09a
Merritt Parkway Aesthetic Guardrail 3 B-38 5.4.1.10
Steel-Backed Timber Guardrail 2 and 3 B-64-D 5.4.1.11
Modified Thrie-Beam (Strong Post) 4 B-64 SGR09b 5.4.1.9.2
Trinity T-39 Non-Blocked-Out Thrie Beam 4 B-148 5.4.1.9.3
RIGID SYSTEMS (Concrete and Masonry)
Stone Masonry Wall/Precast Masonry Wall 3 B-64-D 5.4.1.14
New Jersey Safety-Shape Barrier 5.4.1.12
• 810 mm [32 in.] tall 4 B-64 SGM11a 5.4.1.12
• 1070 mm [42 in.] tall
5 B-64 SGM11b 5.4.1.12
F–Shape Barrier 5.4.1.12
• 810 mm [32 in.] 4 B-64 SGM10a 5.4.1.12
• 1070 mm [42 in.]
5 B-64 SGM10b 5.4.1.12
Vertical Concrete Barrier 5.4.1.12
• 810 mm [32 in.] 4 B-64 5.4.1.12
• 1070 mm [42 in.]
5 B-64 5.4.1.12
Single Slope Barrier 5.4.1.12
• 810 mm [32 in.] 4 B-17, B-45 5.4.1.12
• 1070 mm [42 in.]
5 Note 1 5.4.1.12
Ontario Tall Wall Median Barrier 5 B-19 SGM12 5.4.1.12
Note 1: The Single Slope Barriers were not tested to the TL-5 level but may be considered TL-5 barriers when cast in place or slip-formed if the dimensions, reinforcing,
and foundation details are equivalent to designs that have been tested. See FHWA Acceptance Letter B-64.

July 2015 Errata
The barrier-to-obstruction distance for fixed objects should not be less than the dynamic deflection of the barrier based on the ap-
propriate test level. In some cases, the available space between the barrier and the object may not be adequate. In such cases, the
barrier should be stiffened in advance of and alongside the fixed object. Commonly used methods to reduce deflection in a semi-rigid
or flexible barrier system include reduced post spacing, increased post size, use of soil plates, intermediate anchorages, and stiffened
rail elements. The effects on deflection of reduced post spacing are shown in Table 5-6 with the individual barrier descriptions. In
some cases, a more rigid barrier type may be needed. Refer to Section 5.5.2 for additional details regarding the Zone of Intrusion in
determining the barrier-to-obstacle clearance.
If an embankment is shielded, the barrier-to-embankment distance should be sufficient to provide adequate support for the posts to
obtain proper operational characteristics of the barrier. However, limited test results indicate that the offset distance for embankments
is not as critical as it is for rigid objects. A 0.6-m [2-ft] distance, as shown in Figure 5-33, is desirable for adequate post support,
but may vary depending on the slope of the embankment, soil type, expected impact conditions, post cross section and embedment,
and the type of barrier system. Increasing the embedment length of guardrail posts by 0.3 m [1 ft] or more can compensate for the
reduced soil foundation support near the slope break point. A crash test was successfully conducted to NCHRP Report 350 TL-3
criteria with 2134 mm [7 ft.] long, W150 × 13.5 [W6 × 9] steel posts with standard routed wood blockouts when the posts were
set at the hinge point of a 1V:2H slope. The posts were installed on 953-mm [3 ft-1-1/2 in.] centers. Other strong-post W-beam sys-
tems that do not require the additional 0.6-m [2-ft] grading platform behind the posts have been developed or are in the process of
being developed.
A stiffened version of the MGS guardrail system was developed for use adjacent to steep roadside slopes, as shown in Figure 5-34.
The design incorporates 2.74-m [9-ft] long steel posts spaced on 1.91-m [6 ft-3 in.] centers. With the top of the W-beam rail mounted
at a height of 787 mm [31 in.], this guardrail system was successfully crash tested according to MASH. Full-scale crash testing of the
stiffened MGS system installed adjacent to a 1V:2H fill slope has demonstrated a dynamic deflection of 1.46 m [4.8 ft]. It is recom-
mended that a minimum lateral distance of 1.68 m [5.5 ft] be provided between the front face of a fixed object and the front face of
the MGS adjacent to a 1V:2H slope.
Figure 5-34. MGS Placed at 1V:2H Slope Breakpoint

5.6.2 Terrain Effects
Generally, acceptable impact conditions at the moment of impact occur when all of the wheels of the vehicle are on the ground and its
suspension system is neither compressed nor extended. Conversely, terrain conditions between the traveled way and the barrier can
have significant effects on the barrier’s impact performance.
Curbs and roadside slopes are two particular features that deserve special attention. A vehicle which traverses one of these features
prior to impact may override the barrier if it is partially airborne at the moment of impact. Conversely, the vehicle may “submarine”
under the rail element and snag on the support posts if it strikes the barrier too low. Limited research studies and computer simulations
have provided some information on the dynamic behavior and trajectories of vehicles traversing curbs or slopes. The impact position
of a car relative to a roadside barrier at a given lateral distance from a curb or slope is known for a portion of the multiple impact
conditions (vehicle mass [weight], speed, and angle). These data are presented in the following two subsections.
5.6.2.1 Curbs
Section 3.4.1 addresses the use of curbs primarily as drainage control features and presents only very general guidelines concerning
their use in conjunction with traffic barriers. When a vehicle strikes a curb, the trajectory of the vehicle depends upon several vari-
ables: the size and suspension characteristics of the vehicle, its impact speed and angle, and the height and shape of the curb itself.
Crash tests have shown that use of most guardrail/curb combinations where high-speed, high-angle impacts are likely should be
discouraged. However, the MGS and Trinity T-31™ barrier have been developed and approved to be used in conjunction with curbs.
Where there are no feasible alternatives, the designer should consider using a sloping curb no higher than 100 mm [4 in.] and consider
stiffening the guardrail to reduce potential deflection. Other measures that may improve performance are bolting a W-beam to the
back of the posts, reducing post spacing, nesting the rail, or adding a rubrail. On lower-speed facilities, a vaulting potential still ex-
ists, but since the risk of such an occurrence is lessened, a design change may not be cost-effective. A case-by-case analysis of each
situation considering the anticipated speeds and consequences of vehicular penetration should be used. The layout of the barrier and
curb should be considered by the designer.
Preferably, strong-post W-beam guardrail should not be located at an offset from a curb on roads with design speeds of greater than 60
km/h [40 mph], unless a crash tested system has been developed. Sometimes, however, offseting the barrier from the curb is necessary.
In these locations where the curb is offset or the barrier flares away from the edge of the roadway, the curb should be transitioned to
a laydown curb similar to Figure 5-35(a). The performance of guardrail terminals behind curbs has not been tested. One transporta-
tion agency addresses this issue by transitioning the curb to a laydown curb and carrying this laydown style curb past the terminal to
accommodate grading near the terminal. This is typically 30 m [100 ft] in advance of the terminal. Refer to Figure 5-35(b) for details.
A curb similar to this detail could be used for all speeds when the barrier is required to be offset from the face of the rail or when a
curb is required adjacent to a terminal.
2’–6” 750 mm
Smooth Finish Smooth Finish

(Steel Trowel) (Steel Trowel)
1’–9” 9” 525 mm 225 mm

300 mm
45 mm
12” R.
40 mm
13/4”
11/2”
R.
150 mm
6”
U.S. Customary Metric
Figure 5-35(a). Example Laydown Curb for Use Offset from Guardrail
Roadside Barriers 5-43

July 2015 Errata
5.6.4 Length-of-Need
Figure 5-39 illustrates the variables that should be considered in designing a roadside barrier to shield an obstruction effectively. The
primary variables are the Lateral Extent of the Area of Concern (LA) and the Runout Length (LR). Both of these factors should be
clearly understood by the designer to be used properly in the design process.
CLEAR DISTANCE LINE
AREA OF L
R
CONCERN
(OBSTACLE)
USE
L CRASHWORTHY
1
TERMINAL
END OF
BARRIER
L SEE
C NEED
FIGURE
5-42 SHY
L LINE
A
a
b
L Y
3 L
2 L
S
EDGE OF THROUGH TRAVELED WAY TRAFFIC
Figure 5-39. Approach Barrier Layout Variables
The Lateral Extent of the Area of Concern (LA) is the distance from the edge of the traveled way to the far side of the fixed object
or to the outside edge of the clear zone (LC) of an embankment or a fixed object that extends beyond the clear zone. Selection of an
appropriate LA distance is a critical part of the design process and is illustrated in the examples at the end of this section.
The Runout Length (LR) is the distance from the object being shielded to the location where the vehicle departs from the traveled way.
It is the distance measured along the roadway from the upstream extent of the obstruction to the point at which a vehicle is assumed
to leave the roadway. Tables 5-10(a) and 5-10(b) present the recommended runout lengths to use in determining the barrier length-of-
need (7, 13, 24).
Note that these have lower values as compared to the previous edition of this guide. These runout lengths have been extensively
reviewed in numerous studies and the results could vary depending on the assumptions made and the methodology used. Prior to the
development of the runout lengths shown in Table 5-10, some highway agencies considered the values in the previous publication to
be excessive. Many of those agencies developed different methods to determine the length-of-need based on their available data. One
alternate method is to determine a specific encroachment angle through cost-effectiveness analysis and install a length of barrier that
will intercept a vehicle’s runout path.
Roadside Barriers 5-49

Transition 1V:3H to 1V:6H

1V:6H
LC = 8.5 m (28’)
1.8 m (6’) Shoulder
L2 = 2.0 m (6.6’) LR = 88 m (290’) Traffic
Figure 5-47. Example of Barrier Design for Non-Traversable Embankments
Discussion—The area of concern begins at the top of the critical slope. This location is determined by reviewing the plan and cross-
section details as well as any proposed grading that can be done to eliminate or significantly reduce the length of the barrier, where
appropriate. Because the purpose of a barrier installation is to reduce the likelihood of a vehicle from reaching a non-traversable ter-
rain feature or fixed object, the designer may elect to shield more of the slope by selecting a larger clear zone distance. However, the
benefit/cost issues of additional guardrail should be considered before increasing the guardrail length. It might be advantageous to
review planned barrier lengths on site for proper length-of-need before installation. Refer to Chapter 8 for additional grading details.
The barrier may be terminated by anchoring it in a backslope or installing a crashworthy terminal. A buried-in-backslope terminal can
shield the entire embankment area if the site grading is done appropriately. Before installing a buried-in-backslope terminal, the site
layout and detailed review of the cross sections should be conducted. This will include consideration of ditch configurations, drainage
requirements, and the configuration of the backslope.
Based on the installation site conditions, it was determined that a parallel guard rail terminal be used. Note that the 15.2-m [50-ft] end
terminal was flared 300 mm [1 ft] off the edge of shoulder to reduce nuisance hits.
(5-8)
Given:
ADT = 650 vpd
Speed = 100 km/h [60 mph]
Embankment slope = 1V:6H
Horizontal curvature = 450 m [1,475 ft] radius
Select: Clear zone, LC = 5.0 to 5.5 m [16 to 18 ft] (Table 3-1)
(5.5 m [18 ft] chosen by designer)
Adjustment factor for curvature = 1.4 (Table 3-2)
Adjusted clear zone = (5.5) (1.4) = 7.7 m [(18) (1.4) = 25 ft]
Runout length, LR = not applicable (see Discussion)
Barrier offset, L2 = 1.2 m [4 ft]
Flare rate: not applicable

the repairs. Another concern associated with the installation of a median barrier is that it will limit the options of maintenance and
emergency service vehicles to cross the median. In snowy climates, a median barrier also may affect the ability to store snow in the
median. There may be other environmental impacts depending on the grading needed to install the barrier. For these reasons, a one-
size-fits-all recommendation for the use of median barrier is not appropriate.
Studies (7, 10) have shown that median barriers can significantly reduce the occurrence of cross-median crashes and the overall sever-
ity of median-related crashes. With the potential to reduce high-severity crashes, it is recommended that median barriers be considered
for high-speed, fully controlled-access roadways that have traversable medians, as shown in Figure 6-1.
SHOULDER
TRAVELED TRAVELED
WAY WAY
MEDIAN WIDTH
80 80
70 70
AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFIC
AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFIC
60 60
BARRIER BARRIER
RECOMMENDED BARRIER RECOMMENDED BARRIER BARRIER
50 50
(Thousands)
(Thousands)
CONSIDERED CONSIDERED OPTIONAL

BARRIER
OPTIONAL
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 5 10 15 20
MEDIAN WIDTH (ft) MEDIAN WIDTH (m)
Figure 6-1. Guidelines for Median Barriers on High-speed, Fully Controlled-Access Roadways
Figure 6-1 shows recommended guidelines for the use of median barriers on high-speed, fully controlled-access roadways for loca-
tions where the median is 9.1 m [30 ft] in width or less and the average daily traffic (ADT) is greater than 20,000 vehicles per day
(vpd). For locations with median widths less than 15.2 m [50 ft] and where the ADT is less than 20,000 vpd, a median barrier is op-
tional. However, the facility should be designed to facilitate future barrier placement if there are significant increases in ADT or a rise
in the number of cross-median crashes occurs. For locations where median widths are greater than 9.1 m [30 ft] but less than 15.2 m
[50 ft] and where the ADT is greater than 20,000 vpd, a cost/benefit analysis or an engineering study may be conducted at the discre-
tion of the transportation agency to determine the appropriate application for median barrier installations. The analysis should include
the following factors in the evaluation: traffic volumes, vehicle classifications, median crossover history, crash incidents, vertical and
horizontal alignment relationships, and median–terrain configurations.

September 2011 Errata 2
The high-tension systems also result in less damage to the barrier and, in many cases, the cables remain at the proper height after an
impact that damages several posts. Although no manufacturer claims that their barrier remains functional in this condition, there may
be a residual safety value under certain crash conditions. The posts can be installed in cast or driven sockets in the ground to facilitate
removal and replacement.
There are currently five high-tension cable barrier systems that have been accepted by FHWA as meeting NCHRP Report 350, Test
Level (TL) 3 conditions. Modified versions of all five systems have been successfully tested at the NCHRP Report 350 Test Level 4
condition and approved for 1V:6H or flatter slopes.
All of the systems also have been approved for limited use on 1V:4H slopes. Among the limitations is the fact that this configuration
requires a TL-4 system that only functions at TL-3 because of the vehicle dynamics inherent with steeper grades. The systems’ lateral
placement within the median also is limited to no farther than 1.2 m (4 ft) down the 1V: 4H slope for adjacent traffic impacts and no
closer than 2.7 m (9 ft) from the ditch bottom for opposite-side impacts.
All of these systems use weak posts to support the cables. However, they each utilize a unique post design. The following are the cur-
rently accepted high-tension cable barrier systems:
• Brifen Wire Rope Safety Fence—Manufactured by Brifen USA, Inc., the Brifen system uses three or four cables. One is
placed in a slot on the post while the others intertwined between the posts (see Figure 6-4).
• The Cable Safety System (CASS™)—Manufactured by Trinity Industries, Inc., CASS uses three cables that are placed in a
slot on the posts and separated by spacer blocks (see Figure 6-5).
• NU-CABLE™—Manufactured by the Nucor Steel Marion Inc., the NU-CABLE high-tension cable barrier system uses
three or four cables attached to U-channel steel posts by unique hook bolts (see Figure 6-6).
• Blue Systems (Safence)—The Safence system is a three or four-cable design. For a median barrier, all four cables are cen-
tered within the top portion of slotted posts (see Figure 6-7).
• Gibraltar Cable Barrier System—The Gibraltar Cable Barrier System uses C-posts to support three or four cables. A steel
hairpin and lock plate are used to attach the cables to the posts (see Figure 6-8).
Figure 6-4. Brifen Wire Rope Safety Fence
Median Barriers 6-7

8.3.6 Terminals for W-Beam Guardrail Systems
This section describes end terminals and their design criteria for specific W-beam guardrail systems. Table 8-2 lists these terminals
with their respective information.
Table 8-2. Terminals for W-Beam Guardrail Systems
FHWA
Test Level System Reference
Terminal Acceptance Manufacturer
(TL) Designation Section
Letter
Buried-in-Backslope Terminal (Section 8.3.6.1)
CC-53
Buried-in-Backslope Terminal 3 Not Posted Generic 8.3.6.1
CC-53A
Flared Terminals (Section 8.3.6.2)
Eccentric Loader Terminal CC-56

3 Not Posted Generic 8.3.6.2.1
(ELT) CC-56A
Modified Eccentric Loader

2 CC-84 SEW05 Generic 8.3.6.2.2
Terminal (MELT)
2 and 3 CC-46A, B, and C

Flared Energy-Absorbing
SEW14a to b Road Systems, Inc. 8.3.6.2.3
Terminal (FLEAT™)
3 CC-61, B, and C
CC-31
Slotted Rail Terminal SEW12
3 CC-31A Trinity Highway Products, LLC 8.3.6.2.4
(SRT-350™) SEW11
CC-72
X-Tension™ Guardrail End CC-91

3 Not Posted Barrier Systems, Inc. 8.3.6.2.5
Terminal CC-102
Tangent Terminals (Section 8.3.6.3)
Extruder Terminal (ET-Plus™) 2 and 3 CC-12 thru CC-12Q Not Posted Trinity Highway Products, LLC 8.3.6.3.1
Extruder Terminal (ET-Plus™)

with Collision Performance 2 and 3 CC-81 Not Posted Trinity Highway Products, LLC 8.3.6.3.1
Side Impact (CPSI)
Sequential Kinking Terminal CC-40A and B

2 and 3 SEW17a to c Road Systems, Inc. 8.3.6.3.2
(SKT-350™ and SKT-LITE) CC-61A, B, and C
X-Tension™ Guardrail End CC-91

3 Not Posted Barrier Systems, Inc. 8.3.6.3.3
Terminal CC-102
787-mm [31-in.] Height Terminals (Section 8.3.6.4)
CC-88
FLEAT-MGS™ 2 and 3 SEW15 Road Systems, Inc. 8.3.6.2.3
CC-96
SRT-31™ 3 CC-100 Not Posted Trinity Highway Products, LLC 8.3.6.2.4
SKT-MGS™ and CC-88

2 and 3 SEW18a to b Road Systems, Inc. 8.3.6.3.2
SKT-LITE CC-96
CC-94
ET-Plus-31™ 3 Not Posted Trinity Highway Products, LLC 8.3.6.3.1
CC-94A
End Treatments (Anchorages, Terminals, and Crash Cushions) 8-9

July 2015 Errata
Figure 8-16. FLEAT Median Terminal (FLEAT-MT™)
Figure 8-17. X-Tension™ Median Attenuator System (X-MAS)
8.3.7 Terminals for Box-Beam Guardrail
This section describes the terminals for the box beam guardrail system discussed in Chapter 5. Table 8-4 lists these terminals with
their respective information.

July 2015 Errata
8.4.2 Crash Cushions Based on Work-Energy Principle
Tables 8-5, 8-6, and 8-7 summarize the crash cushions that have been successfully tested in accordance with TL-1, TL-2, or TL-3 con-
ditions, under either NCHRP Report 350 or MASH procedures, and are discussed in the following subsections. It should be noted that
some of these devices can be and have been used as roadside barrier terminals, but such use generally is not considered cost-effective.
Manufacturers design and market a variety of crash cushions that offer different tradeoffs among initial costs, repair and restoration
costs, and maintenance characteristics. These devices can be classified as sacrificial, reusable, or low-maintenance and/or self-restor-
ing, depending on the maintenance characteristics to restore performance following an impact by a vehicle. Depending on the known
or expected crash frequency or severity at a particular location, life-cycle costs of various devices can be estimated and used as a factor
in choosing a device at that site or similar ones.
While terminals are mostly designed for locations where traffic is found only on one side of a device, crash cushions often are placed
in medians or at exit gores on freeways where traffic is on both sides. Highway designers need to account for another feature of crash
cushions: products that are unidirectional, which refers to traffic traveling in the same direction on both sides of the crash cushion
(e.g., as at a gore), and bidirectional, which refers to traffic moving in opposite directions on either side of the device.
Another feature the designer should understand is that several crash cushion vendors offer product lines referred to as product fami-
lies. Products within a family have the same general characteristics but are rated at different speeds and widths. Other product lines
do not have this divisibility.
Most crash cushions should be appropriately and adequately installed to a foundation pad and be sufficiently connected to a rigid
backup. All systems have their own designs and products should be installed in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
When a crash cushion is used in conjunction with a longitudinal barrier system, the designer should specify an appropriate transition
section to positively connect the crash cushion with the longitudinal barrier system. In most situations in which the crash cushion is
not directly attached to the object being shielded, a stand-alone backup anchorage is necessary. Check with the product manufacturer
to obtain their recommended designs.
8.4.2.1 Sacrificial Crash Cushions
Sacrificial crash cushions are crashworthy roadside safety devices designed for a single impact. Most of the systems absorb impact
energy by crushing the steel rail elements. Other devices have expendable plastic cartridges containing foam, sand, or water, which
also absorb energy by crushing. These systems’ major components are destroyed in impacts, but many of the other parts can be reused.
These devices generally offer low initial costs and can be cost-effective if placed in locations where the designer expects infrequent
crashes to occur. Table 8-5 lists many of the available crash cushions in this category.
Table 8-5. Sacrificial Crash Cushions
FHWA
System Reference
Crash Cushion Test Level Acceptance Manufacturer
Designation Section
Letter
Thrie-Beam Bullnose Guardrail System 3 CC-68 SET03 Generic 8.4.2.1.1
3 CC-66,
ABSORB 350® SCI11 Barrier Systems, Inc. 8.4.2.1.2
2 A and B
Advanced Dynamic Impact Extension Trinity Highway Products,

3 CC-38 SCI09 8.4.2.1.3
Module (ADIEM™) LLC
CC-69B, D,
BEAT-SSCC™ 3 SC113A-B Road Systems, Inc. 8.4.2.1.4
and E

July 2015 Errata
Figure 8-27. QuadGuard® Crash Cushion
8.4.2.2.2 Universal TAU-II® Family
The name Universal TAU-II® refers to a family of proprietary, bi-directional, energy-absorbing crash cushions that are rated to various
speeds and hazard widths while using a small group of common parts. Expandable bulkheads allow narrow and wide widths ranging
from 760 mm to 2.6 m [2 ft, 6 in. to 8 ft, 6 in.] in 150-mm [6-in.] increments. Greater widths can be accomplished by adding additional
standard thrie-beam panels. Speed ratings range from 50 km/h to 120 km/h [31 mph to 75 mph]. The crash cushions consist of two
types of expendable energy-absorbing cartridges separated by steel diaphragms as well as thrie-beam sliding side panels. Figure 8-28
shows this four-bay system.
Figure 8-28. TAU-II Crash Cushion

July 2015 Errata
8.4.2.3 Low-Maintenance and/or Self-Restoring Crash Cushions
The crash cushions shown in Table 8-7 typically are considered for use at locations where a high frequency of impacts may be ex-
pected. The category of “Low Maintenance and/or Self Restoring” crash cushions includes those devices that either suffer very little,
if any, damage upon impact and are easily pulled back into their full operating condition, or they partially rebound after an impact
and may only need an inspection to ensure that no parts have been damaged or misaligned. Although some crash cushions can still
function and save lives after being struck once, no device is completely maintenance free. It is important to note that devices in this
category may be low-maintenace, self-restoring, or both. Inclusion of a device in this combined category does not imply that the de-
vice has both attributes. Often these products are installed in high-speed, high-traffic volume ramps or medians to reduce the exposure
of maintenance workers to the traffic.
Table 8-7. Low-Maintenance and/or Self-Restoring Crash Cushions
FHWA
System Reference
Crash Cushion Test Level Acceptance Manufacturer
Designation Section
Letter
Compressor 3 CC-95 Not Posted Traffix Devices 8.4.2.3.1
Energy Absorption
EASI-CELL 1 CC-71 SCI 15 8.4.2.3.2
Systems, Inc.
Hybrid Energy Absorbing Reusable CC-89 Trinity Highway Products,

3 Not Posted 8.4.2.3.3
Terminal (HEART™) CC-89A LLC
QuadGuard Elite
2 CC-57
7-bay unit Energy Absorption
3 CC-57A SCT02e 8.4.2.3.4
8-bay unit Systems, Inc.
3 CC-57B
9-bay unit
QuadGuard LMC Energy Absorption

3 CC-43 SCT02f 8.4.2.3.5
11-bay unit Systems, Inc.
Reusable Energy Absorbing Crash Terminal

CC-26,A-I
(REACT 350®) 2 Energy Absorption
CC-50,A-B, SCI16a-b 8.4.2.3.6
4-cylinder array 3 Systems, Inc.
CC-73,A-C
9-cylinder array
Smart Cushion Innovations (SCI)

2
SCI-70GM CC-85 A and B SCI17a and b SCI Products, Inc. 8.4.2.3.7
3
SCI-100GM
8.4.2.3.1 Compressor™ Attenuator
The Compressor Attenuator, shown in Figure 8-31, is a proprietary, unidirectional, energy-absorbing crash cushion. It consists of high-
density polyethylene (HDPE) attenuator modules designed to efficiently absorb energy in a relatively short distance. The modules
are mounted on a proprietary UNI-BASE™, which allows the unit to be installed quickly without the need for field assembly. The
telescoping high-strength steel side panels redirect side impacts while protecting the absorbing modules from incidental damage. The
unit is designed to take repeated impacts without any additional recovery procedures and with minimal or no repairs.

July 2015 Errata
Figure 8-31. Compressor Attenuator
8.4.2.3.2 EASI-CELL® Cluster
The EASI-CELL® cluster system is a unidirectional, low-maintenance and self-restoring crash cushion designed for ar-
eas where space is limited and traffic speeds do not exceed 50 km/h [31 mph]. Hazards in these areas include tollbooths, util-
ity poles, railroad crossing signals, and traffic signals. The system consists of a series of interconnected HDPE cyl-
inders that anchor to the hazard on a concrete transition or a rigid steel backup structure, as shown in Figure 8-32.
Figure 8-32. EASI-CELL Cluster®
8.4.2.3.3 Hybrid Energy Absorbing Reusable Terminal (HEART™)
The HEART™ is a proprietary, energy-absorbing, bidirectional crash cushion that consists of three hinged high-molecular weight/
high-density polyethylene panels along each side connected to steel diaphragms mounted on tubular steel tracks, as shown in Figure
8-33. A curved nose panel consisting of a high-molecular weight/high-density polyethylene is mounted on the first steel diaphragm.
A tensioned cable is attached to the upper release post and to the second steel diaphragm on each side. When the upper release post

July 2015 Errata
is impacted, the tensioned steel cables attached to the second steel diaphragm release and the side panels and steel diaphragms are
pushed toward the rear along the base track. The tracks allow longitudinal movement of the steel diaphragms during frontal impacts.
A second set of terminal cables are attached to the second steel diaphragm and terminate on the rear side of the 10th diaphragm.
Figure 8-33. Hybrid Energy Absorbing Reusable Terminal (HEART™)
8.4.2.3.4 QuadGuard Elite
The QuadGuard Elite, shown in Figure 8-34, is a proprietary low-maintenance and self-restoring, bidirectional crash cushion designed
for use at locations where high frequencies of impacts are anticipated. It can be used to shield rigid barriers or wider objects. The
energy absorbing components of this system are high-density polyethylene cylinders that are reusable after most impacts.
Figure 8-34. QuadGuard Elite

February 2012 Errata
Table 8-12. Comparative Maintenance Characteristics
Sacrificial Crash Cushions
Crash Cushion Regular Maintenance Crash Maintenance Material Inventory
Thrie-Beam Can be inspected on a drive-by. Cable Rail elements and posts should be Slotted thrie-beam rail elements and
Bullnose tension should be checked periodically. replaced. Cables and foundation tubes wood posts.
Guardrail are normally reusable.
System
ABSORB 350® Normally can be inspected on a drive- Nose-piece and damaged energy-ab- Replacement nosepiece, energy-
by. Periodic on-site inspections should sorbing elements should be replaced. absorbing elements, and fluid supply.
be performed to be certain that all Other parts per manufacturer’s
parts are properly connected. Need to recommendation.
check water level. When winterized,
check deicing agent.
ADIEM™ Modules should be closely inspected Damaged concrete modules should be Replacement concrete modules, cov-
for damage. replaced. Damaged covers also should ers, and other parts per the manufac-
be replaced. Most other parts normally turer’s recommendation.
are reusable.
BEAT-SSCC™ Normally can be inspected on a Damaged tubes and posts should be End tube, second tube, breakaway
drive-by. Periodic on-site inspections replaced. Impact head is normally posts.
should be performed to be certain that reusable.
all parts are properly connected and
anchor cable is not slack.
BEAT-BP™ Normally can be inspected on a Damaged tubes and posts should be End tube, second tube, standard line
drive-by. Periodic on-site inspections replaced. Impact head is normally tubes, breakaway posts, and standard
should be performed to be certain that reusable. line posts.
all parts are properly connected and
anchor cable is not slack.
QUADTREND As this device uses sand-filled contain- Most major components should be Spare parts per manufacturer’s
350® ers, there is concern for freezing of reusable after a crash. recommendation.
sand in cold climates. See Section
8.4.3 for more information.
NCIAS Can be inspected on a drive-by. Crushed units should be removed from Spare cylinders to replace badly
site; minor damage can be repaired damaged units.
on-site by jacking.
Sand-Filled Can be inspected on a drive-by for Individual sand barrels should be re- Spare barrels, sand support inserts,
Barrels external damage. If lids are not riveted placed after a crash; units damaged by and lids; supply of sand.
on, sand content should be checked nuisance hits also should be replaced.
periodically. See Section 8.4.3 for Debris should be removed from the
information on using sand-filled barrels site.
in cold climates.
Reusable Crash Cushions
QuadGuard® Normally can be inspected on a drive- Nose, expended cartridges, and Spare cartridges, nose units, fender
by; missing or displaced cartridges can damaged fender panels should be panels, and other parts per
be readily noted. Should be periodical- replaced. Unit should be repositioned. manufacturer’s recommendation.
ly inspected on-site to be certain that
all parts are properly connected.
Universal TAU-II™ Normally can be inspected on a drive- After a frontal impact, the system can Cartridges, sliding panels, pipe panel
Family by. Periodic on-site inspections should be pulled out to restore the proper mounts, and nose pieces per
be performed to be certain that all length. Replace damaged cartridges. manufacturer’s recommendations.
parts are properly connected. During some side impacts, the sliding
panels may be damaged.

February 2012 Errata
Table 8-12. Comparative Maintenance Characteristics (continued)
TRACC™ Normally can be inspected on a drive- The rip plates need replacement. Replacement rip plates, nose sections,
by. Periodic on-site inspections should Newer versions of the TRACC eliminate fender panels, and other replacement
be performed to be certain that all need for extensive disassembly. The parts per manufacturer’s
parts are properly connected. nose and fender panels also may need recommendation.
replacement.
QUEST® Normally can be drive-by inspected. The nose, fender panels, and energy- The nose, fender panels, and energy-
Periodic on-site inspections should be absorbing rails or tubes need replace- absorbing rails or tubes and other
performed to be certain that all parts ment after impacts. Open design parts per manufacturer’s
are properly connected. allows for easy repair. recommendations.
Low Maintenance and/or Self-Restoring Crash Cushions
Crash Cushion Regular Maintenance Crash Maintenance Material Inventory
Compressor Normally can be inspected on a drive- This unit is designed to take repeated Spare parts per manufacturer’s
by. impacts without any additional recov- recommendation.
ery procedures and with minimal or no
repairs.
EASI-CELL® Normally can be inspected on a drive- This unit is designed to withstand mul- Spare parts per manufacturer’s
by. Plastic cylinders may deteriorate tiple impacts without cylinder replace- recommendation.
after several years of exposure to the ment. All cylinders need to be replaced
elements. when the minor axis of the cylinders in
the rear most row measures 230 mm
[9 in.] or less.
HEART™ Normally can be inspected on a drive- Repair will depend on the severity of Spare parts per manufacturer’s
by. the impact. Minor side impacts may recommendation.
require no repair. End-on impacts may
require only pulling the system back
into place and replacing the nose bolt.
QuadGuard LMC Normally can be inspected on a drive- Much of unit is reusable after a crash. Fender panels and other replacement
and Elite by. Periodic on-site inspections should Unit tends to self-restore to some ex- parts per manufacturer’s
be performed to be certain that all tent but should be evaluated after each recommendation.
parts are properly connected. impact. Unit may need to be reposi-
tioned. When diameter of last cartridge
becomes less than 660 mm [26 in.], all
cartridges should be replaced.
REACT 350® Can be inspected on a drive-by. The system is considered fully reus- Spare parts per manufacturer’s
able. Repositioning is normally all that recommendation.
is needed after an impact. After side
impacts, inspect stabilizer rods. If the
cylinders cannot be restored to 90
percent of the original diameter, they
should be replaced.
Smart Cushion Can be inspected on a drive-by for The system will need two shear bolts Shear bolts and delineator panel.
SCI external damage. If the frontal collapse and possibly a new delineator plate
has been initiated, the unit should be under design criteria impacts.
inspected and reset.

tacles. Buffer strips may be either planted or paved, and they are encouraged for use between urban roadways and their companion
sidewalks.
Figure 10-4 depicts the recommended placement of roadside objects in a buffer strip 1.2 m [4 ft] wide or less. Figure 10-5 demon-
strates recommended roadside object placement when the buffer strip width exceeds 1.2 m [4 ft]. Table 10-5 describes common strate-
gies for eliminating or minimizing motor vehicle–pedestrian crashes at roadside locations.
Figure 10-4. Landscape and Rigid Object Placement for Buffer Strip Widths ≤1.2 m [4 ft]
Figure 10-5. Landscape and Rigid Object Placement for Buffer Strip Widths >1.2 m [4 ft]

January 2012 Errata
surface treatment course to accommodate multiple patron use. Special measures also may be needed where highway traffic conditions
encourage hard braking or high acceleration by vehicles entering or exiting the mailbox turnout.
Edge dropoffs often are found at rural mailbox locations. The daily use by the delivery vehicles may loosen the soil at the edge of the
pavement. When the soil at the edge is eroded, a drop of 100 mm [4 in.] or more may result. These edge dropoffs can make it difficult
for drivers to safely return to the pavement if the vehicle strays onto the unstable soil. The use of paved turnouts is one solution. An-
other approach is a recent paving innovation called the Safety Edge, which shapes the edge of the traveled way into a 30 degree angle
rather than a vertical drop. This new angle is optimal in allowing motorists to return their vehicle to the pavement without overcor-
recting or losing control.
Drivers usually are required to slow their vehicles in traffic, which increases the risk of a crash. The ideal way to minimize this risk
is to provide a speed-change lane. A wide surface-treated shoulder is ideal for this purpose. Unfortunately, suitable shoulders are not
available at most mailbox turnout locations and it would be far too expensive to provide shoulders or turnouts that would allow a speed
change outside the traveled way. Figure 11-5 presents a mailbox turnout layout considered appropriate for different traffic conditions.
The minimum space needed for maneuvering to a parallel position in and out of traffic also is shown in Figure 11-5. However, when
only the minimum space is provided, the typical driver probably would slow considerably before starting into the low-speed turnout.
This tendency renders such minimum space unsuitable for high-speed highways where driver expectancy does not include such slow-
moving traffic.
Before entering a 2.4-m [8-ft] wide turnout with a 20:1 taper for high-speed traffic, as shown in Figure 11-5, a driver probably would
not slow as much before clearing the traveled way. Although this is not an ideal exit maneuver, it probably would not create an unac-
ceptable hazard on most rural highways for the few stops generated by a single mailbox.
Increasing the width of the turnout to 3.6 m [12 ft] and maintaining the 20:1 taper rate suggested in Figure 11-5 would induce a driver
using the turnout to enter it at a fair rate of speed, but it will not be as fast as the through speed. Although this still is not ideal, it should
be acceptable for most sites. The exception may be found on highways operating at high speeds and carrying more than 3,000 vehicles
per day, with a high percentage of them on long trips. For these conditions, mail stops should be kept to a minimum and consideration
should be given to providing shoulders or turnouts at the mail stops to facilitate greater speed-change opportunities outside the traffic
stream.
The tapers shown in Figure 11-5 represent theoretical layouts. It may be more practical to square the ends of the turnout or to provide a
stepped layout by strengthening and widening the shoulder to the full width of the turnout for the entire length of the taper. It also may
be simpler to construct a continuous turnout-width shoulder rather than individual turnouts where mailbox turnouts are closely spaced.
Direction of
Edge of Traveled Way
Travel
Edge of Paved Shoulder

W
Edge of Paved Turnout
4:1Taper For LS 5 m MIN. MAILBOXES 2 m MIN. 2:5:1 Taper For LS*

20:1 Taper For HS [16’–5”] MIN. VARIABLE [6’–7”] MIN. 12:1 Taper For HS
LS = A Minimum Design for Roads Carrying Low-Speed Traffic and for Local and Collector Roads.
HS = For Roads Carrying High-Speed Traffic.
W = For Suggested Widths, see Table 11-1.
MAILBOXES = For Mailbox Spacing and Variable Length, see Section 11.2.4, Mailbox Support and Attachment Design.
* = For Mailbox Face Offset, see Table 11-1, 0 mm to 300 mm [0” to 12”].
Figure 11-5. Mailbox Turnout
Erecting Mailboxes on Streets and Highways 11-7

Glossary
Adjacent Grading—Adjacent grading refers to the area on which the terminal is installed and the area immediately behind it.
Advance Grading—Advance grading refers to the area over which a vehicle may travel before any contact with a barrier terminal is
made.
Anchorage— A device which anchors a flexible or semi-rigid barrier to the ground so as to develop the barrier’s tensile strength during
an impact. Anchorages differ from terminals in that they are not considered crashworthy.
Area of Concern—An object or roadside condition that may warrant safety treatment.
Barricade—A device which provides a visual indicator of a hazardous location or the desired path a motorist should take. It is not
intended to contain or redirect an errant vehicle.
Barrier—A device which provides a physical limitation through which a vehicle would not normally pass. It is intended to contain or
redirect an errant vehicle.
Bi-directional—For the purposes of classifying crash cushions, bi-directional describes the capability of a crash cushion to safely
operate in the median of a divided highway or on an undivided roadway, where it will be exposed to impacts from two different direc-
tions of traffic. A bi-directional crash cushion is also a uni-directional crash cushion. A crash cushion is considered to be bi-directional
when it has been qualified through a reverse-direction crash test.
Breakaway—A design feature which allows a device such as a sign, luminaire, or traffic signal support to yield or separate upon im-
pact. The release mechanism may be a slip plane, plastic hinges, fracture elements, or a combination of these.
Bridge Railing—A longitudinal barrier whose primary function is to prevent an errant vehicle from going over the side of the bridge
structure.
Clearance—Lateral distance from edge of traveled way to a roadside object or feature.
Clear Runout Area—The area at the toe of a non-recoverable slope available for safe use by an errant vehicle.
Clear Zone—The unobstructed, traversable area provided beyond the edge of the through traveled way for the recovery of errant
vehicles. The clear zone includes shoulders, bike lanes, and auxiliary lanes, except those auxiliary lanes that function like through
lanes.
Glossary G-1

Loads acting onto a structural systems
1. Dead load
2. Live load
3. Wind load
4. Stress created by temperature differences
5. Stress created by other form of disruption
including ground movement, vibration,
deformation or earthquake
How long is long-span for buildings
Structure with span larger than 20m can be
regarded as long span structure for this
span is usually unable to be achieved by
ordinary RC structure.
Materials suitable for various forms of long
span and complex structure
1. All reinforced concrete including precast
2. All metal (e.g. mild-steel, structural steel,
stainless steel or alloyed alumimum,
3. All timber
4. Laminated timber
5. Metal/RC combined
6. Plastic-coated Textile material
7. Fiber reinforced plastic
Common Structural Forms
for Long Span Building Structures
1. Insitu RC, tensioned
2. Precast concrete, tensioned
3. Structural steel – erected on spot
4. Structural steel – prefabricated and
installed on spot
5. Portal frame – insitu RC
6. Portal frame – precast
7. Portal frame – prefabricated steel
One way to classify long-span and
complicated structures
z Form active systems
z Vector active systems
z Section active systems
z Surface active systems
Form active structural systems
. . . are systems of flexible, non-rigid matter, in
which the redirection of forces is effected by
particular form design and characteristic
form stabilization
Example of structures:
1. Cable structures
2. Tent structures
3. Pneumatic structures
4. Arch structures
Illustrated examples of parallel cable structures
Examples of cable structures formed by arch
Examples of tent structures
Examples of pneumatic structures
Examples of pneumatic structures
Examples of arch structures
Vector active structural systems
. . . are systems of short, solid, straight lineal
members, in which the redirection of forces
is effected by vector partition, i.e. by multi-
directional splitting of single force simply
to tension or compressive elements
1. Flat trusses
2. Curved trusses
3. Space trusses
Flat truss systems
curved truss systems

Illustrated examples of flat truss structures
Illustrated examples of hinged truss structures
Section active structural systems
. . . are systems of rigid, solid, linear
elements, in which redirection of forces
is effected by mobilization of sectional
forces
1. Beam structures
2. Frame structures
3. Slab structures
1 & 2 bay beams 1 & 2 bay frames
Beam-grid systems Slab structures

Hinged
frame
structures
Illustrated examples of multi-panel frame structures
Surface active structural systems
. . . are systems of flexible or rigid planes
able to resist tension, compression or
shear, in which the redirection of forces
is effected by mobilization of sectional
forces
1. Plate structures
2. Folded structures
3. Shell structures
Folded plate
Multi-bay
structures
Shell structures
Various forms of folded structures
Examples of
shell structures
Development History of
Long Span Structure
The development of long span structures
How arch was constructed to provide a long
span roof for traditional western buildings
Vaulted ceiling
Long span roof structure as seen from the interior

Exterior view of the Crystal Palace,
built in 1851 for the first World Fair
The Gallery of Machine, constructed
in 1889 for the Paris Exhibition
Other Overseas Examples
The Munich Olympic Stadium
The Munich Olympic Stadium
for the 1972 Olympic
The Melbourne Central
An openable roof operating
on a Rail system
Sky Dome, Toronto
Toronto Tower
The Skydome
Openable roof
The Skydome
Features of the roof system
• SkyDome's roof system features a series of 3
moveable panels and 1 stationary panel.
• the roof operates on a system of steel tracks and is
powered by a series of DC motors
• roof area is 31,525 sq metres
• weight is 11,000 tons
• span at widest point 209 metres
• height is 85m (from field level to highest point)
• roofing material is PVC on insulated acoustic steel
deck
• 100% of the field & 91% of seating area exposed
with the roof open
• pen/close time - 20 minutes (21m per minute)
Charles-de-Gaulle International
Airport, France
Charles-de-Gaulle
International Airport, France,
completed in 1998
Interior view of the
airport concourse
Curving trusses extending from the
roof to take up the external glass wall
The Louisiana Superdome, USA – a 580m clear span sport
complex opened in 1975
Erecting the steel trusses for the Superdome, the towering structures
in majority are the temporary supporting to facilitate the erection
A pneumatic exhibition
hall in a construction plant
expo in Les Vegas, USA
Interior view of the
exhibition hall and the
air-pressurizing fans
Another example of Tent Structure – German Pavilion, Expo ’67,
Montreal, Canada
Tenerife Exhibition Central Stadium
Tenerife Exhibition Centre in Spain, a shallow
arch structure of 270m span completed in 1995.
85m-span ribbed arch that formed the podium
deck of the exhibition space which is
constructed by in-situ, post-tensioned concrete
TGC Station at the Airport of Lyon,
France, completed in 1994. (span 120m)
Station interior under the 120m span roof
The
Hamburg
Airport, UK
Airport Terminal at Stuttgart, Germany
Roof plan/detail of
the Stuttgart
Terminal Building
Example in China –
Guangzhou Olympus Stadium
External view of Stadium
Detail showing the
form and shape of the
cantilevered roof
Hoisting the cantilever truss
Placing the roof
truss in position
Tie systems
Tie systems to stabilize the cantilevered roof

Enlarged details
of the Tie systems
Decking system of the roof
Laying of the
roof deck
Semi-cladded roof
underside
Piers supporting the

cantilever roof truss
The Guangzhou Gymnasium
The Shanghai Stadium
Beijing 2008 Olympus Centre – The Nest
Beijing 2008 Olympus Centre – The Nest
Example in Hong Kong
Hong Kong Cultural Centre and Space Museum
The Hong Kong coliseum
The Hong Kong coliseum
Span about 35m
Member Centre of the

Hong Kong Jockey Club
The Peak Tower
The Peak Tower
The Hong Kong Stadium
Hanger structure for
HK Aircraft
Engineering
Company Ltd.
(HAECO) at Chek
Lap Kok Airport
Headquarter Building, Hong
Kong $ Shanghai Bank
The Skylight structure
of Festival Walk
The Interior Space
housed the Shying
Ring and food court
inside Festival Walk
Linking structure between
the International Finance
Center Phase I and II
The deck and roof
structure of the HK
Convention and
Exhibition Centre
Hoisting of the
80m-span roof
truss
Placing of the roof truss
at the top of the core wall
Linking structure
between Phase I and II
of the HK Convention
and Exhibition Centre
The New Hong Kong
International Airport
at Chek Lap Kok
The New Hong Kong
International Airport at
Chek Lap Kok
The Sky Dome, Cyber Port
The Sky Dome, Cyber Port
View of the mall interior under the Sky
Dome in the Cyber Centre, Cyber Port
The Arch in
Kowloon Station
The roof structure of
Langham Place –
Shopping Mall
The Grand Atrium
in Langham Mall
New Lisbon Casino.
Macau
New Lisbon, the hotel tower
End of Presentation

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Errata to Roadside Design Guide, 4th Edition

Page Existing Text Corrected Text

Design ADT Backslope Design ADT Backslope

Also, the dimension “[11 to 15 ft]” should be

Also, the dimension “[10.5 to 15 ft]” for Curve 2

RSDG-4-E5 1 July 2015

7 m [23 ft] 4 m [13 ft] Runout Area

Through 3 m [10 ft] 4 m [13 ft] 2 m [7 ft]

Roadside Topography and Drainage Features 3-21

© 2011 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

5.3 m to 6.8 m [18 ft to 21 ft] 3.5 m to 4.5 m [12 ft to 14 ft]

Shoulder Ramp Shoulder

Clear Zone for Simple Ramps Cross Section Curve 1

2.0 m to 3.0 m [7 ft to 10 ft] 3.0 m to 4.5 m [10 ft to 15 ft]

Shoulder Ramp Shoulder

Clear Zone for Simple Ramps Cross Section Curve 2

3-26 Roadside Design Guide

© 2011 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

2.0 m to 3.0 m [7 ft to 10 ft] 3.0 m to 4.5 m [10 ft to 15 ft]

Shoulder Ramp Shoulder

Clear Zone for Complex Ramps Cross Section Curve 2

2.0 m to 3.0 m [7 ft to 10 ft] 2.4 m to 3.6 m [8 ft to 12 ft]

Shoulder Ramp Shoulder

3-28 Roadside Design Guide

© 2011 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

4.2 m to 4.9 m [14 ft to 16 ft] 3.0 m to 3.5 m [10 ft to 12 ft]

Shoulder Ramp Shoulder

Clear Zone for Complex Ramps Cross Section Curve 4

Clear Zone for Outside Curve 1

Clear Zone for Inside Freeway Clear Zone

Clear Zone for Inside

Clear Zone for Complex Ramps Plan View

Roadside Topography and Drainage Features 3-29

© 2011 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

FHWA System Reference

W-Beam (Weak Post) 2 B-64 SGR02 5.4.1.3

5-12 Roadside Design Guide

© 2011 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

Figure 5-34. MGS Placed at 1V:2H Slope Breakpoint

5-42 Roadside Design Guide

© 2011 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

5.6.2 Terrain Effects

Smooth Finish Smooth Finish

1’–9” 9” 525 mm 225 mm

U.S. Customary Metric

Roadside Barriers 5-43

© 2011 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

CLEAR DISTANCE LINE

EDGE OF THROUGH TRAVELED WAY TRAFFIC

Figure 5-39. Approach Barrier Layout Variables

Roadside Barriers 5-49

© 2011 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

Transition 1V:3H to 1V:6H

L2 = 2.0 m (6.6’) LR = 88 m (290’) Traffic

Figure 5-47. Example of Barrier Design for Non-Traversable Embankments

5-58 Roadside Design Guide

© 2011 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFIC

CONSIDERED CONSIDERED OPTIONAL