Mineral Processing

MINING 3. Underground Mining

Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals from an ore Access is via vertical shafts or inclined roadways
body, vein or seam. (adits). There are usually two access routes (one for
men and materials, and one for the ore) for safety and
Materials recovered by mining include bauxite, coal, for ease of ventilation (fresh air comes in one and is
copper, gold, silver, diamonds, iron, precious metals, lead, then exhausted out of the other).
limestone, magensite, nickel, phosphate, oil shale, rock salt,
tin, uranium and molybdenum. Once at the correct depth, horizontal tunnels are
driven to reach the ore deposit. These are permanent
There are four main types of mining: dredging, surface structures so require strong roof supports (often
mining, underground mining and insitu mining. including 'bolts' into the rock to tie the layers together
for strength). In contrast, tunnels into the ore deposit
1. Dredging itself are often temporary, and so the support is less
substantial. Transport for men and materials can be by
This is a high-volume mining technique for low-value train, truck or man-riding conveyor belts.
products near a plentiful source of water.
Scoops/buckets are used to extract material from There are a multitude of different extraction
shallow water (often man-made lagoons). A high-tech techniques but the main ones are:
variation of this is undersea mining, where material is a. Room and pillar
sucked from the seafloor (although the only successful
application of this to-date has been for gem diamonds Matrix of excavated rooms with pillars left
in shallow waters). between them to hold up the roof. This method is
popular for shallow mines where the mineral is
The mining process is usually combined with the thick but of relatively low value (it is a relatively
processing (typically drying and concentration) on a wasteful method as subsequent removal of the
floating barge, which is anchored in the middle of the pillars is dangerous). This method lends itself to
lagoon. the use of mechanised extraction.

2. Surface Mining b. Longwall systems (Stoping in hard-rock mining)

Called 'Open-cast' if soft-rock mining (eg coal or The mineral (which is usually in a relatively
limestone) and 'Open-pit' if hard- rock mining (eg narrow seam) is extracted as a face (advancing or
copper and diamonds). The mining process is retreating) between two parallel roadways. This
fundamentally different between these soft- and hard- system is very popular in coal mining; using
rock operations. The former operations are usually shearers (rotating drums with teeth) or plows (a
rectangular in general shape (and advance along the fixed, chisel-like, machine that cuts slices).
seam, with waste infill behind as they advance) while
the latter are oval. c. Block Caving

Surface mines normally only extend to a depth of Tunnels are driven under the ore deposit and the
about 200 m, below which it is usually cheaper to rock above is fragmented (by drilling/blasting
extract the metal from underground. The cut-off point and then the rock collapsing under its own
will depend on the economies of the two methods, weight) and the material is drawn down through
with surface costs being dominated by the ore:waste 'ore passes' (see below).
(stripping) ratio, which, in turn, will depend on the
shape of the ore body, the amount of overburden to be d. Cut and Fill
removed and the safe steepness of the wall (i.e. bench
height vs width). This latter item will depend on the Suited to irregular ore deposits of high-value
type of rock and the number of fractures etc. minerals, this method involves mining upwards
in horizontal slices, with each slice being
Hard-rock surface mining is dominated by backfilled (usually with a concrete mix to provide
drilling/blasting and then lifting of the broken ore a suitable floor) once the fragmented ore from
either into trucks or onto conveyors for transportation above has been collected.
to the processing plant. This lifting is usually by
excavator (electric or hydraulic; with shovel or Depending on the mine configuration, the target
backhoe configuration) or front-end loader. The softer mineral can be collected directly from ore passes
rocks can be recovered directly by using very (effectively vertical tunnels used to store rock) or
powerful excavators (including the huge bucket-wheel lifted from the floor using load-haul-dump (LHD)
machines). vehicles. Transportation to the shaft or incline
can be by train, truck or conveyor.

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Mineral Processing

Ore: This is separated from the waste rock at the earliest It is the recovery (of gold and silver) from finely-
opportunity to avoid dilution (which would involve extra ground ore by simultaneous dissolution and adsorption
cost). 'Run-of-mine' is used to describe the ore as it of the precious metals onto fine carbon in an agitated
emerges from the mine, i.e. before treatment. slurry tank.

Waste: Although some rock can be stored underground 2. Flotation

(and is ideally used to provide roof support by grinding it
and pumping it back into the excavated areas) most has to This process has been used to separate minerals since
be taken to the surface. the early 1920s, and involves treating the ground ore
in a bubbling mixture of water and chemical
4. In situ Mining constituents. The metallic minerals bond with the
chemicals (ie they stick and rise to the surface) and
There are two main types of in situ mining; solution can then be skimmed off and the chemicals washed or
and thermal. burnt off. The resultant material can then be subjected
to refining and/or smelting processes to improve the
a. Solution product's purity.

Involves the injection of water down drill holes 3. Heap Leach

into soluble deposits (most commonly salt). The
mineral-rich solution is then pumped back to the It is the dissolving-out from mined rock of the
surface. contained soluble metals by percolating a chemical
solution through mounded material.
b. Thermal
4. ISA Process
Although only still at the research stage, it is
theoretically possible to burn coal in-situ (by Patented by Xstrata this process is used in more than
creating cracks, then injecting oxygen and a heat 35% of the world's copper refining operations. The
source) and recovering the resultant heat (in technology is used to bypass complex processes by
effect, an underground power station without utilizing permanent stainless-steel cathodes in electro-
going to the trouble of extracting the coal). The winning applications. Xstrata also developed the ISA
difficulty has always come in controlling the smelt high-intensity copper-smelting furnace.
burning process.
5. Solvent-extraction Electro-winning (SX-EW)

MINERAL PROCESSING It is the process of dissolving the copper from the rock
by organic solvents and recovering copper from the
The valuable metal needs to be separated from the solution by electrolysis.
surrounding gangue (uneconomic) material. Much of this
can be done by efficient mining methods so that there is not Mined bauxite is ground and mixed with caustic soda to
too much dilution of the ore. form slurry. This is treated, and the alumina trihydrate
particles recovered and smelted to form alumina. Oxygen is
Initial stages usually involve crushing (e.g. Jaw Breakers) driven off by electrolytic action (in a refinery) to produce
and grinding (e.g. Ball Mills) of the ore to reduce the aluminum.
material to sand and silt sizes. Classifiers (essentially giant
sieves) are used to check particle sizes, with the oversize Copper ore is concentrated by grinding and flotation, and
material being recycled. This process makes handling the smelted in a furnace to create copper matte. Iron and sulfur
ore easier and raises the likelihood of being able to liberate impurities are then removed in a converter (heated air is
all of the valuable metal elements (and maximizing the blown through the material) to create blister copper, which
surface area that will come into contact with subsequent is fire-refined and then electrolytically-refined to produce
chemical processes). copper cathodes.

The next stage is normally a series of concentration Zinc concentrates are roasted and the resulting calcine is
processes; e.g. removing water and waste material. Where leached and purified. Electrolyte zinc is deposited on
the ore has to be transported a considerable distance, this sheets, stripped from them and then melted in a furnace
concentration will occur at the mine site rather than at the (with the molten metal being cast in slabs.
processing operation. (In these circumstances, the ore can
be transported as slurry via a pipeline.) The waste material from these processes is usually
transported to a tailings dam (although they are sometimes
Processing methods include: dumped, controversially, at sea). There are various types
but all are expensive, and so generally the retaining walls
1. Carbon in Leach are built with either the waste product itself or with
material that is available locally.

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Mineral Processing

IRON ORE PROCESSING The crushed material is transferred by belt to an ore storage
building. An apron feeder sends the ore to the concentrator
Iron ores occur in igneous, metamorphic (transformed), or building for grinding, separating, and concentrating.
sedimentary rocks in a variety of geologic environments.
Most are sedimentary, but many have been changed by
weathering, and so their precise origin is difficult to Concentrating
determine. The most widely distributed iron-bearing
minerals are oxides, and iron ores consist mainly of The crude taconite is now roughly the size of a football or
hematite (Fe2O3), which is red; magnetite (Fe3O4), which smaller. A series of conveyor belts continuously feed the
is black; limonite or bog-iron ore (2Fe2O3·3H2O), which ore into semi-autogenous primary grinding mills. Water is
is brown; and siderite (FeCO3), which is pale brown. added at this point to transport it (94 percent of the water is
Hematite and magnetite are by far the most common types recycled, while the rest is lost through evaporation).
of ore.
Each primary mill contains several 4" steel balls that grind
Pure magnetite contains 72.4 percent iron, hematite 69.9 the ore as the mills turn. When the ore is reduced to 3/4" or
percent, limonite 59.8 percent, and siderite 48.2 percent, less, it moves out of the mill in a slurry solution. The mill
but, since these minerals never occur alone, the metal discharge is screened at 1/4" on trommel screens attached
content of real ores is lower. Deposits with less than 30 to the mill. Ore smaller than 1/4" is pumped in slurry
percent iron are commercially unattractive, and, although solution to the wet cobber magnetic separator which begins
some ores contain as much as 66 percent iron, there are the process of separating the iron from the non-iron
many in the 50–60 percent range. An ore’s quality is also material. The magnetic iron ore is then laundered in two
influenced by its other constituents, which are collectively slurry surge tanks while the non-magnetics (silica/sand) go
known as gangue. Silica (SiO2) and phosphorus-bearing to the tailings disposal area.
compounds (usually reported as P2O5) are especially
important because they affect the composition of the metal Dilution
and pose extra problems in steelmaking. Feed Dilution
water
Magnetic
water cobbers

Mining and Concentrating

Launder
Most iron ores are extracted by surface mining. Some
underground mines do exist, but, wherever possible,
surface mining is preferred because it is cheaper. Hydro
separator
To Ball
SAG Mill
Crushing the Ore Mill
Slurry
The crude taconite is delivered to large gyrator crushers, To tailings surge
where chunks as large as five feet are reduced to six inches thickener tank
or less.
Most of the material continues to be finely ground in one of
Iron ore five secondary ball mills, which are powered by electric
motors ranging from 2,500 hp to 4,000 hp and are charged
with 1-1/2" chrome grinding balls. Fine grinding is
Gyratory achieved using these smaller mills, bringing the ore to a
crusher similar grind as that found in face powder. The screen
undersize is then moved to hydroseparators, where silica is
floated off the top.
Feeder
The hydroseparator underflow is pumped to the finisher
magnetic separators. Once again, the magnetic separators
grab the iron and discard the silica and sand. Thus, the ore
Ore is "concentrated" by removing the waste materials. The
Primary Stockpile concentrate from the separators is pumped to fine
conveyor screening.
To
Apron Grinding
feeder circuit

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Mineral Processing

Fines Mixing with Binding Agents

Feed
Hydrocyclone Once the filter cake is complete, it is deposited into a surge
bin. It then travels onto a feeder belt and from there to a
Hydro conveyor where bentonite, a bonding agent, is added.
Dilution separators Bentonite is clay from Wyoming used to help iron ore
water concentrate stick together when rolled into pellets. About
16 pounds of Bentonite are added to every ton of iron ore
concentrate.

Small amounts of limestone (1%) are also added and mixed

with the concentrate at this point. Limestone is added to
Ball meet the requirements of steel customers in the blast
Magnetic
Mill furnace process.
finisher
Filter
Screen Cake
Bypass Bentonite
To
Tailings
Surge Bentonite
thickener
Fine Bin Storage
Screen
To
Limestone
Concentrate
thickener

The oversize material is returned to the balls mills, while

the undersize (with the most impurities removed) becomes
the final concentrate. Waste from the circuit goes to the Pelletizing
tailings basin and the final concentrate travels to thickeners
located in the pellet plant. The underflow from the
Mixer
thickeners is pumped to a storage tank and then to disc
filters for dewatering.
Concentrate The iron ore concentrate is now mixed and ready for the
Thickener pelletizing process.

Feed
Pelletizing

Overflow A pellet plant contains a series of balling drums where the

iron ore concentrate is formed into soft pellets, in much the
same manner that one rolls a snowball, to make a pellet
about the size of a marble (between 1/4" and 1/2"). Pellets
Underflow are screened to meet the size specification, with undersized
or oversized pellets crushed and returned to the balling
drums.
Distributor
To Surge The soft pellets are then delivered to the roller feeder for
Bin Concentrate final removal of the fines, which are also returned to the
Disc Storage
Filter balling circuits. Now the soft pellets which are correctly
Tank sized, are delivered to the traveling grate furnace for further
drying and preheating. The grate is fired by natural gas.

The product is called “filter cake”, and is now ready for From this point, the pellets are charged into the large rotary
mixing with the binding agent. kiln where they are heathardened at 2,400 ºF.

The pellets are discharged into the revolving cooler and

then moved to the pellet screening plant, onto the pellet
loadout system. The whole process consumes energy in the
form of electricity and natural gas. Over the past several
years, millions of dollars have been spent to improve
energy efficiency and to recoup waste heat and re-use it in

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Mineral Processing

the process. These efforts have significantly reduced Their chemical compositions (% by weight) are:
expenditures on energy.
Ni/
Balling Cast iron %C %Si %Mn %P Mg/
Drum Cr
Travelling Grey cast iron 3.4 1.8 0.5
Grate Kiln
White cast iron 3.4 0.7 0.6
Malleable iron 2.5 1.0 0.55
1.0/
Cooler Ductile iron 3.4 0 0.4 0.1 0.06/
0
4.5/
Ni-hard 2.7 0.6 0.5 0/
2.0
To Pellet
Stockpile Typical applications are:

The pelletizing process has now been completed. The

pellets are run through a final screening to remove those Brinell
Cast iron Application
Hardness
not meeting size specifications or those that are chipped or
broken into fines. Pellets that meet the necessary standards Engine blocks, flywheels, gears,
Grey cast iron 180
are conveyed to the pellet stockpile, which holds about machine-tool bases
30,000 tons. White cast iron Bearing surfaces 450
Malleable iron Axle bearings, crankshafts 130
Pellet Loadout and Shipping Ductile iron Gears, cams, crankshafts 310
Ni-hard Strength 550
The pellets are now ready for shipping by train to
customers or to ore docks. They are sent to blast furnaces
and steel mills, where they will be turned into finished Yield stresses and tensile stresses are:
steel.
Yield Stress Tensile Stress
Cast iron
(ksi) (ksi)
FERROUS METALS
Grey cast iron - 25
Cast iron usually refers to grey cast iron and are brittle. White cast iron - 25
Grey is the color of the fractured surface. It is strong under
compression, but not under tension. Malleable iron 33 52
Ductile iron 108 135
It’s main characteristics are:
Ni-hard - 55
1) Low melting point
2) Good fluidity
3) Castability Hardness
4) Excellent machinability
5) Wear resistance Hardness refers to the property of a solid to resist
permanent deformation when force is applied to it.
White cast iron has a white fractured surface.
Hardness increases with decreasing particle size.
Iron (Fe) accounts for more than 95% wt of the alloy
material, while the main alloying elements are carbon (C) In material science, there are three (3) operational
and silicon (Si). The amount of carbon in cast iron is definitions of hardness:
usually 2.1 to 4.0 % wt.
1) Scratch hardness – due to friction
Types of cast iron are: 2) Indentation hardness – due to constant load
1) Grey cast iron (ASTM A48) 3) Rebound hardness – due to impact (elasticity)
2) White cast iron
3) Malleable iron (ASTM A47) Mohs scale characterizes the scratch hardness by the use of
4) Nodular (ductile) cast iron (ASTM A339) a sclerometer whereby a hard material is made to scratch a
softer material.

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Mineral Processing

Brinell scale characterizes the indentation hardness of STEELS

materials through the scale of penetration of an indenter,
loaded on a material testpiece. A 10mm steel ball at a force Steel is an alloy consisting mostly of iron, with a carbon
of 3,000 kgf is applied to most materials; a tungsten carbide content between 0.20% and 0.24% by weight depending on
ball is used for harder materials the grade.

2P Nickel and Manganese are added to steel to increase it’s

BHN = tensile strength and more chemically stable. Chromium
π D ( D − D2 − d 2 ) increases hardness and melting temperature. Vanadium
where increases hardness while reducing effects of metal fatigue.
BHN = Brinell Hardness Number, dimensionless Tungsten interferes with the formation of cementite,
P = Applied force, kgf allowing martensite to form with slower quench rates,
D = Diameter of indenter, (mm) resulting in high speed steels.
d = Diameter of indentation (mm)
Sulfur, nitrogen, and phosphorous make steel more brittle.
Typical Brinell Hardness Numbers

Material BHN Classification and Specifications of Steels

Aluminum 15 Steels are generally classified as carbon steel or alloy steel.

Copper 35 Specifications can be as simple as a hardness requirement.
Mild steel 120
18-8 (304) stainless steel 1250 Carbon Steels
Glass 1550
Carbon steels (also called plain-carbon-steels) constitute a
Hardened tool steel 1500 - 1900 family of iron-carbon-manganese alloys. In the SAE/AISI
system, the carbon steels are classified as follows:
Bennett hardness scale measures the rebound hardness by
the measured ‘bounce’ height of a diamond-tipped hammer Nonresulfurized carbon steels 10xx series
dropped at a fixed height onto a material. Resulfurized steels 11xx series
Rephosphorized and resulfurized steels 12xx series
High-manganese carbon steels 15xx series
Brittleness
A 4-digit SAE/AISI number is sued to classify the carbon
Brittleness is the tendency of a solid to fracture with very steels with the first two digits being the series code and the
little or no detectable deformation beforehand. last two digits being the nominal carbon content in points
of carbon (1 point = 0.01% C).

Strength For example, SAE/AISI 1020 steel is a carbon steel

containing 0.20% C (actually 0.18-0.22% C).
Strength is property of a solid to resist strain. Ultimate
strength is the measure of the maximum strain a solid Because of the wide range in carbon content, the SAE/AISI
material can withstand. 10xx carbon steels are the most commonly used steels. All
SAE/AISI 10xx series carbon steels contain manganese at
levels between 0.25 and 1.00%. For a century, manganese
Toughness ahs been an important alloying element in steel because it
combines with the impurity sulfur to form manganese
Toughness is the maximum energy a solid can absorb sulfide (MnS) which are less detrimental than iron sulfide
before fracturing. (FeS). However, with the development of steelmaking
practices to produce very low sulfur steel, manganese is
becoming less important in this role.
Ductility
The SAE/AISI 11xx series of resulfurized steels contain
Ductility is the mechanical property of a solid to be between 0.08 and 0.33% sulfur. Although in most steel,
deformed plastically without fracture. It is the most sulfur is considered an undesirable impurity and is
important parameter to consider in metal forming restricted to less than 0.05%, in the SAE/AISI 11xx and
operations such as rolling, extrusion, and drawing. 12xx series of steels, sulfur is added to form excess
manganese sulfide inclusions. These are the free-
machining steels that have improved machinability over
lower sulfur steels due to enhance chip breaking and
lubrication created by the MnS inclusions.

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Mineral Processing

Nickel-molybdenum steels 46xx and 48xx series

The SAE/AISI 12xx series are also free-machining steels
50xx and 51xx series
and contain both sulfur (0.16-0.35%) and phosphorous
Chromium steels 50xxx, 51xxx, and 52xxx
(0.04-0.12%).
series
The SAE/AISI 15xx series contain higher manganese levels Chromium-vanadium steels 61xx series
(up to 1.65%) than the SAE/AISI 10xx series of carbon Tungsten-chromium steels 71xxx, 72xx series
steels.
Silicon-manganese steels 92xx series
Boron steels xxBxx series
Alloy Steels
Leaded steels xxLxx series
Alloy steels are alloys of iron with the addition of one or
more of the following elements:
Stainless Steels
(a) Carbon
(b) Manganese Stainless steels are corrosion-resistant steels that contain at
(c) Silicon least 10.5% chromium. Chromium is unique in that it
(d) Nickel forms a passive layer on the steel surface that provides
(e) Chromium protection from corrosion. There are basically five types of
(f) Molybdenum stainless steels:
(g) Vanadium
Austenitic stainless steels
2xx series
The alloy steels cover a wide range of steels, including: 1 with low nickel
Austenitic stainless steels 3xx series
(a) Low-alloy steels
2 Ferritic stainless steels 4xx series
(b) Stainless steels
(c) Heat-resistant steels 3 Duplex stainless steel 329
(d) Tool steels 4 Martensitic stainless steels 4xx series
Silicon, when required, is added as a deoxidizer to the Precipitation strengthening
5 6xx (xx-x PH)
molten steel. stainless steels

Nickel provides strength and assists in hardening the steel The other stainless steels types are:
by quenching and tempering heat treatment.
(a) Tool steels
Chromium is found in stainless steels for corrosion (b) Heat-resistant steels
resistance. Chromium and molybdenum also assist in (c) Wear-resistant steels (austenitic manganese steels)
hardenability of the low-alloy steels. Vanadium (d) Ultra-high strength steel
strengthens the steel by forming precipitates of vanadium
carbonitride. Vanadium is also a potent hardenability The classification system is different for the stainless steels
element. than the system for SAE/AISI low-alloy steels and carbon
steels in that the last two (2) digits (xx) do not represent the
carbon content and have no particular compositional
Low-alloy Steels meaning.

The general SAE/AISI classification system for low-alloy Austenitic stainless steels have sufficient alloying to
steels is as follows: stabilize austenite at room temperature. These steels being
austenitic are nonmagnetic. Austenitic stainless steels have
excellent low-temperature toughness, weldability, and
Manganese steels 13xx series corrosion resistance. On the other hand, they have
Nickel steels 23xx, 25xx series relatively low yield strength and can only be strengthened
31xx, 32xx, 33xx, and 34xx by cold working the steel, by precipitation hardening, or by
Nickel-chromium steels interstitial or substitutional solid solution strengthening.
series
Molybdenum steels 40xx, 44xx series 201 Low nickel replaced with manganese and nitrogen
Chromium-molybdenum steels 41xx series 202 Higher Mn than 201
43xx and 47xx series
205 Higher Mn and N than 202
81xx, 86xx, 87xx, and 88xx
Nickel-chromium- 301 Lower Ni and Cr to increase work-hardening ability
series
molybdenum steels
93xx, 94xx, 97xx, and 98xx 302 General-purpose 18-8 stainless steel
series

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Mineral Processing

302B Scaling resistance improved with Si 430 General-purpose ferritic stainless steel
303 Enhanced machinability ith a S addition 430F Free machining with higher S and P
303Se Improved machined surfaces with a selenium 430Se Selenium added for improved machined surface
addition 434 Mo added for improved corrosion resistance
304 Popular 18-8 stainless steel, lower C than 302
436 Mo, Nb, and Ta added for corrosion and heat
304L Low-carbon 304 for improved corrosion resistance resistance
304LN Low-carbon 304 with nitrogen added for strength 439 Low C, Ti added to minimize sensitization
304H Higher carbon 304 442 Higher Cr for improved oxide scaling resistance
304Cu Copper added for improved cold working 444 Low C, Mo for corrosion resistance. Ti and Nb for
304N Nitrogen added for strength sensitization.
446 Highest Cr for improved scaling resistance
305 Higher Ni for reduced work hardening
308 Higher Cr and Ni for weldability Duplex stainless steels have corrosion characteristics
309 High Cr and Ni for heat resistance similar to austenitic stainless steels. However, they have
higher strength and better resistance to stress-corrosion
309S Lower carbon 309
cracking than austenitic stainless steels.
309Cb Niobium (columbium)added
310 Higher Cr and Ni than 309 for improved heat Martensitic stainless steels generally have higher strength
resistance than the austenitic and ferritic stainless steels. The
310S Lower carbon 310 martensitic stainless steels are listed below:
310Cb Niobium (columbium) added 403 Select quality for highly stressed parts
314 Higher Si for improved heat resistance 410 General-purpose martensitic stainless steel
316 Mo added for improved corrosion resistance 414 Ni added for improved corrosion
316F Higher S and P for machinability 416 Higher P and S for improved machinabiltiy
316L Lower C for improved corrosion resistance and 416Se Se added for improved machined surfaces
weldability
316LN Lower C and higher nitrogen (for strength) 420 Higher C for increased strength
316H Higher carbon 316 420F Free machining with higher P and S
316N Nitrogen added for strength 422 Mo, V, and W added for increased strength and
toughness
316Ti Titanium added 431 Higher Cr, Ni added for improved corrosion
316Cb Niobium (columbium) added resistance
440A Highest Cr, C added for increased hardness
317 Higher Cr and Mo for improved corrosion resistance
440B Highest Cr, more C added for increased
317L Low-carbon 317 for improved weldability
hardness/toughness
321 Titanium added to minimize Cr carbide precipitation 440C Highest Cr, highest C for increased
330 High Ni to minimize carburization and improve hardness/toughness
thermal shock 501 Low Cr, Mo added
347 Nb and Ta added to minimize Cr carbide 502 Low C, Mo added
precipitation
347H Higher carbon 347
Precipitation hardening stainless steels are iron-chromium-
348 Ta and Co added for restricted nuclear applications nickel alloys that develop high strength and toughness
348H Higher carbon 348 through additions of Al, Ti, Nb, V, and/or N, which form
precipitates during an aging heat treatment. Some selected
384 Higher Ni for decreased work hardening grades are listed below:

Ferritic stainless steels are basically iron-chromium alloys 600 Austenitic grade with Mo, Al, Ti, V, and B added
with chromium ranging from 10.5 to 27%. These steels 630 Martensitic grade with Cu and Nb added
have a microstructure of ferrite at room temperature and are
magnetic. 631 Austenitic grade with Al added
633 Austenitic grade with Mo and N added
405 Low Cr with Al added
635 Martensitic grade with Al and Ti added
409 Low Cr, for automotive exhaust applications
429 Slightly less Cr, better weldability

Page 8
Mineral Processing

ALUMINUM PROCESSING washed as it is filtered. The alumina hydrate (AlOH3) is

then dried. It can be further calcined to Al2O3, alumina, in
Aluminum has a density of 2.70 g/cm³ (0.097 lb/in³). a rotary kiln at 800 defrees F.

Atomic number = 13 From the kiln, the alumina is allowed to cool and it is
Atomic weight = 26.98 stored for shipment to the aluminum plant. To produce
Melting point = 660.2 ºC aluminum, the alumina is reduced in a electrical reduction
Boiling point = 2,467 ºC cell which produces pure Al plus carbon dioxide (CO2).
Specific gravity = 2.69 Now, aluminum ingots or billets are stored for
manufacturers of aluminum products, such as automobiles,
Aluminum refining involves extracting alumina from pots and pans, and the ubiquitous aluminum siding that
bauxite, a red-orange, pebbly rock. covers many houses. The electrical reduction plants are
power intensive, using up to 16,000 KW of electricity per
The refining process involves dissolving alumina with ton of aluminum produced.
caustic soda under high temperatures and then precipitating
it from the liquid and heating it to white powder. The
resulting alumina is shipped to aluminum smelters, where
an electrolytic process is used to turn it into pure
aluminum. Four (4) tons of bauxite yields two (2) tons of
alumina, which yield (1) one ton of aluminum.

Bauxite, the primary aluminum ore, uses the Bayer Process

to extract alumina from the ore. The processing begins with
crushing to 1-2 inch particles and wet screening, to remove
some silica fines, which are generally present with bauxite.

From here, the ore is digested in a heated, pressurized

vessel at temperatures up to 450 ºF and pressures of 500
psi. Generally, there are differing types of alumina ores in
the bauxite deposit, and these require different temperatures
to digest. The low temperature digestor typically operates
at 275 to 290 ºF. Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) is used to
dissolve the alumina in the digestor. The Pregnant liquor is
separated from the red mud tailings using a series of
thickeners set up in counter current decantation
arrangement, to continuously wash the alumina bearing
liquor from the tailings, until only barren tailings remain.
Various contaminants (iron, organic matter) can play havoc
with the process and may require sub routines to remove
them.

Filtration &
Bauxite Digestion Precipitation
calcination

Ingots
Smelting
Alumina Casting Billets
reduction
Slabs

Filtration, such as vacuum drum or pressure filters, remove

the silica and low solids from the clarified alumina bearing
liquor. The liquid containing the dissolved alumina is
pumped to tanks called crystalization or precipitation tanks.
The liquid is cooled with water from the counter current
decantation thickeners, and as it cools, alumina hydrate
slowly precipitates from the tank, according to the formula:

2NaAlO 2 + 4H 2 O → Al 2 O 3 + 3H 2 O + 2NaOH

The precipitated liquor containing the white alumina is then

filtered, to remove the solid alumina from the liquid, using
vacuum drum filters or rotary pan filters, where it can be

Page 9
Mineral Processing

COPPER PROCESSING
The exposed ore is scooped by large power shovels capable
Copper is one of the basic chemical elements. In its nearly of loading 500-900 cubic feet (15-25 cubic meters) in a
pure state, copper is a reddish-orange metal known for its single bite. The ore is loaded into giant dump trucks, called
high thermal and electrical conductivity. It is commonly haul trucks, and is transported up and out of the pit.
used to produce a wide variety of products, including
electrical wire, cooking pots and pans, pipes and tubes, Solvent extraction is more commonly used to refine copper.
automobile radiators, and many others. Copper is also used An organic solvent in which copper is soluble is
as a pigment and preservative for paper, paint, textiles, and introduced. As the copper is more soluble in the organic
wood. It is combined with zinc to produce brass and with layer than the aqueous, it enters an organic-copper solution
tin to produce bronze. and is separated. Sulfuric acid is added to strip the copper
from the organic solvent into an electrolytic solution.
Copper is mined in open pits and below ground. The ore
usually contains less than 1% copper and is often In the electrolytic process, called electrowinning, the
associated with sulfide minerals. The ore is ground, copper plates out onto the cathode. The cathodes are sold
concentrated, and slurried with water and chemical as-is or made into rods on-site or made into starting sheets
reagents. Air blown through the mixture attaches to the for other electrolytic cells.
copper, causing it to float to the top of the slurry. The
copper is then removed with a skimmer. The tailings All remaining organics and acids are reused. Further, sulfur
remain and are dewatered and disposed of in tailing ponds. is fixed throughout the process to meet Clean Air Act
The water is recovered and recycled. Standards. If the sulfur content of the gas is over 4%, the
sulfur compounds are made into sulfuric acid for use in the
Currently, the most common source of copper ore is the process or for sale to fertilizer manufacturers. Slurries with
mineral chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), which accounts for about less than 4% sulfur are classified as RCRA hazardous
50% of copper production. wastes because of sulfur, cadmium, lead and other metals.

Porphyry is a rock containing relatively large conspicuous

crystals embedded in a finer groundmass of minerals. Pyrometallurgical Extraction (Smelting)

The following is a process of copper extraction from

Hydrometallurgical Extraction chalcopyrite ore into pure metal. While oxide ores can be
processed using pyrometallurgical techniques,
Oxide ores are readily leached by sulfuric acid, usually hydrometallurgical methods are more cost effective.
using a heap leach or dump leach process in combination
with solvent extraction and electrowinning technology (SX- The copper ore is crushed and ground before it is
EW). Commonly sulfuric acid is used as a leach for copper concentrated to between 20 and 40% copper in a flotation
oxide, although it is possible to use water. There have been process. The next major step in production uses
examples where froth flotation was used to concentrate pyrometallurgical processes to convert the copper
malachite. In general froth flotation is not used to concentrate to 99% pure copper suitable for
concentrate copper oxide ores, as the cost of leaching is electrochemical refining. These high temperature processes
cheap when compared to the cost of grinding and flotation. first roast the concentrate, then smelt it in a furnace, oxidize
The implication of this is that copper oxides are more and reduce the molten products to progressively remove
economic to process than copper sulfides. sulfur, iron, silicon and oxygen to leave behind relatively
pure copper.
Secondary sulfides - those formed in supergene secondary
enrichment - are resistant (refractory) to sulfuric leaching. The concentrate is dried and fed into a furnace. The
High grade secondary sulfides may be concentrated using minerals are partially oxidized and melted, resulting in
froth flotation, and subsequently smelted to recover the segregated layers. The matte layer refers to the iron-copper
copper, or else they can be leached using a bacterial sulfide mixture which sinks to the bottom. The slag, which
oxidation (BIOX) process to oxidize the sulfides to sulfuric refers to the remaining impurities, floats on top of the
acid, which also allows for simultaneous leaching with matte. The slag is discarded on site or sold as railroad
sulfuric acid. As with oxide ores, solvent extraction and ballast and sand blasting grit. Sulfur dioxide gases are also
electrowinning technologies are used to recover the copper collected and made into sulfuric acid for use in
from the pregnant leach solution. hydrometallurgical leaching (discussed below) or sold off-
site.
Most sulfide ores are taken from huge open-pit mines by
drilling and blasting with explosives. In this type of The matte is recovered and moved to the converter, a
mining, the material located above the ore, called the cylindrical vessel into which the copper is poured. Air, lime
overburden, is first removed to expose the buried ore and silica are added to react with the metal oxide. Scrap
deposit. This produces an open pit that may grow to be a copper may also be added. Iron slag is removed and often
mile or more across. A road to allow access for equipment recycled back into the furnace. Sulfur dioxide is captured
spirals down the interior slopes of the pit.

Page 10
Mineral Processing

and converted into sulfuric acid. The converted copper, slurry and the hydrophobic copper sulfides particles latches
known as "blister copper," is recovered. onto and rides the air bubbles to the surface, where it forms
a froth and is skimmed off. These skimmings are generally
The blister copper then undergoes "fire refining." Air and re-processed (cleaned) to reach a high purity copper
natural gas are blown through the copper to remove any concentrate. The remainder is discarded as tailings, or
remaining sulfur and oxygen. The copper is cast into processed to extract other elements.
copper anodes and placed in an electrolytic cell. Once
charged, the pure copper collects on the cathode and is • An example collector chemical is potassium amyl
removed as 99% pure. The copper can be sold to wire-rod xanthate.
mills or further processed into rods. Anode slime refers to • An example frother chemical is methylisobuly
impurities that sink to the bottom of the electrolytic cell. carbinol or, for short, MIBC, an alcohol.

Limestone
Concentration Tailings
Feed

Most high grade copper sulfide ores, containing about Rougher Scavenger
0.25% to 5% copper metal (the rest being unwanted rock),
are concentrated using the froth flotation process. Ground
ore is mixed with xanthate reagents (or other reagents of Cleaner
the thiol class), which react with the copper sulfide mineral
to make it hydrophobic on its surface. (Besides xanthates, Cleaner
Copper
dithiophosphates and thionocarbamates are commonly Concentrate
used).

The sulfide ore is crushed and ground to increase the To improve the process efficiency, limestone is used to
surface area of the ore for subsequent processing. raise the pH of the water bath, causing the collector to
ionize more and to preferentially bond to chalcopyrite
(CuFeS2) and avoid the pyrite (FeS2) - iron exists in both
primary zone minerals.

The product from this froth flotation process is known as

copper concentrate. When the froth (which is between 20
Primary Jaw and 40% copper) is dried it is known as copper concentrate.
crusher
The tailings is then sent to a tailings pond which serves as
dilution water to the milling circuit.

To Milling Copper concentrate may be treated by either

Circuit hydrometallurgical methods or sintered before
pyrometallurgical methods are used to produce copper
metal. Copper concentrate is sometimes traded either via
From spot contracts or under long term contracts as an
Hydrocyclone
Crushing
To intermediate product in its own right.
Circuit
Flotation
Dilution
Dilution water Circuit
water

Trommel

Ball
Mill
Feed
box

SAG
Mill

Cyclone
Feed
Pump

The powdered ore is mixed with chemicals (the 'collector

chemical') and introduced to a water bath (aeration tank)
containing surfactant. Air is constantly forced through the

Page 11
Mineral Processing

COMMINUTION (SIZE REDUCTION) Feed

Comminution is used to increase the surface area of the ore

for subsequent processing and break the rocks into the
Grizzley screen
desired mineral and gangue in a process known as
liberation, which then has to be separated from the desired
Oversize
mineral. The ore is then ground into a fine powder.

The process of size reduction is normally designed to take

place in single stage open circuit, single stage closed circuit
or multiple stage open or closed circuit. Primary
Jaw
In a single stage, single pass, open circuit size reduction crusher
operation, the product consists of a range of particle sizes
which seldom achieves the desired degree of liberation.
Hence second or even third stages of size reduction are
often necessary to progressively reduce the remaining
particle size to liberate mineral particles to an acceptable Screen
degree.
Feed Oversize

Grizzley screen Product

Oversize Closed circuit crushing

In so doing the load on the size reduction equipment is

increased and a circulating load is established but the total
Primary number of units required for obtaining the same degree of
Jaw size reduction is less.
crusher
Several options in design exist in closed circuit grinding
set-ups. The two most commonly used devices for size
reduction are the crushers and grinding mills. The crushers
are normally fed with rocks, up to about 1 meter in size,
Secondary while the grinders are usually fed with rocks crushed down
cone
to a maximum size of about 50 mm. Larger rocks produced
crusher
at the mines are initially separated by grizzlies, broken by
hammers and then fed to the crushers.

The mechanisms of size reduction during crushing and

grinding are different. The chief difference being that in
crushing operations the size reduction is more by
compression and impact and less by attrition (degradation
Tertiary
or reduction of size and/or sharpness) are much greater.
cone
The grinding operation is rather complex and its shown in
crusher
the case of ball mills.

Shoulder

Impact
Product
Open circuit crushing

In closed circuit, the product from the stage of size

reduction is separated into relatively fine and coarse
fractions. The coarser fraction is then collected and re- Toe
Abrasion
crushed in the same unit.

Ball mill: abrasion; impact breakage

Page 12
Mineral Processing

Spherical balls or cylindrical rods are mostly used as the This equation has now been accepted universally. In
grinding media. These media cascade within a mill and practice instead of a specific size of feed, a spread of
impinge on the ore thus providing a crushing action. As the particle size is generated at the mines, as a result of
balls and rods tumble within tubular mills, they provide a blasting, and is charged to the size reduction process. As a
grinding action and forces of attrition, all of which result in result of the crushing operation, a spread of smaller product
further reduction of the size of the rock particles. Impact size is obtained and fed to the grinding mill.
breakage occurs as balls or rods drop into the toe of the
charge and abrasion or attrition occurs as the layer of balls The term "d80" is intended to mean, the screen size through
or rods slides over each other or against the mill liner. which 80 % by weight of the particles pass.

In designing a size reduction plant there are two important To use the equation above, Bond considered the work as
factors of interest: the energy required for the reduction of feed particles that
passed 80% of a particular sieve to a product particle size
1. the power required for size reduction that passed 80% of a sieve opening. Thus the final form of
2. the choice of crushers and grinders Bond’s equation for size reduction of a mass of feed, M F ,
in closed circuit grinding is now written as:
The power or energy required is the sum of the work
required to crush or grind the rock as well as rotate the mill.
The power required depends on the hardness of the rock,  1 1 
EG = 10 Wi  −  M F , kW-h
the initial size and the final product size required to achieve  P F 
reasonable liberation of the mineral of interest, from the
where
host rock.
F = 80% passing size of the feed in microns,
(written as F80 )
Energy for Size Reduction – Work Index P = 80% passing size of the product in microns,
(written as P80 )
In the process of size reduction, as the size of the particles = Bond Work Index, represents the work
Wi
diminishes the surface area increases. So a measure of size required to reduce the ore from an infinite size
or surface area before and after size reduction would to 100 µm
indicate the extent of energy used in the comminution
process. Hence if E is the energy used for a desired size
In Bond’s equation, the grinding energy, EG , required for
reduction, which resulted in a change in surface area S , it
has been found that: size reduction of rocks in industrial tumbling mills was
based on mill shaft power, PM , and on mill capacity Q.
dE = k[ S n dS ]
The relationship between these parameters is:
where k is a constant and a function of the crushing
strength of the rock. The value of n can be assumed as: Mill Power P
EG = = M
Mill Capacity Q
n = –2 For coarse size reduction (Rittinger)
During manual crushing and disintegration of a rock with a
n = –1 Finer size reduction (Kick) hammer, or during mechanical crushing operations, the size
For almost the entire range reduction of large sized rocks and ores is mostly by sharp
n = –1.5 (Bond)
of particles impact action, and less so by the impact and attrition
experienced in tumbling mills. To cover this discrepancy
Substituting n = -1.5 and integrating between feed particle Oka and Majima found that in such cases the exponent of n
size, F, and product particle size, P, yields Bond’s general (-1.5) should be replaced by:
expression for the energy required in size reduction as:  6
n = − 1 + 
P  B
∫ dE = k ∫ F
S −1.5 dS
where B is 12. Integrating yields:
 1 1  P
E =2k 
 P
− 
F  ∫ dE = k ∫F
S −(1+ 6 / 12) dS

 1 1   1 1 
where k is a constant and a function of ore characteristics. E = k  6 / 12 − 6 / 12  = k  − 
For size reduction of ore in a closed circuit reduction
P F   P F 
process Bond derived the specific energy for grinding as:
Bond’s original work on establishing the energy for size
 1 1  reduction was established on a 8 foot internal diameter wet
EG = 10 Wi  −  , kW-h/ton
 P F  grinding overflow type ball mill. Doubt is now expressed

Page 13
Mineral Processing

whether the derived empirical equation is applicable to high

pressure roller crushers, where one stage open circuit takes Crushing is the process of transferring a force amplified by
place. According to Klymowsky and Lin indications are mechanical advantage through a material made of
that the Rittinger expression, molecules that bond together more strongly, and resist
deformation more, than those in the material being crushed
1 1  do.
E=k − 
P F  Crushing devices hold material between two parallel or
tangent solid surfaces, and apply sufficient force to bring
is now more applicable for size reduction by high pressure the surfaces together to generate enough energy within the
rolls. material being crushed so that its molecules separate from
(fracturing), or change alignment in relation to
(deformation), each other.
CRUSHERS
In industry, a crusher is typically a machine which uses a
A crusher is a machine designed to reduce large solid metal surface to break or compress materials. Mining
material objects into a smaller volume, or smaller pieces. operations use crushers, commonly classified by the degree
Crushers may be used to reduce the size, or change the to which they fragment the starting material, with primary
form, of waste materials so they can be more easily and secondary crushers handling coarse materials, and
disposed of or recycled, or to reduce the size of a solid mix tertiary and quaternary crushers reducing ore particles to
of raw materials (as in rock ore), so that pieces of different finer gradations. Typically, crushing stages are followed by
composition can be differentiated. milling stages if the materials need to be further reduced.
Crushers are used to reduce particle size enough so that the
A run-of-mine (ROM) pad downstream the crusher serves material can be processed into finer particles in a grinder. A
as a buffer stock to ensure continuous plant operation in typical circuit at a mine might consist of a crusher followed
case the crusher is under repair. by a SAG mill followed by a ball mill. In this context, the
SAG mill and ball mill are considered grinders rather than
Eli Whitney Blake (US) invented the first successful crushers.
mechanical rock breaker – the Blake jaw crusher in 1858.
Blake used the mechanical principle of toggle linkage.
Jaw Crushers
FA
VA
A FEED
VB Flywheel
C y B Swing
FA α FB
Jaw Pinman

x
Gap
Basic elements and dimensions of a toggle linkage Setting

The mechanical advantage or transmission ratio of a toggle

mechanism is a measure of what is input versus what is
output which are typically the ratio of force or velocity,
with the velocity relationship being the reciprocal of the
force relationship, as follows (Chironis and Sclater1): Fixed
Toggle
Jaw
F V Product Plate
MA = out = in Size Gap
Fin Vout
FB 1 x 1 V A jaw or toggle crusher consists of a set of vertical jaws,
MA = = = tan α = A one jaw being fixed and the other being moved back and
FA 2 y 2 VB forth relative to it by a cam or pitman mechanism. The
swing jaw is supported at its lower part by a toggle plate
Toggle linkages achieve large mechanical advantages near positioned against the crusher frame. The jaws are farther
the toggle point and are thus used in stone crusher apart at the top than at the bottom, forming a tapered chute
applications. so that the material is crushed progressively smaller and
smaller as it travels downward until it is small enough to
1 escape from the bottom opening. The movement of the jaw
Chironis, N.P., and Sclater, N., 1996, Mechanisms & Mechanical
can be quite small, since complete crushing is not
Devices Sourcebook, 2nd Ed., Mc-Graw-Hill, New York, New
York performed in one stroke.

Page 14
Mineral Processing

The motion is created by the rotation of the eccentric shaft

at the top of the jaw causing the swing jaw assembly
FEED
(attached to the rotating eccentric shaft), to move in an Flywheel
elliptical path. Maximum movement of the swing jaw
assembly occurs at the top of the crushing chamber, with
minimum movement at the discharge opening. At all
points in the crushing chamber the crushing action has both
horizontal and vertical components. Fixed
Crushing
The larger motion at the receiving opening accentuates the Jaw
shock loads at the bearings of the eccentric shaft. Such
loads create high bearing pressures, which have destructive
potential. Due to the rubbing action of this type of jaw, jaw Movable Toggle
plate wear is accelerated, and power efficiency is lowered Crushing Plate
because the swing jaw assembly is lifted on every stroke, Jaw
shovel teeth, etc.
The alternating stretching and bending movements cause an
The inertia required to crush the material is provided by a oscillating motion of the swing jaw. Since the material to
weighted flywheel that moves a shaft creating an eccentric be crushed falls down by gravity, the pressure which is
motion that causes the closing of the gap. necessary to crush the material is generated, when the
swing jaw moves forward in the narrowing crushing
The size of a jaw crusher is designated by the rectangular chamber. This process is intensified by the toothing on the
or square opening at the top of the jaws (feed opening). crushing jaw liners.
For instance, a 24 × 36 jaw crusher has a opening of 24” by
36”. Primary jaw crushers are typically of the square When the swing jaw retreats, the crushed material exits the
opening design, and secondary jaw crushers are of the crushing chamber through the pre-selected gap at the
rectangular opening design. bottom, while new material slips down from the top. The
toggle lever system ensures a very good power
A jaw crusher reduces large size rocks or ore by placing the transmission from the drive unit to the crushing tools
rock into compression. A fixed jaw, mounted in a ‘V’ making double-toggle jaw crushers ideal for crushing the
alignment is the stationary breaking surface, while the hardest and toughest materials. Even with very abrasive
movable jaw exerts force on the rock by forcing it against materials, only minimum wear is observed.
the stationary plate. The space at the bottom of the ‘V’
aligned jaw plates is the crusher product size gap, or the With the single toggle jaw crushers, the greatest movement
size of the crushed product from the jaw crusher. The rock is at the top of the jaw. With double toggle jaw crushers,
remains in the jaws until it is small enough to pass through the greatest movement is at the bottom.
the gap at the bottom of the jaws.
The movements of the jaws of single toggle crushers are in
a downward rolling direction. This action gives the crusher
Throughput rate (t/h)

a force feed action that is of particular benefit when

handling sticky materials and does much to compensate for
the greater angle of nip at the top of the jaws.

Due to the crushing action of the single toggle, the life of

the jaws is less than that of the double toggle. The double
toggle has a direct squeeze type action at 90º to the
crushing faces reducing scuffing.
Gap Setting (mm)
Due to the smaller angle of nip of the double toggle unit, it
Single and double toggle jaw crushers are constructed of
can grip harder material than the single toggle.
heavy duty fabricated plate frames with reinforcing ribs
throughout. The crusher components are of high strength
design to accept high horsepower draw and the crusher can Jaw Crusher
Advantages
Type
weigh from 40 to 150 tons. Manganese steel is used for
both fixed and movable jaw faces. Heavy flywheels allow 1. Lower installed cost than double toggle
crushing peaks on tough materials Single Toggle 2. Lower power usage
3. Can handle stick, muddy ore
Double-toggle jaw crushers are equipped with a system of
toggle levers, which is moved up and down by a pitman via
an eccentric shaft.

Page 15
Mineral Processing

Jaw Crusher
Advantages Head or Mantle
Type

1. lower installed cost than gyratory crusher

2. Can handle high abrasion with low Bowl
Double Toggle maintenance
3. Can handle tough crushing applications up
to 600 MPa, nickel ores, iron ores, etc.

Disadvantages
1. Max capacity is 1000 MTPH, although
normal economical max capacity is 750 Impact Crusher
MTPH
2. Duty of crushing is for light or medium
Single Toggle hard materials, up to 189 MPa Abrasion Reduction
Type Hardness
compressive strength Limit Ratio
3. Does not handle high abrasion material Soft to
Jaw crushers No limit 3/1 to 5/1
4. Primary crushing only very hard
5. Requires feeder Soft to
Gyratory crushers Abrasive 4/1 to 7/1
very hard
Medium hard
Cone crushers to Abrasive 3/1 to 5/1
Gyratory Crushers very hand
Horizontal shaft Soft to Slightly
Mantle or 10/1 to 25/1
Bowl impactors medium hard Abrasive
Head Vertical shaft Medium hard
Slightly
impactors to 6/1 to 8/1
Abrasive
(shoe and anvil) very hard
Horizontal shaft
Soft to
impactors No limit 2/1 to 5/1
medium hard
(autogenous)

Cone Crushers
Gyratory Crusher Inclined Cone
Bowl
A gyratory crusher is similar in basic concept to a jaw
crusher, consisting of a concave surface and a conical head;
both surfaces are typically lined with manganese steel
surfaces. The inner cone has a slight circular movement,
but does not rotate; the movement is generated by an
eccentric arrangement. Similar with the jaw crusher,
material travels downward between the two surfaces being
progressively crushed until it is small enough to fall out
through the gap between the two surfaces.

As an example, a Fuller-Traylor gyratory crusher features

Cone Crusher
throughputs to 12,000 TPH with installed powers to 1,300
HP. A cone crusher is similar in operation to a gyratory crusher,
with less steepness in the crushing chamber and more of a
parallel zone between crushing zones. A cone crusher
Impact Crushers breaks rock by squeezing the rock between an eccentrically
gyrating spindle, which is covered by a wear resistant
mantle, and the enclosing concave hopper, covered by a
Impact crushers involve the use of impact rather than manganese concave or a bowl liner. As rock enters the top
pressure to crush material. The material is contained within of the cone crusher, it becomes wedged and squeezed
a cage, with openings on the bottom, end, or side of the between the mantle and the bowl liner or concave. Large
desired size to allow pulverized material to escape. This pieces of ore are broken once, and then fall to a lower
type of crusher is usually used with soft and non-abrasive position (because they are now smaller) where they are
material such as coal, seeds, limestone, gypsum or soft broken again. This process continues until the pieces are
metallic ores. small enough to fall through the narrow opening at the
bottom of the crusher.

Page 16
Mineral Processing

SCREENING (SIEVING)
US Sieve Tyler
Opening
Size Equivalent
Sieving or screening is a method of separating a mixture or (mm)
(No.) (Mesh)
grains or particles into 2 or more size fractions, the over
sized materials are trapped above the screen, while 140 150 0.105
undersized materials can pass through the screen.
170 170 0.088
Sieves can be used in stacks, to divide samples up into 200 200 0.074
various size fractions and hence determine particle size
230 250 0.063
distributions.
270 270 0.053
Sieves and screen are usually used for larger particle sized 325 325 0.044
materials i.e., greater than approximately 50µm (0.050mm).
400 400 0.037
Size Equivalents

Two scales that are used to classify particle sizes are the The mesh number system is a measure of how many
US Sieve Series and Tyler Equivalent, sometimes called openings there are per linear inch in a screen. Sizes vary by
Tyler Mesh Size or Tyler Standard Sieve Series. The most a factor of √2. This can easily be determined as screens are
common mesh opening sizes for these scales are given in made from wires of standard diameters, however, opening
the table below and provide an indication of particle sizes. sizes can vary slightly due to wear and distortion.

US sieve sizes differ from Tyler Screen sizes in that they

US Sieve Tyler
Opening are arbitrary numbers.
Size Equivalent
(mm)
(No.) (Mesh)

- 2.50 8.00 Particle Size

- 3.00 6.73
The concept of d50 was introduced as the particle size
3.5 3.5 5.66 diameter below and at which 50% of the particles can pass
through the opening of a sieve. The same concept applies to
4 4 4.76
the definition of screen size. The screen size aperture is
5 5 4 equal to d50.
6 6 3.36
An ideal screen would let all particles equal to or smaller
7 7 2.83 than d50 pass through. This is not always the case, as the
8 8 2.38 performance of the screen depends on a variety of factors:
10 9 2.00
• Screen deck size
12 10 1.68
In order for all particles to use the screen effectively,
14 12 1.41
the layer of solids above the screen needs to be very
16 14 1.19 thin. This means a large deck size for a given mass of
18 16 1.00 solids. For economical reasons, this is not possible and
a thick layer of solids forms on the smaller screens.
20 20 0.841
25 24 0.707 • Vibration
30 28 0.595
To move away the coarse particles that block the
35 32 0.500 passage of the finer ones, it is essential to oscillate the
screen. The amplitude of the oscillation must match
40 35 0.420
the specifics of the solids. Too much vibration could
45 42 0.354 cause the solids to float as a cloud without passing
50 48 0.297 through the screens.

60 60 0.250 • Presentation angle

70 65 0.210
Ideally, the solids should be fed as normal as possible
80 80 0.177
to the screen. This means that the solids should come
100 100 0.149 in at a 90° angle. Unfortunately, this is not always
possible.
120 115 0.125

Page 17
Mineral Processing

• Screen material

Screens are manufactured of metal, rubber, and even

fiberglass. Metal screens have a wider aperture than
rubber, which is more flexible and less prone to
particle binding.

• Moisture content

Sprays are sometimes added to screens to improve

their efficiency and flush the solids. Sprays suppress
clouds of fine particles.

Trommel Screens

Trommel screens are essentially rotating cylindrical mesh.

These trommels rotate at a slight angle of inclination to
facilitate the removal of material. Trommel screens can be
supplied as a set of concentric screens of different aperture.
The finest screens are the quickest to show wear.

Shaking Screens

Shaking screens move in a horizontal reciprocal motion

along the length of the screen. Solids are fed in a
horizontal circular movement. The discharge moves in the
direction of the horizontal movement of the screen. The
motion of the solids changes from circular at the feed to
eccentric, and finally to horizontal shaking.

Vibrating Screens

These screens are set at an angle with respect to the

horizontal. The vibration occurs at a right angle to the
screen by the rotation of unbalanced counterweights on a
shaft above the screen. Vibration can also be induced by
electromagnets and oscillating currents. Vibration levels
are high and the screens must be mounted on vibration
isolation rubber pads. These screens are extremely noisy
and exceed 100 dBA levels of noise, nevertheless, they are
the most widely used.

Banana Screens

Banana screens are essentially stationary screens. The sieve

is bent around a curved screen. The top of the screen is
vertical and solids are fed from the top. Particles pass
successive wedge bars and solids are removed between
them based on the trigonometric opening normal to the fall.
To avoid clogging, the bars are pneumatically tilted at
regular intervals. These screens can be designed to sieve
particles as fine as 50 µm.

Page 18
Mineral Processing

GRINDING MILLS where

E1 = Dry grinding correction factor (1.3)
The dry ore from crushers is stored in a stockpile. The Product size correction factor
stockpile then feeds the milling circuit. It is claimed that E2 =
grinding accounts for 60% of the power consumption of a Product size
mineral process plant. Obviously, the finer the grinding, Control reference E2 2
the higher the energy consumption. % passing

There are two main forms of grinding: 50% 1.035

60% 1.05
1. Dry grinding when the water content is <1% by
70% 1.10
volume
80% 1.20
2. Wet grinding with the addition of >34% water by
90% 1.40
volume
92% 1.46
Between 1% and 34%, the slurry is very difficult to handle 95% 1.47
and grinding is inefficient. In some plants, an initial
grinding process may be followed by some form of 98% 1.70
classification such as flotation or magnetic separation, E3 = Diameter correction factor
which in turn is followed by a second grinding process.
This approach tends to eliminate at an early stage a good = (2.44 / Dm )0.2 where Dm mill diameter (m)
portion of the gangue E4 = Oversize correction factor

It is not possible to achieve the particle size needed through  F80 − Feop  P80
a single grinding phase unless coarse output is required. = 1 + (W − 7) × (if F80 > Feop )
 Feop  F80
When a coarse product is required, crushed materials are  
transported to a rod mill via a conveyor belt and the output
is delivered from the rod mill. This is essentially an open
Feop = 4000(13 / Wi )1 / 2 for ball mills in microns
circuit. = 1.0 (If feed size is larger than optimum size Feop or

Closed circuits may include SAG and ball mills, if E4 < 1.0 )
hydrocyclones, and centrifuges. E5 = Fineness correction factor

For wet grinding, which is where the slurry circuit starts, = P80 + 10.3
(if P80 less than 75 µm, otherwise 1.0)
the resistance to comminution is measured by a grindability 1.145 P80
work index.
E6 = Correction factor for high/low for rod milling
Typical Examples of Grindability Work Indices (For = 1.0 (for ball mills)
Wet Grinding in a Ball Mill) E7 = Correction factor for low reduction ratio for ball
mills
Grindability Grindability = Rr = F80 / P80 . If Rr < 6 , or when the ratio of the
Material Material
Work Index Work Index ball mill feed to product output sizes is < 6.0,
Barite 5 Limestone 12 2 ( Rr − 1.35 ) + 0.26
E7 =
Bauxite 9 Magnetite 10 2 ( Rr − 1.35 )
Clay 7 Quartz 13 E8 = Correction factor for rod mills
Coal 11 Quartzite 10 = 1.4 (rod mill fed from open circuit crusher)
Dolomite 11 Sandstone 7 = 1.2 (closed circuit with rod milling followed by ball
milling)
Feldspar 12 Shale 16 E9 = Correction factor for rubber-lined mills
Fluorspar 9 Taconite 23 = 1.07 (When grinding balls are smaller than 80 mm,
Granite 15 rubber liners are used to line the inside walls of the
mill.)
= 1.0 (When grinding balls are larger than 80mm,
The work input to the mill is obtained from:
metal liners are used.)
 1 1 
EG = 10 Wi  − ×
 P F 
E1 ⋅ E2 ⋅ E3 ⋅ E4 ⋅ E5 ⋅ E6 ⋅ E7 ⋅ E8 ⋅ E9 2
“The Science of Communition,” Brochure No.
0647-05-98-N-English, Nordberg, Helsinki, Finland, 1998.

Page 19
Mineral Processing

Rubber liners are thicker than metal liners, use more space,
and absorb more impact energy than metal liners.
Pebble
Some of the empirical coefficients and equations for E1 to cone crusher
E9 were developed assuming a recirculation load of 250%.
This means that the charge load of coarse material that Feed
is returned to the mill is about 250% of the fresh feed in a Dilution water
closed circuit. This is not always the case.
Trommel

Some of the empirical coefficients and equations for E1 to

E9 were developed for a final output size with 80% passing
100 µm. (mesh 140). When P80 < 100 µm, the above
Oversize
equation does not give correct results.
SAG
Mill
Mills or grinders are classified as:

1. Ball Mills Stability of continuous pebble crushing operation is

2. Rod Mills required to prevent surging of the downstream processes. It
3. SAG (Semi-Autogenous) Mills3 is preferred that the crushers are fully choke fed at all
4. Autogenous Mills times. A solution to this would be a stockpile for the
extracted pebbles. This stockpile would allow for one or
A ball mill is a cylindrical device used in grinding (or more crushers to operate continuously at full capacity.
mixing) materials like ores, chemicals, ceramic raw
materials and paints. Ball mills rotate around a horizontal
axis, partially filled with the material to be ground plus the Feed
grinding medium. Different materials are used as media,
including ceramic balls, flint pebbles and stainless steel
balls. An internal cascading effect reduces the material to a Dilution water
fine powder. Industrial ball mills can operate continuously
fed at one end and discharged at the other end. Large to Trommel
medium-sized ball mills are mechanically rotated on their
Oversize
axis.

When finer material is required, a ball mill is used in a

closed circuit. The feed is ground and then classified to
separate coarse from fine solids. The coarse solids, also Undersize
SAG
called oversized particles, are returned back to the mill for Mill
further grinding. This is called the “recirculation load” and
the circuit is considered a closed circuit. In a dry circuit, the Stockpile
classifier may be a set of vibrating screens.

In a typical copper or zinc circuit, the recirculation load can

be as high as 250–350% of the new feed. The mill and mill
discharge pumps must then be sized for the combination of
recirculation load and new feed. Pebble
cone crusher
The discharge side of the mill usually has a trommel. A
trommel (Dutch for ‘drum’) is a screened cylinder used to
separate materials by size. The oversize is then fed to a
pebble crusher for further size reduction. When two or
more crushers are required, then a bin and feeders should Rod mills are rotating drum causing friction and attrition
be added to facilitate proper feeding of multiple crushers. between steel rods and the ore particles.
Special care must be taken in designing the bin and feeder
layout to prevent size segregation within the bin. Size SAG is an acronym for Semi-Autogenous Grinding, and
segregation compromises the performance of cone crushers applies to mills that utilize steel or high chrome white iron
and can reduce both the mechanical and process efficiency balls in addition to large rocks for grinding. As they rotate
of the crushers. and are carried away by centrifugal forces, they fall by
gravity and impact against the feed or crushed rocks. Due
to the difference in density between the steel balls
(typically 7610 kg/m3 or a specific gravity of 7.61) and
rocks (with a range of specific gravity of 1.3 to 4.0),
3
FFE Minerals (now FL Smidth), Metso Minerals (gearless mills)

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Mineral Processing

Selection Guide for Grinding Mills4

Autogeneous Rod Ball

Mineral
Peripheral
Primary Secondary Overflow Overflow Grate Pebble
Discharge
Ores (ferrous and non-ferrous) • • • • • •
Preponderance of fine aggreagates • • • •
Talc and ceramic materials •
Cement raw materials • •
Cement clinker •
Coal and petrol, coke • • •
Silica ceramics, etc (must be free of iron)
Production to a specific particle diameter or mesh • • • • • • •
Production to a specific surface area
Wet grinding • • • • • • •
Dry grinding • • • • •
Damp feed (1%–15% moisture) •
Large feed (<350 mm, 10”) •
Large feed (<25 mm, 1”) • • • •
Intermediate feed (<12 mm, 0.5”) • • • •
Fine feed (<1 mm, 14 mesh) • • • •
Coarse product (<3.4 mm, 6 mesh) • • •
Fine product (0.4 mm, 35 mesh) • • • •
Maximum production of fines • • • •
Minimum production of fines • • • •
Production of cubical particles • • • •
Primary mill of two-stage circuit • • • •
Secondary mill of two-stage circuit • • •
Operation in open or closed circuit • • •
Operation in closed circuit only • • •

4
From Denver Sala Basic. Selection Guide for Process Equipment. Reproduced by permission of Metso Minerals (formerly known as the
companies Nordberg and Svedala.

Page 21
Mineral Processing

Estimates of Bond Energy Consumption per Mass for Grinding Rocks5

Wi ,
Mineral Specific gravity Wi , (kWh/tonne) Mineral Specific gravity
(kWh/tonne)
Andesite 2.84 20.08 Iron ore, oolitic 3.52 12.46
Barite 4.50 5.20 Iron ore, taconite 3.54 16.07
Basalt 2.91 18.81 Lead ore 3.35 13.09
Bauxite 2.20 9.66 Lead – zinc ore 3.36 12.02
Cement clinker 3.15 14.80 Limestone 2.66 14.00
Clay 2.51 6.93 Manganese ore 3.53 13.42
Coal 1.4 14.3 Magnestie 3.06 12.24
Coke 1.31 16.84 Molybdenum 2.70 14.08
Copper ore 3.02 13.99 Nickel ore 3.28 15.02
Diorite 2.82 22.99 Oil shale 1.84 17.43
Dolomite 2.74 12.40 Phosphate rock 2.74 10.91
Emery 3.48 62.45 Potash ore 2.40 8.86
Feldspar 2.59 11.88 Pyrite ore 4.06 9.83
Ferro-chrome 6.66 8.40 Pyrhotite ore 4.04 10.53
Ferro-manganese 6.32 9.13 Quartzite 2.68 10.54
Ferro-silicon 4.41 11.00 Quartz 2.65 14.93
Flint 2.65 28.78 Rutile ore 2.80 13.95
Fluorspar 3.01 9.8 Shale 2.63 17.46
Gabbro 2.83 20.3 Silica sand 2.67 15.51
Glass 2.58 13.54 Silicon carbide 2.75 28.46
Gneiss 2.71 22.14 Slag 2.74 11.26
Gold ore 2.81 16.42 Slate 2.57 15.73
Granite 2.66 16.64 Sodium silicate 2.10 14.74
Graphite 1.75 47.92 Spodumene ore 2.79 11.41
Gravel 2.66 17.67 Syenite 2.73 14.44
Gypsum rock 2.69 7.40 Tin ore 3.95 11.99
Iron ore, hematite 3.53 14.12 Titanium ore 4.01 13.56
Iron ore, hematite – specular 3.28 15.22 Trap rock 2.87 21.25
Iron ore, magnetite 3.88 10.97 Zinc ore 3.64 12.72

5
From Denver Sala Basic. Selection Guide for Process Equipment. Reproduced by permission of Metso Minerals (formerly known as the
companies Nordberg and Svedala.

Page 22
Mineral Processing

smaller steel balls in a SAG mill have the effect of large

rocks in fully autogenous mills. The d80 of the feed, called Hydrocyclone
F80 in SAG mills, is typically 110 mm (4.5 in). To auto
sampler
Dilution water
The SAG mills use a minimal ball charge of 6 to 15%. Feed Dilution
water
SAG mills are characterized by their large diameter and
short length. The inside of the mill is lined with lifting Trommel
plates to lift the material inside up and around the inside of
Ball
the mill, where it then falls off the plates and falls back Mill
down. Feed
box
SAG mills are primarily used in the gold, copper and
platinum industries with applications also in the lead, zinc, SAG
silver, alumina and nickel industries. Mill

In a mineral process plant, the process of comminution is Cyclone

one of the least efficient and highest consumers of power. Feed
Pump
An Autogenous Mill is a rotating drum throws large rocks
in a cataracting motion which causes impact breakage of Two-stage circuit for grinding & classification of ore
larger rocks and compressive grinding of finer particles. It
is similar in operation to a SAG mill as described above but Mills are assembled on-site and are constructed from
does not use steel balls in the mill. Attrition in the charge carbon steel plates with hardened steel liners 40 mm thick
causes grinding of finer particles. Also known as ROM or along the interior in order to minimize abrasion between
"Run Of Mine" grinding. the rock and the plates. Mill diameters are commonly 3
meters for ball mills and over 20 meters for SAG mills.
For an ore to successfully grind autogenously, the ore must The type of grinding used is usually wet grinding wherein
be competent, and it must break along grain boundaries at water is introduced for ease of pumping to the
the desired product size. Another requirement is that the hydrocyclone for classification.
finer sizes should break easily and should be removed from
the mill, otherwise, there will be a critical size buildup. Generally, the discharge from AG/SAG mills consists of
one or both of the following components: slurry (water and
finer particles) and pebbles (20-100 mm).
Autogenous grinding has two advantages,
The mill discharge from these mills consists of slurry,
(1) it reduces metal wear and which goes to the ball mills for further grinding, and coarse
(2) it eliminates secondary and tertiary crushing stages. pebbles/rocks, which are crushed and sent back to the mill.
To maximize the capacity of these circuits, the general
Thus it offers a savings in capital and operating costs. practice is to use grates with pebble ports (reaching 100
Autogenous mills are available for both wet and dry mm) instead of normal grate openings to increase the
grinding. The diameter of autogenous mills is normally two pebble removal. In addition, operating mills at relatively
to three times the length. The ore charge is usually 25 to higher speeds has become an option to increase mill
35% of the mill volume. Autogenous mills have grate capacity. The reasoning is because the higher the mill
discharges to retain the coarse grinding media in the mill. speed, the higher the number of impacts/collisions, which
in turn is proportional to higher breakage of particles.
AG/SAG mills are designed for primary grinding of run-of-
mine ore or primary crushed ore whereas ball mills are Ore Flow-back
usually used for secondary and tertiary grinding. Ball mills
are the secondary mills most often used in the preparation
of the material for the following concentration process.
Mill Pulp
Grate Discharge
The grinding process typically involves one or two stages Shell Lifter
of milling depending on the size of the plant. Ordinarily,
for an annual throughput of about 750,000 tons, a ball mill
will suffice; over 2 million tons a SAG (first-stage) and a Water Carry-over
ball (second-stage) mills are employed. The product of the
grinding process is a slurry mixture.
Slurry Flow in SAG Mills

Page 23
Mineral Processing

Pulp
Dilution
Lifter water
To Flotation
Particle Size PSI
Feed FT Analyzer
Trunnion Discharge
Ore
Trunnion FC
Mill Silos
Ratio
PT
Dilution
FT
Shell Control water
WC WT
FT DT

Grate FC DC
Field of Charge Variable
Slurry Flow Speed
Breakage Motion
thru Grates Belt

and Lifter
Important Aspects of SAG Mill Operation LT
WT

Shell lifters, an integral part of all grinding mills, are Load

Cell
located in the main grinding chamber. However, the
Variable LC
inefficiency of pulp lifters increases with mill speed and so Speed
does the effect of the following factors: Pumps

1. Pebbles carry-over The grinding circuit accounts for a large proportion of

operating costs and has a strong impact on downstream
In grinding circuits, once the slurry and pebbles pass process such as flotation. Control of the grinding circuit is
through the grate into the pulp lifters, the motion or thus very important via real-time particle size information
flow behavior of solids will be different to the slurry. provided by the particle size analyzer guaranteeing high
and stable quality of end product (fines) as well as effective
At the end of one revolution, all the pebbles are tailings disposal.
supposed to reach the discharge trunnion. However, a
significant amount of pebbles are retained inside the Modern control strategies usually need to monitor the feed
pulp lifters. rate, power draw, and mill load. Determining the weight of
the mill charge can be accomplished by measuring the back
The presence of these pebbles blocks the outer rows of pressure of the bearing or applying load cells. In many
grate slots and reduces the flow gradient across the cases, measuring the back pressure is not accurate enough
grate. In order to maintain the same flow gradient, the and requires the application of load cells. Unlike trunnion
load inside the mill increases and the mill draws more bearings in which load cells require a complicated design to
power. In turn, this leads to a higher rock to ball ratio, maintain the required stiffness of the bearing, wrap-around
resulting in insufficient grinding energy and a further sliding-shoe bearings can easily accommodate the load
increase in load inside the mill. cells. One load cell is positioned underneath the jack screw
of each sliding shoe. The load on the mill is guided directly
Predominant in single stage AG/SAG mills. from the sliding shoe through the load cell to the
foundation.
2. Pebbles flow-back

Similar to slurry flow-back, the pebbles flowing back Mill Specifications

into the mill increase with larger pebble port or grate
slot size. As the pebbles flow down and slide across The grinding mill is usually specified according to the
the grate slots, they get an equal chance to go back following:
into the mill. Similar to slurry pool formation, pebbles
flow-back would increase the quantity of critical size (a) Mill diameter
material in the mill. The amount of pebbles passing (b) Mill Length
through the grate increases with the angle of the grate. (c) Mill Speed (rpm or %critical)
(d) Percent filling (total charge, including ore and
Predominant in AG/SAG mills in closed circuit with grinding media)
pebble crushers as well as in single stage mills. (e) Percent grinding media
(f) Liner material (steel/iron or rubber)
Ball mills commonly have 30% of their inside volume (g) Number of lifters
covered with hardened steel balls. The layout of the girth (h) Lifter profile (trapezoidal, rectangular, triangular,
gear, pinion gear, gear box and the motor can be classified semi-circular or polygonal)
as: (i) Charge composition (including grinding media and
1. Outboard layout rock particles)
2. Inboard layout

Page 24
Mineral Processing

Ball Mill Critical Speed impact point was normal to the mill shell tangent to that
point. Increasing or decreasing the volume load will
The critical speed for a grinding mill is defined as the deviate from the maximum measured throughput.
rotational speed where centrifugal forces equal the
gravitational forces at the mill shell’s inside surface. This The relationships between mill diameter, mill loading, mill
is the rotational speed where balls will not fall away from speed and length, and power draw are well known by mill
the mill’s shell while rotating. manufacturers. The equation used to calculate the power
drawn by a SAG mill chamber is (from Rexnord 1975)6

kW = 0.746 B L (0.17767 × D 2.50 )(0.0378 × e0.021 N )

where
N = Mill speed expressed as % of the critical speed
B = Loading factor
D = Mill diameter inside the liners, feet
L = Mill length, feet

Factor B for most applications involving silicious ores with

76.63 N specific gravity of about 2.7 is approximated by using the
Nc = , % Nc = value for Factor B = 4 for design. This value corresponds to
( DI − 2 w) Nc about 15% steel in the SAG mill and a load of about 35%
where and represents the motor power required and the shell is
= Mill critical speed, rpm sized to suit that power. Lower steel and charge volume
Nc
loads draw less power but the chamber will draw power up
N = Mill speed, rpm to this maximum load.
% Nc = Percentage of critical speed, dimensionless
Di = Mill inside diameter, ft The best design procedure for a new SAG mill involves the
following stages:
W = Mill shell liner width, ft
o Determine from laboratory testing the representative
A ball mill grinds material by rotating a cylinder with steel hardness distribution for the ore body.
grinding balls, causing the balls to fall back into the
cylinder and onto the material to be ground. If the o Pick the design power for the SAG mill, considering
peripheral speed of the mill is too great, it begins to act like mining production schedules, future expansion plans,
a centrifuge and the balls do not fall back, but stay on the future potential changes in metal pricing that affect cut-
perimeter of the mill thus decreasing its grinding off grades, and the sizing of the downstream
efficiency. Most ball mills operate most efficiently equipment.
between 65% and 75% of their critical speed.
o Extra power drawn for loading conditions above
SAG Mill Sizing optimum is essentially wasted.
After studying the ore variability on a blast to blast basis to o Provide a motor with the capability to deliver design
reveal hardness and throughput variance in a laboratory test power on a continuous basis by including a suitable
work, the next step would be to select the power level that service factor, usually 15% to cover any drive losses
will allow orderly and profitable production from the and normal fluctuations in power demand.
deposit, especially in the first three (3) years when capital
is being repaid to investors. o Size and construct the mill motor to draw full load
power at design conditions for load and speed. That is
When the design power level has been established, the next 15% steel, 35% charge and 75% critical speed.
step would be the required grinding chamber and motor to
draw the required grinding power. o Check that the SAG mill grinding chamber will draw
design power at optimum conditions using the tools and
Normally, the SAG Mill chamber will be designed at the methods described above.
optimum grinding conditions of 75% critical speed and less
than 30% by volume load (steel ball charge) in order to o Request pricing for the specified mill and motor and
determine the required power. invite the mill manufacturers to propose their
alternative sizes and pricing.
In a typical 3-ft diameter SAG pilot mill, it was shown that
the maximum throughput occurred when the volumetric
load was about 26% by volume. This resulted to cascading
material (for clockwise mill rotation) hitting the shell at 30º 6
Rexnord Inc. Process Machinery Division. Technical Brochure
to the right of the vertical diameter (or 5 o’clock). The describing Nordberg Grinding Mills, Ball, Rod and Pebble. 1975.

Page 25
Mineral Processing

o Evaluate the merits of saving capital in terms of what High-pressure oil is delivered to the center of each pad
production capability has been sacrificed if a smaller to lift the mill for start-up, and low-pressure oil is
mill is being considered. delivered to a slot at the ends of each pad to provide
hydrodynamic lubrication for operation.
o Always check the power drawing capability of the shell
selected. The design engineer is ultimately responsible Shell-supported Mills
for confirming the mill manufacturers recommended
power draw. Shell-supported mills are supported by bearings mounted
directly to the shell. Because the end plates of the mill do
not support the structure, the feed and discharge openings
Mill Supports may be sized to meet process conditions without being
limited by bearing diameters. The overall span of the mill
Trunnion-supported Mills is less, which results in lower forces acting on the mill
structure. For this reason, shell supports are being
Trunnion-supported mills have the following mill support increasingly specified for very large, heavily loaded mills.
bearings mounted on the trunnion:

(a) Journal bearings Mill Drives

These are hydrostatically lubricated during start-up Most mills are driven by ring gears, with a 360° fully
and stopping as well as hydrodynamically or enclosing guard. The ring gear casting material is either
hydrostatically lubricated during operation. The nodular iron or steel, usually with helical type teeth, which
journals are easily removable and bearing for both makes them reversible, allowing the use of both flanks
ends of the mill are identical and reversible. throughout their operational life.

The journal supports the trunnion surface through 120º The drive may be mounted at either the feed or the
of rotation. Swivel support allows the bearing to self- discharge end of the mill. While mills rated up to 10,000
align as mill loading changes. The journal or bearing kW can be driven by a single pinion, dual pinions are
sleeve material is either bonded white metal or mostly used for mill applications above 6,000 kW.
centrifugally cast bronze.
Both can be high-speed induction type or low-speed
Hydrodynamic journal-bearing lubrication systems synchronous type drive motors. High-speed motors require
deliver conditioned high-pressure oil at the sleeve an intermediate gearbox.
center to lift the mill for start-up. The systems also
deliver low-pressure oil at the edges of the sleeve to Large mills exceeding 13,500 kW normally use gearless
provide hydrodynamic lubrication for reliable, drives.
continuous, bidirectional operation. Low and high
pressure standby pumps and standby oil fi lters are
standard features of our journal-bearing lube systems. Gearless Motor Drives (GMD) or Ringmotors7
(b) Spherical roller bearings
The design features motor rotor elements bolted to a mill
Spherical roller bearings can be used for mills with shell, a stationary stator assembly surrounds the rotor
trunnion diameters up to 1.8 m. The benefit of using elements, and electronics covert the incoming current from
spherical roller bearings are high load-carrying 50/60 Hertz to about 1 Hertz. The mill shell actually
capacity, short trunnion length (low bending moment becomes the rotating element of a large low speed
on the head) and simple lubrication. synchronous motor. Mill speed is varied by changing the
frequency of the current to the motor. The ringmotor can be
The free (non-fixed) bearing is mounted on rocker- used to inch and spot the mill for maintenance
type pedestals, which accommodate the thermal
expansion of the mill-rotating assembly. The selection criteria of gearless drives (at some premium
in capital cost) are driven by:
(c) Multi-pad type bearings
• Variable Speed Capability
Several individual pads are mounted onto the
trunnions or shell at each end of the mill to provide a • Removal of limit of Design Power
very high load-bearing capability and maximum
tolerance of trunnion deformation. Gear and pinion drives are practically limited to about
10,000 HP per pinion. At this time, there is no
Each pad is mounted on a hydrostatically lubricated reasonable gear drive alternative for more than two
ball and socket support.

7
Siemens

Page 26
Mineral Processing

pinions or above 20,000 HP. The best solution is the chips to the inner surface of the trunnion extension. The
Metso Gearless Mill. ball fragments are carried to the top, where the magnetic
arc terminates, and fragments fall into a discharge chute.
• Very High Drive Efficiency
Normally, a secondary suspended magnet is placed just
• Low Maintenance Requirements ahead of the pebble crusher to remove any iron that might
have dropped onto the conveyor ore after the mill.
• Often require less floor space

Mill Liners9
8
Tramp Metal Detector
Mill liners form the protective, inner layer of the mill
Tramp metal is defined as chunks of metal broken off from cylinder. Lining face angle plays a significant role in liner
the equipment such as small wear plates. performance and wear. Liners should also assist on where
the grinding balls land during rotation – the optimum result
Smaller pieces of tramp metal might pass through the plant is where the balls drop right on the toe of the ore charge.
without notice, bur larger pieces can damage equipment,
causing expensive downtime and contaminate products. A lining for grinding mills is formed by generally
rectangular plates, which, as part of the same casting, have
Cross-belt magnets can remove a portion of tramp iron, but raised lifter bars that extend parallel with the length of the
are not effective on manganese and stainless steel. Many plate. Bolt-receiving holes extend through the plates and
plants, therefore, use metal detectors to stop conveyor belts lifter bars to secure the plates within a grinding mill.
when tramp metal passes by.
A lining formed by these plates has radial ribs, formed by
This is effective, but it stops production while someone cooperating lifter bars on adjacent liner plates. The lifters
digs through the stone on the stopped belt to find the serve to ‘lift’ the ore and grinding balls during mill
offending piece of metal. False trips and trips caused by rotation, with the aim of creating the optimum impact
small pieces of metal, such as nuts and bolts, can be between the ore, balls and liner plates. There are also end
particularly aggravating and detrimental to production. For liners at the feed and exchange parts of the mill. Mill liners
example, a metal-detector belt stop lasting 10 minutes can be metallic, a combination of rubber with metal inserts,
results in 100 tons of lost production in a 600-tph plant. or rubber only.

Metal detectors should be insensitive to materials with high In the case of large SAG or AG mills, the linings tend to be
magnetic permeability and electrical conductivity in order totally metallic and highly profiled to allow for maximum
not to produce false alarms. They should also be set at the movement of the material in the mill.
conveyor belt speed, should tolerate high humidity (up to In large SAG mills with the highest impacts, the alloy tends
95% RH) and ambient and operating temperatures. to be a chrome-molybdenum steel.
Normally, RS-485 is the standard serial communication
(usually configured in Modbus protocol) between the In AG, ball-and-rod mills, it tends to be high-chrome
detector and the remote front panel or PLC. The alarm ‘white iron’.
outputs are of delay contact type (NO and NC contacts).
Rubber linings are used for ball mills up to 16ft in
diameter.
Trommel Magnets
There are several reasons for the dominance of metallic
Trommel magnets are usually used in mills in order to liners. They can withstand much higher impact from large
remove worn iron mill balls and ball chips that exit the ore particles and large grinding media; i.e. the balls in SAG
SAG mill grinding circuits in the trammel screen oversize and large ball mills. Additionally, if the ore fragments
fraction. Magnets remove the waste iron exiting the mill to easily, but is angular, such as with taconite, these could tear
minimize the damage to downstream pebble crushers. a rubber lining. The impetus for the development of rubber
linings in the first place was their lower cost and lighter
Permanent magnets are usually preferred than weight, although the cost gap has closed.
electromagnets. The former require no power to operate
while the latter requires a significant amount of power. In AG mills, the impact stresses are slightly lower as the
rock essentially breaks itself. AG mills are fed with very
It is usually mounted on the mill’s discharge trunnion and large ore-feed fragments, but this is needed to allow
consists of an arc of permanent magnets partially sufficient impact breakage. The liner plates have also
surrounding a blind trunnion. As the mill rotates, the gotten thicker. While 3 in plates used to be the norm, now 4
powerful magnet attracts and holds the worn steel balls and in is common in larger mills. The more robust the plates,

9
Metso Minerals, Polysius (Thyssen-Krupp), Outotec and
8
Thermo Electron Corporation FLSmidth Minerals

Page 27
Mineral Processing

the more resistance they have to unexpected breakage or

failure. Tougher alloys are also used on the largest mills.
Above normal wear to a mill lining can occur if there is a
gap or delay in the ore feed and the mill runs empty, with
the grinding balls having a direct impact on the lining.
Damage might not be obvious immediately, but weaknesses
may be created that will lead to failures later on.

There is also lot of variation in the life of a mill before

relining is required. It depends on the material being
ground and the size of the mill; however, the running
period for a SAG mill can vary from about six to over nine
months and, for an AG mill, which, having no grinding
balls, suffers less relative impact, this is about 10-12
months.

Lining Replacement10

Individual liner castings are bolted on, which is what

creates the distinctive bolt-grid pattern on the outer shell of
a mill. Inside, the liner castings butt up against each other,
with a 0.5 in gap in-between.

Traditionally, some mining companies have chosen to

install mill liners themselves, but the trend has been
increasingly to use more specialist contractors with
mechanized technology (and much safer) and experienced
teams – the primary driving force again being the drive to
reduce downtime.

A typical SAG mill reline involves replacing the feed-end

outer row, the entire cylinder and discharge grates. Mill-
relining machines are usually employed to remove and
replace liners with maximum liner capacity to suit the
weight of the total liners it can remove. Normally relining
time is around 60 to 70 hours per mill.

10
RME (Russel Mineral Equipment Pty Ltd)

Page 28
Mineral Processing

CLASSIFICATION lined with removable rubber liners. The cyclone chamber is

followed by a cylindrical chamber with a depth
Classification is the process that separates coarse from fine. approximately equal to its diameter. This chamber provides
Various methods use the effect of size, density, and some retention time.
magnetic and electrostatic properties of the solids. When
the weight concentration is smaller than 15%, particles The cylindrical transition chamber is followed by a conical
settle in a “free settling” mode. When the weight chamber, often designed with an included angle between 10
concentration increases, turbulence promotes settling of the and 20 degrees. It provides further retention time.
heavier particles faster than the lighter particles. Two
families of density classifiers are available: Discharge Pipe
(finer particles)
1. Classifiers that use the principle of free settling to Cyclone overflow
achieve size separation

2. Classifiers that use the particles’ hindered settling Inlet Pipe

speed for density separation and for concentration of a Cylindrical
particular mineral feed chamber
(top half)
Hydrocyclones are the most common classifiers in the
mining industry. Fiberglass
body Cylindrical
They require little space and operate on the pressure from chamber
the mill discharge pumps (typically 104–152 kPa, 15–22 Conical section (bottom half)
psi). They are typically used to classify solids from a size 10-20 deg angle
of 40 to 400 µm (mesh 325 to 35) Rubber
liner
The principle of the cyclone relies on creation of a vortex;
sometimes primary and secondary vortexes are created by Apex
Discharge Pipe
feeding the material tangentially. In a vortex, a certain
(coarse solids)
pressure field is created to counterbalance centrifugal
forces. In the cyclone, the applied pressure is converted Cyclone Underflow
into a swirling motion. The intensity of the swirl is
measured as the swirl number: At the bottom of the cyclone, the apex is installed. It acts as
angular momentum a sort of nozzle or orifice. For different applications,
S= different orifice diameters may be used, and for different
axial momentum
apex diameters, different pressures are required. The apex
If the swirl flow number exceeds 0.5, the swirl is classified is therefore a sort of controlling element to the cyclone.
as a strong swirl. Strong swirl is associated with a low- The minimum apex orifice diameter is on the order of 10%
pressure zone at the core. A strong swirl is associated with of the swirling chamber diameter, and the largest orifice
an important pressure drop. The cyclone feed gauge diameter is on the order of 35%. In either case, the apex
pressure at the inlet flange is often of the order of 70–100 must allow the flow of the coarse materials. At the bottom
kPa (10 to 15 psi). of the apex, the discharge is called the cyclone underflow.
At the top of the vortex finder, the discharge, which
The swirling chamber of the cyclone is where the consists of fines, is called the cyclone overflow.
separation starts. The inlet area to the cyclone is often of
the order of 5–7% of the chamber area, or the inlet diameter For primary grinding circuits, the underflow typically
is between 20% and 25% of the swirling chamber diameter. contains 50 to 53% by volume of solids, whereas for
The inlet nozzle is rectangular in shape in some sheet metal regrinding circuit, the underflow typically delivers 40 to
fabricated cyclones, or circular in fiberglass cyclones. 45% solids by volume.

Inside the swirling chamber, a pipe section protrudes from Hydrocyclones can be manufactured from dough-molded
the top of the cyclone. It is called the vortex finder. It must compound fiberglass, cast iron, or sheet metal lined with
extend below the feed entrance to avoid shortcuts of polyurethane. Metal and fiberglass cyclones are lined with
unclassified slurry to the top discharge or overflow. The rubber or with hard metal (Ni-hard or 28% chrome white
diameter of the vortex finder is typically 32% to 36% of the iron).
swirling chamber diameter. The finer and lighter particles
flow out of the hydrocyclone through the vortex finder. Cyclones are usually operated in a steady mode with
constant pressure. Surges can lead to unfavorable air
In some of the earlier metal fabricated designs, the swirling entrainment. To maintain constant pressure from the
chamber consisted of a single cylinder. In fiberglass pumps, the pump box must have a constant level of slurry.
designs, it is split into two halves, which are individually To adjust the slurry level, the sump must be provided with
a water addition mechanism.

Page 29
Mineral Processing

Overflow
Normal feed to cyclones consists of a slurry at 30% solids Vortex
concentration by weight. Finder
Typical trajectory
Some mines operate with slurry weight concentrations as of fines
high as 35%. Higher concentration by weight imposes
higher pressures of operation, which can cause a reduction
in efficiency of operation of the hydrocyclone while
coarsening the cut point. Vortex finders are changed in Inlet
accordance with the required cut. A larger diameter vortex Typical trajectory
finder tends to coarsen the overflow while increasing its of coarse
discharge flow rate at a constant pressure.
Air core
In a cylindrical vessel that rotates at an angular speed ω
(rad/s) or N (rpm) and contains a liquid ring of mean radius
R (m) the centrifugal acceleration a C (m/s²) to which the Spigot or apex
particles are subjected is:
(2π ) 2 2
ac = ω 2 R = N R
3600 Underflow
= 0.011 N 2 R
The feed enters tangentially into the cylindrical section of
The forced exerted on a particle per unit of weight is the hydrocyclone and follows a circulating path with a net
expressed by: inward flow of fluid from the outside to the vortex finder
(ρ s − ρl ) (ρ − ρl ) on the axis. The centrifugal field generated by the high
Fc = ω 2 R = 0.011N 2 R s circulating velocities creates an air core on the axis that
g g usually extends on the spigot opening at the bottom of the
where conical section through the vortex finder to the overflow at
N = Rotational speed, rpm the top. In order for this to occur the centrifugal force field
ω = Angular speed, rad/sec must be several times larger than the gravitational one.
R = Mean radius, m Particles that experience this centrifugal field will tend to
ρs = Density of particle move outwards relative to the carrier fluid because of their
relatively greater density. The larger, heavier particles will
ρl = Density of interstitial liquid
migrate rapidly to the outside walls of the cylindrical
section and will then be forced to move downward to the
A cyclone is a commonly-used apparatus that makes use of inside of the conical wall. Small particles will, on the other
gravity and centrifugal force to separate solid particles from hand, be dragged inward by the fluid as it moves towards
a gas stream. A typical cyclone is a cylindrical vessel with the vortex finder. The solid separation occurs in the passage
a tangential inlet and top and bottom outlets. Cyclones are of the suspension along the barrel of the hydrocyclone, to
widely used in various industries because they are easy to form thickened slurry at the outer wall, which than leaves
build, inspect and maintain. the hydrocyclone as a continuous stream from its discharge
nozzle.
Hydrocyclones are similar devices to cyclones where the
operating fluid is a liquid rather then a gas. They operate Separated solids fall down under gravity into the
by converting pressure energy into centrifugal force. accumulator vessel situated beneath the hydrocyclone.

The simplest device to use centrifugal force to achieve Overflow - product

separation is the hydrocyclone. It not really a centrifuge:
the centrifugal separation is produced by the motion of the
slurry, induced by the tangential introduction of the feed
material. Its principle of operation is based on the concept
of the terminal settling velocity of a solid particle in a
centrifugal field. The following picture describes the
Underflow
conditions in an operating hydrocyclone.

Feed

Page 30
Mineral Processing

p2
Overflow - product
Feed
Control
p1 Valve
Sensor
Underflow Overflow

Underflow
Control
Unit
p
Hydrocyclones in closed circuits

Overflow - product n

Feed Hydrocyclone control using overflow throttling

n = feed pump speed

p = pressure drop
Underflow p1 = inlet pressure
p2 = overflow outlet pressure
V = volumetric flux

Large hydrocyclones with a nominal diameter of >500 mm

are equipped with monitoring sensors and control valves at
Underflow every cylone.

Typical Range of Sizes for Cyclones Operating at

Hydrocyclones connected in series Pressures from 20 to 500 kPa (3-72 psi)

Overflow - fines
Diameter
(of swirling Capacity
Stage 1 chamber) L/s
in mm

100 1 L/s @ 20 kPa – 6 L/s @ 500 kPa

150 3 L/s @ 20 kPa – 15 L/s @ 500 kPa
Feed 250 7 L/s @ 20 kPa – 35 L/s @ 500 kPa
380 12 L/s @ 20 kPa – 60 L/s @ 500 kPa
Stage 2
510 26 L/s @ 20 kPa – 140 L/s @ 500 kPa
660 50 L/s @ 20 kPa – 250 L/s @ 500 kPa
760 85 L/s @ 20 kPa – 450 L/s @ 500 kPa
Re-circulating load - coarse

Typical Cyclone Size versus Particle Cut

Hydrocyclones connected in two stage classification
Diameter of hydrocyclone Discharge cut size
25 mm (1”) 5 µm (mesh 2500)
100 mm (4”) 40 µm (mesh 380)
250 mm (10”) 75 µm (mesh 200)
500 mm (20”) 150 µm (mesh 100)

Page 31
Mineral Processing

FLOTATION The collector in a flotation circuit consists of a hydrophobic

hydrocarbon chain of molecules (grease or wax) that repels
Flotation, or more specifically “froth” flotation, is a the mineral-laden water and causes it to attach itself to the
physico-chemical method of concentrating ground passing air bubble. The surface chemistry is divided into
ores. The process involves chemical treatment of an ore three categories:
pulp to create conditions favorable for the attachment of
pre-determined mineral particles to air bubbles. 1. Physical adsorption with a free energy of the collector
smaller than 5 kcal/mol
The trick is to make mineral particles hydrophobic, or
water repellant. Flotation involves the selected 2. Chemisorption with a free energy of the collector
“adsorption” of hydrocarbons (e.g., ethyl xanthate) on larger than 30 kcal/mol
liberated minerals (e.g., chalcopyrite), which can then be
attached to and transported by air bubbles in the slurry to a 3. Intermediary stages between adsorption and
so-called froth layer and then separated from the chemisorption
hydrophilic
Sulfide minerals are relatively easier to separate by
The air bubbles carry the selected minerals to the surface of chemisorption because they can use the major collectors
the pulp, there forming a stabilized froth which is skimmed such as xanthates and dithiosphophates. Certain special
off and from which the pre-determined mineral particles are additives with high surface energy capabilities can also be
recovered. Other minerals remain submerged in the pulp. added to separate different grades of sulfides (e.g., to sink
pyrite while floating chalcopyrite).
Flotation involvs mixing water and chemicals with the ore
so that certain mineral particles floated to the top and could Oxide minerals (e.g., hematite, apatite. etc.) and silicate
be skimmed off easily. The original patents for the flotation minerals are more difficult to separate by flotation than
process (Australia) were secured by C. V. Potter in 1901 sulfide minerals. For oxides and silicate minerals, flotation
and by G. D. Delprat in 1902. is difficult because it is done by adsorption with minimal
free surface energy using anionic fatty acids and cationic
This slurry (more properly called the pulp) of hydrophobic amines, which operate essentially by electrostatic forces.
mineral-bearing ore and hydrophilic gangue is then
introduced to a water bath which is violently aerated via When various ores are present, flotation may be done in
mechanical agitation, creating bubbles. The hydrophobic stages using tanks in series. In each tank, a different pH
grains of mineral-bearing ore escape the water by attaching level may be set or different collectors may be added, with
to the air bubbles, which rise to the surface, forming foam the output from each tank going to a different circuit for
or a scum (more properly called froth). The froth is further treatment.
removed and the concentrated mineral is further refined.
Depressants are chemicals that make the particle surface
The selective separation of the minerals makes processing hydrophilic and nonfloatable. Typical depressants include
complex (that is, mixed) ores economically feasible. The bichromate, cyanide, zinc sulphate, and lime.
flotation process is used for the separation of a large range
of sulfides, carbonates and oxides prior to further Activators are chemicals that make the surface of
refinement. nonfloating particles active for collector attachment.

For flotation to be efficient, it must be repeated a few times Typical activators are copper sulphate and sodium sulphide.
in a circuit that includes a rougher, a scavenger, and a The pH value is a determining factor in many flotation
cleaner. circuits. It is adjusted by using various chemicals such as
Circulating lime, caustic soda, sulfuric acid, etc.
concentrate
Frothers are chemicals that are used to decrease the surface
tension of water in order to
Feed Tails Tails
• Develop improved stability in the pulp
Rougher Scavenger
• Achieve smaller and better bubble size
• Create a suitable froth layer
Concentrate • Help destroy froth, after which it is removed
Particles
Cleaner Typical frothers include alcohols and pine oil.
Circulating
tails Water
Concentrate Air bubble

Page 32
Mineral Processing

The size of the flotation tank is based on the required flow Various flotation reagents are added to a mixture of ore and
rate as well as the required retention time, an aeration water (called pulp) in a conditioning tank. The flow rate
factor, and a scale factor: and tank size are designed to give the minerals enough time
Q × tr × sC to be activated. The conditioner pulp [1] is fed to a bank of
V = rougher cells which remove most of the desired minerals as
a a concentrate. The rougher pulp [2] passes to a bank of
where scavenger cells where additional reagents may be added.
V = Volume of flotation tank, m3 The scavenger cell froth [3] is usually returned to the
Q = Flow rate (m3/s) rougher cells for additional treatment, but in some cases
a = Aeration factor = 0.85 may be sent to special cleaner cells.
tr = Retention time (s)
sC = Scale factor; 0.85 for plants The scavenger pulp is usually barren enough to be
discarded as tails. More complex flotation circuits have
= 1.0 for pilot plants several sets of cleaner and re-cleaner cells, and
= 1.7 for lab batch intermediate re-grinding of pulp or concentrate.
The number of cells in a flotation circuit is determined by For large plants, the process of flotation or leaching in a
the degree of metallurgical control and the concern for single tank is not very efficient. To increase productivity,
short-circuiting. It used to be believed that the correct tanks are installed in series (up to five stages or five tanks
approach would consist of small cells and longer banks. in a series), thus eliminating possible short-circuiting.
However, with the advent of special mixers and good
aeration techniques, it is now possible to use larger tanks In industrial scale, flotation takes place in interconnected
cells, which compose of different sections of flotation
Flotation circuit can be very simple or very complex. A circuits. Each section is composed of flotation cells. The
simple circuit such as used with coal, achieves floatation in tailings of each cell become the input of the next cell in the
a single step and does not involve cleaning of the froth. circuit. From the last cell of the section, tailing is led to the
In a more complex circuit, an initial stage, called the first cell of other section, except the cells where the tailing
rougher, is added; it acts as a preconcentrator. is sent to final tailing. Usually concentrates of the single
cells in a section are combined to one concentrate flow,
The flocculated output goes then to a second stage, called which is then directed to next phase of process.
cleaning, that is done at higher dilution and is sometimes
associated with regrinding at various stages. Sometimes regrinding or thickening is situated between the
flotation sections. Regrinding may be necessary when
When the ore grade is fairly low but the mineral is of high floating two minerals with very different optimal particle
value, a scavenger is used for additional preconcentration. size distribution or when final concentrate grade cannot be
achieved because of gangue contamination in non-liberated
Froth is a real challenge in the design of pumps particles. Thickening may be needed to increase solids
content of slurry.
Mechanics of flotation Feed coming from the grinding circuit is led to the rougher.
Ore feed Before the actual flotation, slurry may be conditioned in a
pulp conditioner, where some of the reagents are added to the
slurry. Some measurement are often performed in
conditioner, pH, for instance. In rougher flotation, most of
the fast floating valuable minerals are separated from the
slurry directly to the concentrate. In other words, the
Conditioner Reagents recovery is held high at the expense of the grade. This is
performed n conditions where fairly thin froth beds and
1 high aeration rates are used in the flotation cells.

Rougher The tailings of the rougher are introduced to the scavenger,

3
where slowly floating fine and coarse mineral particles are
Cells
floated in conditions where smaller aeration rate and even
thinner froth beds than in rougher section are used. The
2
tailings of the scavenger are sent to the final tailings of the
circuit.
Scavenger
Concentrate
Cells

Tails

Page 33
Mineral Processing

Feed Xanthates Dithiophosphates

Rougher Scavenger • Sodium Ethyl Xanthate
Tailings (SEX)
• Potassium Ethyl
Cleaner Xanthate (KEX)
• Sodium Isobutyl
Cleaner Xanthate (SIBX)
Concentrate Frothers
• Pine oil
• Polyoxyparafins
Closed flotation circuit • Alcohols (MIBC)
• Cresylic Acid
(Xylenol)
Tailings
• Polyglycols
Feed
Rougher Scavenger

Flotation Cells
Cleaner
Flotation can be performed in mechanically agitated cells
or tanks, in tall flotation columns and in several other units
Cleaner including the Jameson cell.
Concentrate

Mechanical cells use a large mixer and diffuser mechanism

Open flotation circuit at the bottom of the mixing tank to introduce air and
provide mixing action. Flotation columns use air spargers
The concentrates of the rougher and scavenger are refloated to introduce air at the bottom of a tall column while
in cleaner sections in order to increase the grade of the final introducing slurry above. The countercurrent motion of the
concentrate. The froth beds in cells of the cleaner flotation slurry flowing down and the air flowing up provides
are thicker than in other sections which lead to the decrease mixing action. Mechanical cells generally have a higher
of the water recovery and increased rejection of hydrophilic throughput rate, but produce material that is of lower
gangue. quality, while flotation columns generally have a low
throughput rate but produce higher quality material.
The connection of the tailings of the cleaner flotation
makes the difference between open and closed circuits. As Mechanical flotation cell s are used for mineral
in the open circuit, the cleaner tailings form the final concentration.
tailings of the circuit, with scavenger tailings closed circuit, Air
re-circulates the cleaner tailings back to the rougher. (entrained
or forced)
In a closed flotation circuit, the control of circulating loads
is essential. Material can accumulate in the circuit as
circulating loads increase. This may lead to situations Concentrate
where recovery suddenly drops far below a satisfactory
Froth
level after being on target and stable for long periods. This
occurs when the accumulation has reached certain point
where circuit conditions become unstable. The means to
correct the situation after it has occurred are minimal.
Almost inevitably, the recovery stays low for certain period
and may even reduce the average recovery below long-time Pulp
target values. (from
Pulp
conditioner)
(to next flotation
cell)
Chemicals of Flotation

Collectors
Xanthates Dithiophosphates
• Potassium Amyl • Thiocarbarnates A mixture of ore and water called pulp enters the cell from
Xanthate (PAX) • Thiocarbanilide a conditioner, and flows to the bottom of the cell. Air or
• Sodium Isopropyl sometimes nitrogen is passed down a vertical impeller
• Xanthogen Formates
Xanthate (SIPX) where shearing forces break the air stream into small
• Thionocarbarnates
bubbles. The mineral concentrate froth is collected from the
• Potassium Isobutyl
top of the cell, while the pulp flows to another cell.
Xanthate (PIBX)

Page 34
Mineral Processing

The Jameson cell uses neither impellers nor spargers, Basic Functions
instead combining the slurry with air in a downcomer
where high shear gives excellent bubble particle contacting. The flotation cell has three (3) basic functions:

A mechanical flotation cell essentially consists of a vessel (1) Suspension

or tank fitted with an impeller or rotor. (2) Aeration
(3) Froth removal
Impeller Drive
Assembly In mechanical cells, there are two mode by which air is
introduced into the cells; one is forced air entry mode
carried out using a blower, and the other is the self-induced
Concentrate air entry mode, also known as self-aspirated, in which air is
Launder sucked into the cell by vortexing.

Thus, there are basically two fundamental designs of

flotation cells:

(1) Forced-air flotation cells

Cylindrical (2) Self-aspirated flotation cells
Tank with
Impeller/Stator In the forced-air-type, the impeller is close to the cell
Mechanisms bottom with a deeper impeller submergence, and an
external air blower is used to supply air under pressure
Tailings through the hollow shaft to the impeller region.
discharge
Cylindrical Mechanical Cell Self-induced type utilizes a standpipe that shrouds the solid
drive shaft. The impeller is located almost in the midpoint
The impeller agitates the slurry to keep particles in of the cell, which draws air through the space between the
suspension, disperses air into fine bubbles, and provides an standpipe and the solid drive shaft.
environment in the cell tank for interaction of bubbles and
hydrophobic particles and their subsequent attachment, and, The principal difference between the two designs is the
therefore, separation of valuable mineral particles form the rotor position and, as a result, the point in the tank where
undesired gangue mineral particles. flotation takes place and the distance that the hydrophobic
specie has to travel to the cell lip for removal. The position
The bubble-particle aggregates move up in the cell by of the flotation zone and the distance to the cell lip has a
buoyancy and are removed from the cell lip into an inclined significant effect on the nature of the froth recovered.
drainage box called a ‘launder.’
Typically, mechanical cells are designed with a rectangular
The launder product is commonly known as ‘concentrate.’ tank bottom for cells with volumes up to 3 m³ and a U-
shaped bottom for cells with volumes up to about 38-45 m³.
The particles that do not attach to the bubbles are Cells larger than 38-45 m³ are typically designed with a
discharged out from the bottom of the cell tank to the cylindrical tank and either conical or flat bottoms.
discharge or tailings box.
In a typical plant, the mechanical cell tanks are arranged in
series. This arrangement is called a ‘bank.’
Hydrodynamic Zones
Self-aspirated flotation cells have better global recovery
A mechanical flotation cell necessitates generation of three (roughing) than the forced-air flotation cells. Forced-air
(3) distinct hydrodynamic zones for effective flotation. cells are better for upgrading and cleaning duties.

The region close to the impeller is the turbulent region

necessary for solids suspension, dispersion of gas into Feed Box and Discharge Box
bubbles, and bubble-particle interaction for collection of
minerals on the surface of the bubbles. Each bank in a flotation circuit (which also could be an
individual cell) is usually fitted with a feed box with a
Above the turbulent region lies the quiescent zone, where rectangular opening at the bottom of the box to allow entry
the bubble-particles aggregates rise up in a relatively less of slurry into the cell bank for flotation. The feed box is
turbulent motion. rectangular or half-cylindrical in shape depending on cell
type and size. A tailings box or discharge box is also fitted
The last region is the froth removal zone, where the froth is at the end of the bank (or on the opposite side of feed box
removed. in an individual cell) to allow discharge of tailings. The

Page 35
Mineral Processing

discharge box is also rectangular or half-cylindrical in

shape depending on cell type and size. Stators or Diffusers

For some cell types and sizes, a dart valve or overflow weir A stator or diffuser is an important component of a
is fitted in the discharge box to control pulp level in the cell mechanical flotation cell. It surrounds the impeller and acts
tank. For other designs, a discharge box is not used and a as an internal baffle, which is useful in reducing pulp
pinch valve is fitted to the tailings outlet pipeline for pulp vortex in the cell. The tangential flow of the agitated slurry
level control. (due to the rotation of the impeller) is transformed into a
radial direction for effective dispersion of gas and solids in
the cell tank. This reduction in the vortex flow helps in
Cell Launders maintaining a stable pulp-froth interface, essential for
flotation.
Launders in flotation cells are located outside the overflow
lip to collect and transport the froth or concentrate product A stator consists of several blades arranged in a concentric
out of the cell tank. Launders are located typically on the circle, with gaps between the blades to facilitate movement
top of the cell tank. Launders are designed with a slope of of slurry in the cell tank. A stator is usually mounted on
about 10º to 15º fro smooth transportation of froth without the bottom of the cell tank surrounding the impeller
blockage in the launders. concentrically from its bottom. In some cell tank designs,
the stator is fitted to the standpipe such that the stator
In rectangular cell tanks, the launders are located on shrouds the impeller from the top and hangs with an open
opposite sides adjacent to the feed and discharge boxes. space at the bottom, commonly known as an overhung
Launders on three sides are also common in rectangular stator.
cell tanks arranged in series.
The impellers and diffusers are molded and coated with
Large cylindrical cells have concentric launders, which can rubber or polyurethane for abrasion resistance.
be either internal or external or both, depending on the
capacity of launder necessary for froth removal.

Impeller Drive Assembly

The impeller connected to the shaft (hollow or solid) is

driven by a 3-phase induction motor with the help of V-belt
pulleys or gear boxes. The size of the drive and the motor
pulleys determine the speed at which an impeller operates.

Impellers or Rotors

The impeller or agitator, also referred to as a ‘rotor,’ is

considered to be the heart of the mechanical flotation cell,
as it provides the energy to perform the following functions
necessary for the flotation process:

• Suspension of solids in the cell tank

• Dispersion of air into bubbles
• Creation of microturbulence for effective bubble-
particle collisions
• Suction of air into the cell in self-induced-type cells

The design of an impeller varies with cell type. Most

impeller designs have a flat, circular disc with different
shapes of blades or fingers fitted concentrically to the lower
section of the disc. The shape of the blades or fingers
varies from cylindrical to tapered (half-spherical). The
tapered impeller design is more popular in the new design
of cells. The top section of the disc connects to a drive
shaft which in turn connects to the pulley/gear motor drive
assembly. The impeller is located in the center of the cell’s
cross section with its submergence varying with cell type
and mode of air entry.

Page 36
Mineral Processing

SEDIMENTATION As in clarifiers, the bottom of most tanks slope towards the

center where the thickened underflow sludge accumulates.
Sedimentation is a form of separation of solids from liquids The sludge collected at the bottom is discharged through an
by using gravity forces rather than electrostatic, chemical outlet shaped like a cone with steep cone angle.
(flotation), or magnetic forces.
The thickening process is accelerated by the addition of
Sedimentation may be achieved by gravity forces, using flocculants.
thickeners and clarifiers. On the other hand, it may be
accomplished by centrifugal forces, as in centrifuges. While installing the feed pipe or launder to thickeners, the
slope is held at 1 to 1.5. The feed is actually made to enter
In gold extraction circuits, an intermediary centrifuge is about a meter below the surface of the tank level to help
sometimes installed between the hydrocyclones and the ball minimize turbulence.
mill feed box.
A
Centrifuges are sometimes called concentrators because F C0 ρ s
they permit the extraction of some of the heavy metals by
applying a very high centrifugal force such as 60 times the
acceleration due to gravity (60 g). Feed
Flux
Overflow
Gravity sedimentation is classified as thickening or
increasing the concentration of the feed stream, or
clarification or the removal of solids from relatively dilute
streams. The former is used to prepare the feed for tailings A (U + T ) C ρ s
and concentrate pipeline flow, or for the removal of tailings
on trucks. The latter is more frequently used in sewage and A T CU ρ s
waste treatment plants, where the volume of solids is Underflow
considerably smaller than in tailings and concentrate flows. withdrawal flux

Thickeners are essentially clarifiers producing a clearer where

overflow. The design considerations are based on the ρS = Solid density, kg/m3
settling rates of the slowest settling particles and conditions T = Velocity induced in the thickener by underflow
for minimum disturbance of the medium (water) through withdrawal, m/s
which the solid particles are allowed to settle. To achieve F = Feed rate, m3/s
these objectives cylindrical tanks with conical or flat A = Thickener cross-sectional area, m2
bottoms are used and the velocity of the feed slurry CU = Solids Concentration of underflow, vol/vol
entering the settling tank is minimized to reduce turbulence
in the settling tank. C0 = Solids Concentration of feed, vol/vol

The feed in the form of slurry is generally guided by a The total flux is the sum of batch settling flux and
launder, which is laid at a slope just sufficient for the slurry underflow withdrawal flux. One needs to design the
to flow without depositing any solids. The feed launder thickener to have an adequate area for the flux required
terminates in a feed well located at the center of the tank. when thickening from the inlet to outlet concentrations.
The feed well is designed to break the fall of the slurry and
dissipate the energy. Cancelling the solids density:

The feed well is concentric with the rake driving shaft. The Flux in feed: G = FC 0
rakes are bolted or welded on to this drive shaft and for
long and large rakes they have additional support from Flux in underflow: G = ATCu
cables. Usually four (4) rakes are employed of which two Flux at any point: G = (U + T ) AC
may be short and two long. Attached to the rakes and
below them are spikes, particularly in situations where the Rearrange the underflow equation for T, substitute it into
sludge is thick. The spikes help to break up the sludge and the flux at any point equation and replace all instances of G
render it more suitable for pumping. by the feed equation to give:
The rakes are driven by a motor which is mounted on a
plate above the well. A bridge usually runs from the
periphery to the center of the tank. It is supported by the
wall of the feed well and the rim of the tank. The bridge
serves as a walkway and also carries an open launder (or
pipe), which carries the slurry to the feed well.

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Mineral Processing

G = ATCu G = (U + T ) AC Conventional Thickener

G F C0
T= F C0 = (U + ) AC
AC u ACu
Peripheral Drive Central Drive
F C0C
F C0 = A (UC ) +
Cu
No Lifting
F C0  C  Bridge Type
A= Device
 1− 
UC  Cu 
Centrally Mounted Platform Mounted
Thus, the required thickener plan area is:
Lifting Device Lifting Device

F C0  1 1 
A=  −  Column Type
U (C )  C C u 
g ( ρ s − ρ ) (1 − C ) 3
U (C ) = ⋅
µ KCS v 3 Telescopic Cage Telescopic Column
Lifting Device Lifting Device
where
U (C ) = Settling velocity at values of C between CU and
C0 Central Drive Mechanisms
µ = Liquid viscosity
K = Kozeny constant, assumed 5 for packed beds There are two methods of supporting the heavy drive with
Sv = Specific surface area per unit volume its shaft and raking arms:
ρ = Liquid density
1. Bridge type
Solve the above equation for various values of C and
U (C ) and select the area that is the greatest for the design.

Conventional Thickeners are generally incorporated in

heavy duty applications when the underflow density is high
and substantial torques are required to convey the settled Feed
solids from the periphery to the central outlet for pumping
away. Likewise, thickeners are often used for storage to Overflow
facilitate the continuous feeding of downstream filters or
centrifuges.

The tank itself may be shallow and called a shallow

thickener, or deep and called a deep thickener. The
decision to choose either is often based on various
parameters such as the final weight concentration, the rate Underflow
of sedimentation, the viscosity, the design of the rake, as
well as other parameters. This is at the basis of the design In the bridge type a structure spans across the tank and
of the thickener. is subjected vertically to the weight of the mechanism
Basically there are two groups of thickeners which differ in plus any solids that accumulate within the arms truss
their rake driving mechanisms: and horizontally to the twin forces imposed by the
density of the raked underflow.
1. Centrally driven
2. Peripherally driven 2. Column type

In the column type a central steel or concrete column

takes vertically the reaction to the weight of the
mechanism and horizontally the torque load.

Page 38
Mineral Processing

The difference is in the positioning of the blades. On the

former arrangement the blades are staggered so that each
blade moves the solids once per cycle and in the later
arrangement the blades of each arm overlap and move the
Feed solids twice per revolution. Arms with staggered blades are
Overflow normally used on light duty applications and the
overlapping blades on heavy applications. When the
volume of solids to be conveyed is high two short arms are
added in 90 degrees to the two long arms so that the inner
circle of the thickener's bottom is raked four times per
revolution and rarely also six times.

On light duty applications straight blades are used however

Underflow curved blades are always attached to arms that are designed
There is a rule of thumb as to the break even between for heavy duty applications. On certain heavy duty
bridge type and column type mechanisms. For tanks up to applications with thixotropic slimes the blades are not
25-30 meter diameter the former type is selected and for directly attached to the arm truss but connected through
larger diameters the later type. However, in many instances posts to avoid an effect called "doughnutting" in which the
other considerations determine the selection such as the entire mass of solids rotates without being conveyed to the
local cost of steel versus concrete. Also selection may be center. The thixo blades as they channel through the slime
influenced by process consideration such as the handling of help in reducing this effect and promote the release of
the dense underflow through a central discharge cone, as in liquid to increase the density of the underflow.
the bridge type, or in a circular trough as in the column
type thickeners. On abrasive applications the rakes and blades are subjected
to a significant wear so it is good practice to increase their
thickness for corrosion allowance.
Drive Head
On some applications, such as thickening downstream froth
The drive head, together with the raking arms, are the heart flotation, a thick scum layer floats on the surface of the
of the mechanism since the entire operation of the thickener liquid. This layer finds its way into the overflow launder
depends on their ability to convey continuously the dense and contaminates the clear overflowing liquid with fines.
underflows from the periphery of the tank to the center. This problem is solved by incorporating a scum baffle that
Hence, they are always of a robust design to meet the most retains the scum layer so that a special rotating scum
difficult duties such as metallurgical, potash or phosphate skimmer pushes the scum into a box for disposal.
applications where densities may reach 55-60% solids by
weight.
Overflow Weirs
Another important factor is reliability since unlike many
other types of equipment, thickeners have no stand-bys so The overflow weir that surrounds the tank ensures that the
if one goes out of commission it cannot be by-passed. flow that leaves the thickener is distributed evenly in terms
Consequently, if this happens other thickeners have to take of m3/hr/m weir length. During the first year or so
the extra load but if the plant incorporates just one differential settling of the tank foundations may cause an
thickener then the entire production line must stop. uneven distribution so that the entire flow passes over the
Likewise, to take a thickener out of commission for internal lower part of the weir which results in high velocities and
repairs such as repair of damaged blades, or rubber lining drag of fines to the overflow launder. Therefore, it is
may take days since it requires to empty the tank, wash out essential to check from time to time that the weirs are in
with hoses the underflow bed, refill the tank and find a leveled.
suitable storage or disposal site for the very large volumes
of liquid.

Flat weir
Raking Arms

The duty of the raking arms is to convey the settled solids

from the entire area to the discharge cone of bridge type
thickeners or the circumferential trough that surrounds the 'V' Notch weir
column of column type thickeners.
Two of the most common overflow weirs are illustrated on
There are two configuration of raking arms: the right and show the adjustable leveling clamps. The "V"
o Arms that rake once per revolution notch weir is generally more common since the triangular
o Arms that rake twice per revolution notches are not so sensitive to slight deviations in the level
of the tank.

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Mineral Processing

The Feedwell The Lifting Device and Torque Control

The lifting device is the element that raises and lowers the
Feedwell raking arms during operation so that the blades follow the
interface of the settled solids by monitoring the torque. This
ensures that the torque is maintained within set limits so
that the arms are raised when the torque increases or
lowered when the torque decreases. The control box is
mounted on the primary reducer and generally contains 4
microswitches set to the following sequence:

o 30% to lower the raking arms

o 50% to raise the raking arms
o 60% to sound an alarm
The purpose of the feedwell is to dampen the turbulence of o 90% to cut-out the power supply and close the slurry
the incoming feed so that the entry into the thickener will feed
be as laminar as possible and will not interfere with the
solids that are already settling inside the tank. This effect is There are two types of lifting devices for bridge type
achieved by entering the feedwell tangentially so that the thickeners:
centrifugal swirl distributes the feed in an even pattern o Small and medium diameter thickeners will normally
below the liquid level. incorporate a Centrally Mounted Lifting Device
supported by the drive head that is fixed to the bridge
It is good practice to connect the tangential pipe so that the structure. A screw is attached to the shaft of the raking
introduced stream swirls in an opposite direction to the arms which are raised or lowered depending on the
rotation of the raking arm. This will reduce the risk that monitored torque. The power to the rotating lifting
slow settling solids may "doughnut" as described in the motor and its control from the microswitches is
section on the raking arms. supplied by a slip ring housing that is stationary and
mounted on the lifting screw cover.

Underflow Pumping o Larger thickeners incorporate a Platform Mounted

Lifting Device. They are normally designed for high
Pumping of dense underflows has always been a problem torque ratings and consist of a construction with two
on thickeners that handle slurries such as metallurgical platforms. A lower platform that carries the entire drive
concentrates, potash or phosphate and the position of the head train and moves up or down and an upper
pumps in relation to the discharge cone can be very critical. platform that is stationary, supported by the bridge, and
The principle is to position the slurry pumps so that their carries the lifting motor. The motor turns both ways
suction side will be as close as possible to the cone's outlet depending on the torque that is monitored by the
and it is also good to practice to have two pumps, one in control box.
operation and one as stand-by.
There are four (4) ways of positioning the pumps: The two platforms are connected by two heavy screws that
turn clockwise or counter-clockwise and move the lower
o For bridge type thickeners with tanks that are elevated platform up or down. Also column thickeners have two
above ground level the positioning is simple since the types of lifting devices:
cone is freely accessible.
o The Telescopic Cage type where the drive head
o For bridge and column type thickeners with tanks that remains stationary on the column. This device consists
are mounted on ground level the access to the slurry of two cages, an internal cage that is bolted to the
pumps is trough a tunnel. rotating drive rim to transmit the torque and an external
cage that is raised together with the raking arm by 4
o For very large column type thickeners the column is screws driven by a chain and sprockets.
constructed as a caisson that is submerged in the slurry
so that the pumps are housed at the bottom of the o The Telescopic Column where the drive head is
chamber and deliver the underflow upwards. mounted on a base so that both are raised or lowered by
two screws that are actuated by an electric motor from
o For small thickeners, which are normally of the bridge an upper platform. The torque is transmitted to the
type, the pumps are positioned at the periphery of the raking arms by the reaction between the telescopic
tank and the suction pipe is buried or runs through a column and the main column.
pipe sleeve for replacement if necessary.
The lifting height of the raking arms depends largely on the
application and can vary from 30 cm for feeds with a
steady slurry inflow up to 120 cm for thickeners that
facilitate storage.

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Mineral Processing

FILTRATION SAMPLING

Filtration equipment or sometimes called ‘Dewatering Assay is a procedure where a property or concentration of a
Equipment’ removes liquid from liquid-solid mixtures sample (analyte) is measured.
(slurries).

Major types of dewatering involve: Rotary Arc Sampler

1. centrifugal force – centrifuges
2. vacuum – filters The rotary types of cutters allow samples to be collected or
3. pressure – plate & frame, belt filter press, high passed through as indicated in the segments.
pressure filters
4. thermal dewatering – rotary dryers, fluidized bed For unbiased sampling, the edge of the cutters equals the
dryers radius of the circle forming the arc. The effective radius,
R, swept out by the cutter at any point, in terms of the
as particles get finer the resistance against removing water distance d from the center of rotation of the cutter to the
increases. Gravity dewatering can no longer be used, stream to be sampled along the centerline is given by:
pressure has to be used. d
R=
By creating a differential pressure dp across a cake of cos θ
solids, liquid can be removed by:
where θ is the angle between the radius of the cutter and
the centerline of the solids stream. The cutter opening
1. Compression – replacing water with particles
changes as the cutter moves through the stream, then by
2. Through blow – replacing water with compressed air
simple geometry, the effective cutter opening, d cutter , at
any point is approximately given by:
d tan α
Cycle Time Cutter opening, d cutter =
cos θ
The cycle time is the total of all filter function times:
If ω is the rotational speed (rpm) of the cutter then the
1. Cake formation time cutter speed, S cutter , parallel to the solid stream, can be
2. Cake washing time given by:
3. Cake dry time
S cutter = 2π d ω cos θ
Production Rate
When the leading edge of the cutter reaches the centerline
Production rate is defined as weight of filter cake per unit of the discharging conveyor or stream, cos θ = 1 ,
filter area per time. therefore conditions for d cutter and S cutter reduces to:
C× W d cutter = d tan α
Production Rate =
Cycle Time S cutter = 2π d ω
where
W = Dry cake weight per unit filter area To determine the quantity of sample taken by the arc
C = Constant including an empirical scale-up cutters, it is necessary to know the cutter angle, α. This
factor may be supplied by the manufacturer for a predetermined
position of the cutter or it can be calculated form the
following relation:

Cutter Arc length

Cutter angle, α = × 360
2π r

The mass of sample of solids, M, recovered per rotation can

be computed from a known flow rate of mineral, M F , by
the expression:
αM F
M =
360 ω

M F is expressed in kg/s, and ω as rpm.

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Mineral Processing

Sample ON-STREAM ANALYZERS (OSA)

XRF (X-ray Fluorescence) is a non-destructive technique

used in the mining industry to measure the content of
ω metals present in the slurry sample.

XRF is based on measurements of the secondary x-rays

emitted by the constituents of a sample excited by primary
x-rays. Two different types of XRF instruments are
Feed available, energy-dispersive and wavelength-dispersive.

On-line XRF analyzers (also called OSA) measure

concentrations of metals from slurry and tailings sample for
mineral process management, monitoring and control.
They are very important instruments in flotation as they
ω provide elemental assays from the process flows.

Several slurry samples are taken at various process streams

based either on gravity or pressure flow and combined into
one composite sample for analysis.
d
α In vertical pressure pipes, a round nozzle in the middle of
Feed
θ the pipe can be used to extract a sample, the flow being
thoroughly mixed after the pump or a suitable length of
vertical pipe i.e., longer than 10 × pipe’s diameter.

The volume, V, of liquid or slurry sampled can similarly be In horizontal gravity pipes or launders, vertical cutters are
written as: used to take an equal slice of all horizontal layers, which
might have different contents due to segregation by gravity.
α VS
V=
360 ω The sample flow into a nozzle or cutter must be the same as
VS is expressed as m3/s. the velocity of the bulk flow around the cutter or nozzle
else it will be biased with fine material (too high velocity).
NOTE: Usually d = 2/3 radius R, of the cutter.
A multiplexer combines several slurry samples into one
composite sample for the analyzer probe to measure. After
the analysis, the sample then goes to a De-multiplexer
where it is segregated and returned to the process stream.

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Mineral Processing

LIME SLAKING PLANT use an actuator that is significantly oversized. The actuator
size is increased, so the actuator output capability is
Raw Limestone roughly two times the normal manufacturer's recommended
Feed torque requirement in clean liquids.

Actuator oversizing might improve performance or

Raw decrease downtime resulting from sticking valves, but it
Spiral classifier,
Limestone Water will not solve all related maintenance problems. Because
slaker or
Storage
tower mill Milk lime is very abrasive, many ball and plug valves will be
Tank
of affected severely by the lime. A stellite coating or another
Lime hardened material on the ball will help protect a valve
Storage
against the abrasive nature of lime.
Tank
Recycle The seats also are a major concern. Again, hardened-steel
Loop seats with a scraping edge are probably your best
alternative in lime applications. "Scraping" hard-coated
metals will perform better in scaling substances because
To Plant they have the ability to scrape built-up material off the ball
and plug surfaces.
Lime is used by a large majority of the chemical process
industries in either a powder or liquid form. Engineering Most polymeric seats will not stand up over time in lime
and maintenance personnel often face a long ," and slurry. The scaling that occurs in these valves is like a
potentially expensive ," trial-and-error process to find the wrecking ball to most polymeric seats. The ball or plug
best process equipment to handle lime. with scale buildup is turned through these seats, usually
Limestone is mined from a quarry as calcium carbonate resulting in a short lifetime. Because ball and plug valves
(CaCO3). It then is crushed and fed into a kiln at have cavity areas housing the ball or plug, a substantial
approximately 2,000 ºF, where the carbon dioxide is burned amount of material will accumulate in this cavity area over
off (calcining) to make calcium oxide (CaO). time. If possible, you should install flushing ports in the
valve so the body cavity area is flushed with water to clean
CaO is ground to a powder in either a tower mill, spiral out material accumulation after each cycle. This process
classifier or slaker. Milk of lime is used for many industrial will help minimize material buildup in the cavity area.
purposes, including pH control, power flue-gas cleansing,
calcium extraction in pharmaceutical manufacturing and It can be expensive to build a ball or plug valve with all the
more. One of the most common uses is in the chemical above-mentioned features. The cost of a ball or plug valve
process industry is pH control. equipped with these features can be five to six times that of
The reason lime is so difficult to handle in piping systems, a traditional Teflon-seated ball or plug valve.
instrumentation and valves is that lime particles are very Unfortunately, however, most Teflon-seated ball or plug
jagged. Lime does not dissolve, but instead is merely valves will not perform satisfactorily in lime slurry.
suspended in solution. Any cracks, crevices or void areas
will cause the lime particles to fall out of suspension and Gate and knife gate valves
fill these voids. Lime further aggravates this situation when
it hardens in these collection points. The lime changes its Gate and knife gate valves can be used in many slurry
state to a solid mass of material ," commonly referred to as services. With many gate valves, however, you must be
scaling. Scaling causes a pipeline's inner diameter to willing to sacrifice tight shutoff in lime slurry service. Most
become smaller and smaller. Material buildup on valve gate valves force the gate into a wedge area to close the
seats and other surfaces can cause the valves to freeze in valve.
position.
Knife gate valves have a sharpened edge to improve the
Process equipment, instrumentation and valves selected for ability to cut through solid particles. In lime service, the
use in lime slurry systems should limit cavities, cracks and seating area will be a spot for material accumulation. The
void areas. Even a small collection point can cause lime will accumulate in this area, cause difficulties in valve
equipment failure and countless hours of downtime and operation and could prevent sealing the valve completely
maintenance. against the line pressure.
The ideal product for use in lime slurry should have the The ideal knife gate valve for lime service features a hard-
ability to clean itself or break apart scale and also should be surfaced leading knife edge. For surfacing, stellite or some
completely free of void spaces or cavities. If any piping other material capable of protecting the softer steel blade is
product is to be installed in a lime slurry system, it should used. Actuator forces in knife gates also should be
be full port as well to limit obstruction or potential lime increased to give the valve the ability to cut through or
slurry buildup. close tightly against the lime buildup in the wedge.
A common suggestion for increasing valve performance in The knife of the knife gate will be exposed to scaling. The
lime slurry systems while using plug and ball valves is to scale buildup on the knife most likely will result in packing

Page 43
Mineral Processing

problems in knife gates. The scale will accumulate on the to purchase either a 30,000-mile set of tires or an 80,000-
valve's knife. As the knife is opened, the scale buildup will mile set. Side by side, these tires look almost identical, but
be dragged through the packing, requiring increased forces the 80,000-mile-rated tire certainly will cost more. For the
to open the valve. The packing also will be affected extra money, it will give you two times the useful life of an
severely when this material is dragged across it. With most inferior tire.
knife gates, you will experience significant packing leaks.
A pinch valve or diaphragm that has a preset weir could
If one is going to use knife gates in lime slurry service, one decrease valve performance quite substantially, however.
should incorporate a scraping packing material. This This nonflexible weir will accumulate scale; because it
material would be a hardened substance that has the ability does not flex, it will result in increased wear to the rubber
to scrape the knife clean with every operation. Also, the sleeve. The nonflexible weir also defeats the self-cleaning
knife gate valve should have increased actuator forces effects of pinch valves.
capable of dragging this knife through the packing material.

Pinch valves

Pinch valves are a good solution for lime slurry service

because they have a straight-through design with no
crevices or cavities for material collection. A pinch valve is
a very effective device that has a self-cleaning effect on
scaling materials.

A rubber tube or sleeve is pinched by steel bars on the

centerline of the valve to close. To close the pinch valve,
you begin by stretching the rubber sleeve. As you stretch
the rubber sleeve, the material or scale buildup begins to
flake. As you continue to close the valve, the flaking
becomes greater, but the fluid velocity increases
substantially. Thus, the flaked material or scale is pressure
washed from the elastic surface of the rubber sleeve.

Pinch valves also address abrasion concerns. In abrasive

flows, you have two options. The first is to make the ball,
plug or gate valve and piping materials much harder. The
second approach is to make the valve or piping material
softer. Softer materials allow the abrasive particles to
bounce off the surface without destroying it.

For this reason, pinch valves have been used in mining

applications on very coarse slurries for the past 30 years.
With any mineral-based slurry, pinch valves are a very
viable option for protecting against abrasion. A pinch valve
also offers protection against clogging or jamming that can
occur with other valves in lime slurry service. Many valves
such as ball valves with stellite or harder coatings might be
able to withstand the abrasiveness of lime slurry. However,
they are subject to jamming or clogging because they have
cavities that allow for material collection.

Pinch valve selection must be performed very carefully and

with due diligence. Stainless steel or carbon steel ball
valves and plug valves do not vary greatly from one
reputable manufacturer to another. As long as you use one
of the "more reputable" ball or plug valves, you most likely
will have a valve free from porosity or imperfections. In
addition, some ball or plug valves have modified designs to
enhance performance in difficult services.

Pinch valves, however, can vary greatly from one another,

and rubber quality and properties can differ drastically from
one manufacturer to another. A good analogy is the
purchase of automobile tires. Pretend you have the option

Page 44
Mineral Processing

Slurry Piping Systems bottom section of the pipeline to monitor wear for loss of
wall thickness.
A slurry pipeline is used to transport mineral concentrate
from a mineral processing plant near a mine. OK Tedi Pipeline
The flow of slurry in a pipeline is much different from the Total Pipe length 155 km
flow of a single-phase liquid. Theoretically, a single-phase
liquid of low absolute (or dynamic) viscosity can be Gravity flow 96 km
allowed to flow at slow speeds from a laminar flow to a
turbulent flow. However, a two-phase mixture, such as Booster pump flow 60 km (DN150)
slurry, must overcome a deposition critical velocity or a
Normal flow rate 85-88 m³/hr
viscous transition critical velocity. The analogy can be
made here in terms of an airplane: if the speed drops Weight concentration 55-60%
excessively, the airplane stalls and stops flying. If the
slurry’s speed of flow is not sufficiently high, the particles Flow speed 1.22-1.4 m/s
will not be maintained in suspension. On the other hand, in
the case of highly viscous mixtures, if the shear rate in the Wall thickness 5.6-11 mm
pipeline is excessively low, the mixture will be too viscous
and will resist flow. Oxygen scavenger None
Pipe thickness 5.6-6.4 mm
The concentrate of the ore is mixed with water and then with severe wear (60 km)
pumped over a long distance to a port where it can be
Wear rate (bottom) 0.37 mm/yr
shipped for further processing. At the end of the pipeline,
the material is separated from the slurry in a filter press to Wear rate (top) 0.18 mm/yr
remove the water. Water is usually subject to a waste
treatment process before disposal or return to the mine. o Top size (+106 microns) was
cut down to 1%.
Slurry pipelines offer an economic advantage over railroad o Water batching is eliminated
and much less noise disturbance to the environment, o Replace with thicker pipes.
particularly when mines are in extremely remote areas. Solution
o Replace valves with metal-
Pipelines have to be suitably engineered to resist abrasion seated valves that does not
from the solids as well as corrosion from the soil. Some of require lubrication with high
these pipelines are lined with High Density Polyethylene. operating cycles.
In transport systems for slurries it is important to avoid
solids to settle. This can be done by keeping the fluid
speed in the pipe lines above certain levels.
Pipe Material Hardness
Corrosion, erosion, and abrasion are very expansive
problems that must be taken into account when designing Hard materials generally are not suitable for pipe
slurry pipelines. construction on economic grounds. Normally these are
lined with basalt or ceramic linings (about 1000 HB) and/or
Turbulent flows are required in typical process streams to weld overlay (e.g. high Cr carbide) cladding as pipe lining
maintain the slurry in suspension (speed > 1.5 m/sec). for very abrasive duties.
Turbulence keeps the slurry well mixed.

For iron ore slurry, the critical speed with particles size in Common Metal Pipe Material
the range of 1 to 2 mm (0.08 – 0.08 in.) is as high as 3.5
m/s (11.5 ft/s) due to the high density of iron oxide (SG = Cast and spun iron pipes are more resistant than mild steel,
5.0) (Klose and Mahler 1982). Taconite tailings are although brittle and prone to damage during handling.
considered coarse sand and must be pumped in a range of
speeds of 3.4 – 4.3 m/s (11-14 ft/s) and are pumped at a
weight concentration of 35%. Rubber-lined pipes are used. Pipe Wear Rate
HDPE pipes are subject to very fast wear and are not used
for tailings disposal. The use of special flocculants in Pipe wear tests at the Colorado School of Mines11 showed
modern, efficient thickeners allows pumping up to a weight that coal and copper concentrate slurries caused wear
concentration of 45%. mainly by corrosion, whereas phosphate lines tend to wear
by erosion. It is generally agreed that wear rate increases
For copper concentrate slurry, water carrier is not with concentration.
neutralized with oxygen scavenger to inhibit corrosion.
Severe wear often occurs at the change of pipe thickness.
Corrosion-meter probes are often installed on top and 11
Link, J.M. and Tuason, C.O. (July 1972) ‘Pipe wear in
hydraulic transport of solids’, Mining Congress Jnl., pp. 38-44.

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Mineral Processing

Karabelas12 equation for maximum pipe wear rate, base on It is common to identify pipes by inches using NPS or
empirical data, is given by: "Nominal Pipe Size". The metric equivalent is called DN or
"diametre nominel".
E = 6.1 d m 2.15 U 3.7
where:
E = Max. wear rate (at bottom of pipe), mm/yr DN NPS DN NPS
dm = Mean particle size, mm (mm) (inch) (mm) (inch)

U = Mean slurry velocity, m/s 6 1/8 450 18

Note: 8 ¼ 500 20
1 micron = 1/1000 mm. 10 3/8 550 22
Pipe bends will wear much more rapidly than straight pipe 15 ½ 600 24
(of the order twice that for straight pipe), particularly at the
outer radius, due to the increased impingement angle of the 20 ¾ 650 26
solids and more turbulence. Bend geometry also affects the
wear rate. Brauer13 showed that wear increases 25 1 700 28
significantly for bends of 2 – 3.5 R/D ratio, rising to a
32 1¼ 750 30
maximum at R/D = 2.8. Hence bends in this R/D range
should be avoided if possible. 40 1½ 800 32
Bends may be thickened locally or protected by lining to 50 2 900 36
give increased life.
65 2½ 1000 40
Linings offer advantages of protection against both erosion
and corrosion, provided that the right grades are chosen and 80 3 1100 42
bonding is good. Special joint design is employed to
100 4 1200 48
prevent local distortion of the lining, which could cause
turbulence and hence wear. 150 6 1400 54
Examples of pipe/fitting linings include rubber, 200 8 1500 60
polyurethane, basalt, and fused alumina.
250 10 1600 64
Power consumption for tailing pumps and booster pumps is
measured in terms of kWh/ton-km. 300 12 1800 72

350 14 2000 80
The speed should be increased in lifting lines by decreasing
the piping diameter. At the end of the pipelines the speed 400 16 2200 88
should be slowed down by increasing the pipeline
diameters.
The pressure rating of a pipe, Pressure Nominal (PN) is
Size determined by the diameter, wall thickness, and material
Type Flow Velocity type and is expressed as
of
of
Solids
Solids m/s ft/s PN – Pipe pressure rating at 20 ºC (Mpa × 10)
(Mesh #)
Fine Over 200 1 – 1.5 3–5 The basic polyethylene (PE) material types used for pipe
Sand 200 – 20 1.5 – 2 5–7 fabrication are PE 63, PE 80 and PE 100, the number
indicating long term strength.
Coarse 20 – 4 2 – 3.25 7 -11
Sludge 3.25 – 4.25 11 -14 The term SDR, Standard Dimension Ratio, is introduced to
describe the pipe, in combination with the material type
Mesh is the number of opening per inch of a screen.
Min OD
SDR =
Min Wall Thickness
12
Karabelas, A. J. (May 1978) ‘An experimental study of pipe where OD refers to the Outside Diameter of the pipe.
erosion by turbulent slurry flow’, Proc. ‘Hydrotransport 5’ Conf.,
Paper E2, BHRA, Cranfield. The higher the SDR, the thinner the pipe, and the lower the
13
Brauer, H. and Kriege, E. (October 1963) ‘Investigations on pressure rating.
wear of plastics and metals’, Che. Ing. Tech., 35, 10, pp. 697-707
(In German).

Page 46
Mineral Processing

Slurry pipelines are also used to transport tailings from a has shown that a bend-radius-to-pipe-diameter ratio of 3-5
mineral processing plant after that the ore has been is recommended.
processed to dispose of the remaining rocks or clays.
The use of concrete pipes is often associated with gravity
The ASME B31.11 is basically the only standard specific flows.
to slurry pipelines. However, the American Petroleum
Institute has many useful guidelines. The range of speeds used to carry solids in Newtonian
flows is typically between 1.5 m/s and 5m/s.
The ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers)
developed in 1989 a special section to its piping code B31 Globe valves are not suitable for slurry applications
called ASME B31.11-1989—Slurry Transportation Piping because they wear rather rapidly. To control slurry flows, a
Systems. This standard provides useful guidelines for rubber pinch valve is recommended. The sleeve is closed
operation and maintenance of slurry pipelines and piping by pinching using a special roller (mechanical pressure) or
systems. Because the code came into existence at the end of by the use of air pressure.
the 1980s, it is still not well known. Consultant engineers
need to refer to it, particularly in the case of all-metal Ceramic ball valves are used as shut-off valves for
piping. pipelines, particularly to close under high pressure

Tailings (also known as slimes, gangue, tailings pile,

tails, leach residue, or slickens) are the materials left over Knife Gate Valves
after the process of separating the valuable fraction from
the worthless fraction of an ore.

Tailings represent external costs of mining. As mining

techniques and the price of minerals improve, it is not
unusual for tailings to be reprocessed using new methods,
or more thoroughly with old methods, to recover additional
minerals.

When selecting a piping material to transport slurries,

corrosion and erosion considerations must be accounted
for. Some of the most popular piping materials include:

(1) Carbon Steel

(2) Stainless Steel
(3) High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
(4) Acrylonitrile butadiene stryene (ABS)
(5) Unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC)
(6) Fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP)
(7) Elastomer-lined carbon steel
(8) Medium Density Polyethylene (MDPE) Valve is usually pressure tested for seat tightness, shell and
packing integrity including cycling tests to check reliability
HDPE and MDPE pipe nominal size is usually based on of operation.
OD.
Knife-gate valves for slurry flows feature a metal gate
Design of slurry piping systems should follow sandwiched between two rubber linings (or cartridges).
ANSI/ASME B31.1 and B31.11 Codes. A simple equation They are often installed on the suction side of slurry pumps
for this calculation is as follows: to provide a method of isolating them during repairs and
maintenance.
PD
t= Most knife-gate valves are rated to a maximum of 1 MPa
2S + C
where: (150 psi), but some manufacturers offer valves rated at 2
t = Pipe wall thickness, in. MPa (300 psi).
P = Maximum design pressure of the pipe, psig
S = Maximum allowable design stress, psig
C = Corrosion or erosion allowance, in.

Long radius elbows should be avoided in slurry pipes and

lines. They are often the site of severe erosion or
solid/liquid separation. Only gentle pipe bends or sweeps
should be used to turn a slurry line. Industrial experience

Page 47
Mineral Processing

Tailings Disposal Methods Commonly referred to as STD (Submarine Tailings

Disposal) or DSTD (Deep Sea Tailings Disposal). If a mine
Pond storage is located in close proximity to the coast, and the coast
itself is not an excessive distance from a continental shelf,
There are many different subsets of this method. Large STD is conceptually an excellent method for the disposal of
earthen dams may be constructed and then filled with the tailings. Tailings can be conveyed using a pipeline then
tailings. Tailings may be deposited into natural discharged so as to eventually descend into the depths.
topographical depressions. Exhausted open pit mines may Practically, it is not an ideal method, as the close proximity
be refilled with tailings. In all instances, due consideration to off-shelf depths is rare. When STD is used, the depth of
must be made to contamination of the underlying water discharge is often what would be considered shallow, and
table, amongst other issues. Dewatering is an important part extensive damage to the seafloor can result due to covering
of pond storage, as the tailings are added to the storage by the tailings product. It is also critical to control the
facility the water is removed - usually by draining into density and temperature of the tailings product, to prevent it
decant tower structures. The water removed can thus be from travelling long distances, or even floating to the
reused in the processing cycle. Once a storage facility is surface. Many countries specifically outlaw the use of STD
filled and completed, the surface can be covered with methods.
topsoil and revegetation commenced. However, unless a
non-permeable capping method is used water that infiltrates Phytostabilization
into the storage facility will have to be continually pumped
out into the future. Phytostabilization is a form of phytoremediation that uses
plants for long-term stabilization and containment of
Dry stacking tailings, by sequestering pollutants in soil near the roots.
The plant's presence can reduce wind erosion, or the plant's
Tailings do not have to be stored in ponds or sent as slurries roots can prevent water erosion, immobilize metals by
into oceans, rivers or streams. There is a growing use of the adsorption or accumulation, and provide a zone around the
practice of dewatering tailings using vacuum or pressure roots where the metals can precipitate and stabilize.
filters so the tailings can then be stacked. This saves water, Pollutants become less bioavailable and livestock, wildlife,
reduces the impacts on the environment in terms of space and human exposure is reduced. This approach can be
used, leaves the tailings in a dense and stable arrangement especially useful in dry environments, which are subject to
and eliminates the long-term liability that ponds leave after wind and water dispersion.
mining is finished.

Disposal into underground workings RECLAIM WATER

While disposal into exhausted open pits is generally a Reclaim water is water that is pumped back from the
straightforward operation, disposal into underground voids tailings pond to the mine. A popular method of feeding the
is more complex. A common modern approach is to mix a reclaim water into a pipeline is by installing vertical turbine
certain quantity of tailings with waste aggregate and (mixed flow) pumps on a barge or onshore near a pump
cement, creating a product that can be used to backfill station.
underground voids and stopes. A common term for this is
HDPF - High Density Paste Fill. HDPF is a more expensive The number of stages of these vertical pumps is set by the
method of tailings disposal than pond storage, however it total dynamic head and the possibility of installing booster
has many other benefits – not just environmental but it can pump stations along the pipeline route. The pipeline
significantly increase the stability of underground material may be constructed of steel or high-density
excavations by providing a means for ground stress to be polyethylene. The latter, however, is limited to a pressure
transmitted across voids - rather than having to pass around rating of 1.4 MPa (200 psi) on large pipe sizes.
them – which can cause mining induced seismic events.
Steel pipes are rubber lined to a typical thickness of 6 mm
Disposal into river systems (or 0.25_) for small sizes of pipes [< 150 mm (6”), 9.5 mm
(3/8”)], and 13 mm (1/2”) for pipe sizes up to 24”. Larger
Usually called RTD – Rivering Tailings Disposal. Not a pipes may be custom lined. Lining is done in an autoclave
particularly environmentally sound practice, it has seen and the rubber is cured under steam.
significant utilisation in the past, leading to such
spectacular environmental damage. It is still practised at Rubber lining is limited to pumping coarse material up to a
some operations in the world, and while experts agree it is a size of 6 mm (≈1/4”). Rubber does not contribute to the
feasible method for locations where the river is rapidly pressure rating of steel pipes.
flowing and turbulent and the additional silt loading will
not impact on the river quality, it is not generally favored
and is seeing a gradual decline in use.

Disposal into the oceans

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Mineral Processing

SLURRY PUMPS
The components of the slurry pump are divided into two
A slurry mixture is essentially a mixture of a carrying fluid groups:
and solid particles held in suspension. The most commonly
used fluid is water. The density of slurry can be calculated 1. The bearing assembly or cartridge and frame
as 2. The wetted parts forming the wet end
100
ρm = The main components of the wet end are:
Cw 100 − C w
+
ρS ρL • The pump casing volute
where • The volute liner
ρm = Density of slurry • The front suction plate, or throat bush in large pumps
= Concentration of solids by weight in the • The rear wear plate
Cw
slurry, % • The impeller
ρS = Density of solids • The expeller
• The shaft sleeve
ρL = Density of liquid without solids
• The packing rings
m& = Slurry mixture flowrate • The stuffing box and gland, greas cup, and associated
water connections
The slurry mixture flowrate is computed from: • In very special cases the mechanical seal

Q C The drive end of the pump consists of:

m& = 3600 × ρ m × × w
1000 1000 • The pump shaft
• Piston rings or alternative protection against solids
Fluid entering a centrifugal pump is immediately directed penetrating the bearing assembly
to the low pressure area at the center or eye of the impeller.
• Forsheda seals or O-rings
As the impeller and blading rotate, they transfer momentum
• Bearings and bearing nuts
to incoming fluid. A transfer of momentum to the moving
fluid increases the fluid’s velocity. As the fluid’s velocity • Grease retaining plates, grease nipples. or oil cup
increases its kinetic energy increases. Fluid of high kinetic • Bearing cartridge and bearing covers
energy is forced out of the impeller area and enters the • An adjustable bolt or mechanism to adjust the impeller
volute. within the casing by moving the shaft
• The pump frame
The volute is a region of continuously increasing cross- • Couplings or pulleys
sectional area designed to convert the kinetic energy of the
fluid into fluid pressure. The mechanism of this energy The purpose of the pump is to produce a certain flow
conversion is the same as that for subsonic flow through the against a certain pressure. This is done at a certain
diverging section of a nozzle. efficiency. The optimum point at which the efficiency is at
a maximum is called the best efficiency point. For every
A centrifugal pump is essentially a rotating machine with size or design of pump, there is a best efficiency point at a
an impeller to convert shaft power into fluid pressure. The given speed.
dynamic energy is then converted into pressure or head in
a special diffuser or casing. The manufacturers of slurry Practically all slurry pumps are single stage. Multistage
pumps have developed a number of specialized designs pumps are limited to mine dewatering applications. Slurry
such as pumps are rubber lined whenever they are designed to
• Dredge pumps with impellers as large as 2.6 m (105 handle particles finer than 6 mm or ¼”. Because rubber is
in) susceptible to thermal degradation when the tip speed of
• Mill discharge pumps for milling and grinding circuits the impeller exceeds 28 m/s or 5500 ft/min, rubber-lined
• Vertical cantilever pumps (without submerged pumps are typically reserved for a maximum head of 30 m
bearings) (98.5 ft) per stage.
• Froth handling pumps for flotation circuits
White iron is a very hard material. It is used in different
• High-pressure tailings and pipeline pumps
forms such as Ni-hard and 28% chrome to cast impellers,
• General purpose pumps
casings, and metal liners of slurry pumps. Due to concern
• Low-head slurry pumps for flue gas desulfurization or about maximum disk stresses, most white iron slurry
flotation circuits pumps are limited to an impeller tip speed of 38 m/s or
• Submersible slurry pumps 7480 ft/min. Metal-lined pumps are limited to 55 m or 180
ft per stage.
The slurry pump may be cased in a hard metal or may be
cast in iron, with an internal liner, which may be of hard White iron should not be confused with steel. Certain
metal or rubber. grades of steels are used in slurry, dredging, and phosphate

Page 49
Mineral Processing

matrix pumps. They are cast at a lower hardness than white Specific Speed
iron and by being more ductile can withstand higher disk
stresses. Impellers cast in steel can be used in slurry pumps The steepness of the curve between the best efficiency
up to a tip speed of 45 m/s (8858 ft/min). capacity and the shut-off point of the pump depends on the
geometrical design of impeller and casing.
These are general guidelines, but the consultant engineer
should collaborate closely with the manufacturer. For With so many different designs of pumps, engineers have
example, certain special anti-thermal-breakdown additives used nondimensional specific speeds and other parameters.
are used with some rubbers to exceed the limit of 28 m/s or In the International System of Units, the specific speed is
5500 ft/min on tip speed. In certain situations, a metal defined as:
impeller may be installed with rubber liners, particularly
when there are concerns about slurry surges (water
N Q
Nq =
hammer) in tailings pipelines. H3/4
where
In some cases of pumping oils and froth, it has been found N = Rotational speed (rpm)
that injecting 1% of water or a light oil as a lubricant just at Q = Capacity at best efficiency capacity,
the suction of the pump can improve the efficiency of the (m3/s) or (gpm)
pump. H = Differential head at best efficiency capacity,
(m) or (ft)

Elementary Hydraulics of the Slurry Pump Most slurry pumps operate at a specific speed smaller than
2000 in U.S. units or 39 in SI units. In this range, the tip
The correlation between the tip speed and the head per diameter of the impeller may be between 2 to 3.5 folds of
stage is established from basic hydraulics of impeller the suction diameter. The shut-off head is then between
design. 150% and 110% of the best efficiency point head at the
same speed
There have been two schools in the past for the design of
water pumps—the American school lead by Stepanoff and In the case of slurry pumps, attention must be paid to the
the European school lead by Anderson. wear life of the pump. Too little flow in a large pump leads
to excessive recirculation, and too much flow would cause
The Stepanoff method is based on the concept that an rapid wear. The relationship between the volute shape and
impeller is designed on the basis of velocity triangles, and the impeller plays a major role, too. These parameters are
that an ideal volute for best efficiency is then found using refined through detailed engineering and field-testing.
various empirical factors. The Anderson school is based on
the concept that one of the most important parameters in Recommendations for Design of Rubber-Lined Mill
pump design is the ratio between the throat area of the Discharge Pumps14
volute and the impeller discharge area, and therefore more
than one volute design can be matched to a given impeller. Size
Flow Head Eff.
Suction Discharge
S/D Speed Speed
L/s M %
In the case of slurry pumps, passageways are larger than in (mm) m/s m/s
water pumps to accommodate solids and the Anderson area 200×150 130 30 70 4.2 7.2
ratio is difficult but useful to use. 250×200 220 30 74 4.5 6.7

Most slurry pumps use a volute. Vaned diffusers are used 300×250 310 30 76 4.4 6.12
in certain mine dewatering pumps. 350×300 425 30 79 4.4 5.86
400×300 560 30 81 4.3 5.64
450×400 685 30 83 4.3 5.45
500×450 875 30 84 4.3 5.33

Recommendations for Design of Metal-Lined or Hard

Metal Mill Discharge Pumps

Size Suction Discharge

Flow Head Eff.
S/D Speed Speed
L/s M %
(mm) m/s m/s
Volute casing Diffuser vane casing 200×150 176 55 70 5.7 9.7
250×200 298 55 74 6.1 9.1

14
From Abulnaga (2001). Mazdak International Inc.

Page 50
Mineral Processing

Size
Flow Head Eff.
Suction Discharge Pa = Atmospheric pressure (Pa)
S/D Speed Speed
(mm)
L/s M %
m/s m/s
ρ = Water density (1000 kg/m3)
300×250 421 55 76 6 8.3 g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)
SG = Specific gravity
350×300 577 55 79 6 8 ∆Z = Distance of centerline of pump impeller to
400×300 760 55 81 5.8 8 liquid surface level (m)
V = Slurry velocity (m/s)
450×400 924 55 83 5.8 7.4 H = Friction loss (m)
500×450 1188 55 84 5.8 7.2

Each pump has a minimum required NPSH that is Cavitation

established through testing. It is defined as the required
NPSH or NPSHR. The suction-specific speed is defined at When the liquid being pumped enters the eye of a
the best efficiency point as: centrifugal pump, the pressure is significantly reduced. The
greater the flow velocity through the pump the greater this
N Q pressure drop. If the pressure drop is great enough, or if the
N SS =
NPSHR 3/4 temperature of the liquid is high enough, the pressure drop
may be sufficient to cause the liquid to flash to steam when
The value of NPSH is established at the point where the the local pressure falls below the saturation pressure for the
suction conditions at best efficiency flow suffer a 3% drop fluid that is being pumped. These vapor bubbles are swept
of total dynamic head. along the pump impeller with the fluid. As the flow
velocity decreases the fluid pressure increases.
Solids present in slurry do not contribute to the vapor This causes the vapor bubbles to suddenly collapse on the
pressure, but they contribute to the density of the mixture outer portions of the impeller. The formation of these vapor
as well as to the friction or pressure losses on the suction. bubbles and their subsequent collapse is cavitation.
This could be confusing to the inexperienced engineer who
has to handle water vapor pressure as well as slurry density.
One approach is to calculate the pressure on the suction in Best Efficiency Point (BEP)
units of pressure and then to convert back into units of
length. All pumps (both the centrifugal pumps and the positive-
displacement pumps) have operational limits. Specifically,
centrifugal pumps have certain limitations which, if not
Net Positive Suction Head properly evaluated can drastically reduce their working life.

It is possible to ensure that cavitation is avoided during The BEP (Best Efficiency Point) is not only the maximum
pump operation by monitoring the net positive suction head operating point but it is also the point where the speed and
of the pump. Net positive suction head (NPSH) for a pump pressure at the impeller and the spiral stator are equal. As
is the difference between the suction pressure and the the operating point diverges from the Best Efficiency Point,
saturation pressure of the fluid being pumped. the speed changes which in turn modifies the pressure
acting on one of the sides of the impeller. This irregular
NPSH is used to measure how close a fluid is to saturated pressure on the impeller manifests itself as a radial thrust
conditions. The units of NPSH are feet of water which deflects the pump shaft causing, among other things:

o an excessive load on the bearings

NPSH = Psuction − Psaturation
o an excessive deflection of the mechanical seal
where o irregular wear on the shaft bearing
Psuction = Suction pressure of the pump
Psaturation = Saturation pressure of the fluid The damages that might occur then consist of a shorter
bearing life or a broken shaft. Radial loading is maximized
when everything closed. If operating outside of the
By maintaining the available NPSH at a level greater than recommended operating range, damage to the pump could
the NPSH required by the pump manufacturer, cavitation be caused by excessive speed and turbulence. Vortexes can
can be avoided. create cavitation damage which very quickly can destroy
the pump and impeller casing.
It is often recommended that the available NPSH be at least
0.9 m or approximately 3 ft higher than the required NPSH When choosing a pump, it's very important that unrealistic
as shown on the pump curve. safety margins not be calculated or that inappropriate
V2 information not be included in the evaluation. The true
NPSH = Pa − SGρ g∆Z − SGρ − ρgH curve could exceed the recommended operating range
2
resulting in series consequences.
where
It is best to verify the actual operating conditions for the
NPSH = Net Positive Suction Head (Pa)

Page 51
Mineral Processing

pump the during while it is in operation (using a flowmeter Slurry pumps can be broken down into two main
and/or a pressure gauge) in order to make the adjustments categories:
needed to ensure the proper working conditions and a long
service life. • Rubber-lined pump
• Hard metal pump

Design Features of Slurry Pumps However, because of the elastomer lining, the rubber-lined
pumps have a somewhat limited application range. Below
In a conventional centrifugal pump for clean water duty the is a general guideline which helps distinguish when to
high wear-rate regions that would occur if required to pump apply the rubber-lined pumps.
solids are (for all-metal wetted parts):
Rubber Lined Pump Hard Metal Pump
1. Casing suction branch
2. Impeller shrouds, near eye, especially hub side
3. Impeller blade inlet edges. Blades much thicker for Solids < ½ inch (13 mm) Solids > ¼ inch (6.4 mm)
solids-handling design. Temperature < 300ºF Temperature < 250ºF
4. Impeller blade outlet edges. Blades much thicker for (150ºC) (120ºC)
solids-handling design Low Head service < 150 ft Heads above 150 ft (46m)
5. Casing near ‘cut-water’. It is suggested that a (46m) Sharp/Jagged particles
concentric or semi-concentric casing for the solids- Rounded particles pH range from 4 to 12
handling design is more tolerant of ‘off design’ Complete pH range Hydrocarbon based slurry
operation compared with a conventional volute,
though with some sacrifice of peak efficiency; it also
gives lower velocities near the cut-water, hence less
wear.
6. Casing side walls and impeller outer shroud walls.
Worst wear usually occurs on the suction side. Solids-
handling impellers are usually fitted with ‘scraper’
vanes on both shrouds to reduce the flow of solids
down the side spaces.
7. Impeller/casing sealing rings. Flat-faced (i.e. axial 2 to 4
clearance) rings used in the solids-handling design are vane
less prone to wear than the cylindrical type.
8. Casing cut-water. Concentric type casing results in a
larger radius cut-water further from the impeller,
giving lower velocities and less turbulence at the cut-
water, hence less wear. Typical centrifugal abrasive solids handling metal
9. Casing discharge branch near throat. slurry pump liquid end construction
10. Shaft seal. A solids-handling design normally has a
separate clean water flush fitted to the gland, Compared to a water pump, a slurry pump has a much
sometimes (e.g. Warman design) with the addition of wider gap at the cutwater with respect to the impeller. This
an ‘expeller’ behind the main impeller to prevent is due to the fact that the slurry pump must move solids that
ingress of solids. should not jam at the cutwater.

5 9 The casing pump takes the shape of the volute. In addition

4 to the volute liner, a front wear plate or throatbush is bolted
3 to the casing.
7
6 8
For high pressure requirements, pump casings of high
chrome content and high strength casing bolts are normally
used.
Throat
1
5 to 8
In the case of water pumps, the emphasis is to operate as
10 vane close as possible to the best efficiency point, where losses
2 are at a minimum. In the case of slurry pumps, the situation
is more complex, as the best efficiency point does not
necessarily coincide with the minimum wear point. Certain
Feet on designs of slurry pumps do point to minimum wear at 80%
casing of the best efficiency point. This point is too often
Conventional Centrifugal Pump overlooked when sizing pumps. The consultant engineer is
encouraged to discuss this point with the manufacturer.

Page 52
Mineral Processing

An isolation valve should obviously always be fitted so the As a rule-of-thumb, if gland water is to be used it should be
pump can be isolated from the supply for maintenance supplied to the stuffing box at 70 to 100 kPa higher than the
purposes. However, the choice of valve is critical. Always highest expected pump discharge pressure. This will
use a low head-loss (i.e. “high recovery”) valve such as a maximize your chances of eliminating pumped fluid from
knife-gate, ball or butterfly valve on the suction side. Never the stuffing box thereby increasing seal or packing life.
use a high head-loss valve such as a globe valve as you are Gland packing will give you a perfectly acceptable wear
much more likely to cause pump cavitation which will lead life if you ensure that leakage occurs at a rate of one to two
to accelerated wear and reduced pump performance. The drops per second.
final choice of valve depends on solids concentration,
solids particle size/shape and materials compatibility With most centrifugal pumps, discharge pressure at the
issues. gland increases as impeller speed increases. Therefore, to
prevent leakage, the seal at the gland must be tight and
A tapping point for a pressure gauge or transmitter should gland water must be added to lubricate and cool the gland
always be located at the pump discharge for critical process and to flush the material being pumped away from the
pumps. Ideally a gauge should also be located on the pump gland.
suction for high head pumps. The difference between the
pump discharge pressure and the pump suction pressure
will give you the approximate total dynamic head of the Slurry Pump Wear
pump (i.e. when pressure in kPa is converted back into
meters of liquid). If the discharge pressure or pressure It is generally agreed that abrasive wear increases rapidly
difference drops to an unacceptable level over a period of with flow, or particle, and velocity.
time, maintenance action can be planned and the pump can
be restored to its original output. For pump wear, it is most often quoted that wear rate is
approximately proportional to
One should always be employed at the pump discharge to: Wear ∝ V 3 ∝ H 3 / 2
(i) prevent damage to the pump by reverse rotation when
where
high static heads are involved or (ii) to prevent back-flow
V = Velocity
through the pump when parallel pump setups are used, or
H = Pump head
(iii) to prevent back-flow when pumping into other
pressurized lines or pressure vessels. Not all non-return
It is normally assumed that pump performance will be
valves are the same so the final choice depends on solids
reduced by wear, first due to increased internal and external
concentration, solids particle size/shape, materials
leakage and eventually by the reduction of impeller
compatibility and whether “slamming” will occur due to
diameter and general passage roughening.
column separation due to pipeline transients.

Always run a centrifugal pump as close to the Best

Material Hardness
Efficiency Point (BEP) as possible so that radial thrust is
reduced and power usage is optimized. However, some
In very general terms, abrasion resistance for ferrous metals
centrifugal slurry pumps are best operated at 80 percent of
tends to increase with hardness.
BEP so that a compromise between radial thrust, power
usage and wear rate is found. It is best to check with your
A reasonable abrasion resistance is achieved above about
pump supplier to find the best range of operation but
300 Brinell Hardness No. (HB).
typically, if you run at less than 50 percent of the BEP flow
rate or more than 120 percent of the BEP flow rate your
Typical hardness values for high Cr alloy cast irons and
centrifugal pump will experience excessive radial thrust
‘Ni-hard’ as used in abrasive duty centrifugal pumps would
leading to bearing, seal, wear ring and impeller failure/wear
be in the range of 550-700 HB.
issues.
For the newer alloys, the Cr carbide alloys has a hardness
Always check the alignment of a pump-drive combination
of 500-600 HB and the hardened Cr Mo alloy cast iron is
prior to start-up for the first time after installation (even if
about 950 Vickers Hardness (HV).
the unit has been supplied on a common baseplate).
Misalignment will probably have occurred during prior
transit and handling. Expect seals and bearings to fail
prematurely if you don’t adhere to this tip. Corrosion Resistance of Metals

Mechanical seals cannot tolerate shaft runout whereas The corrosion resistance of mild steel is low compared with
gland packing can. If a mechanical seal has failed most other metals, whereas the various types of cast iron
prematurely, check the shaft runout prior to installing are not particularly prone to corrosive attack.
another seal. If runout is excessive, replace the offending
bearings prior to installing a new seal. Regarding pump materials, in general, the alloys of iron
and steel containing Cr, Ni, Co, or Mn give improved
corrosion performance over non-alloyed types. The 18/8
and 13/4 Cr/Ni stainless steels, bronzes, ‘Ni-Resist’

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Mineral Processing

austenitic cast iron and ‘Hastelloy’ alloys all have good Slurry Pump Selection
corrosion resistance, although only limited abrasion
resistance.
Slurry type = SG =
Of the more abrasion-resistant materials, 28% Cr cast iron System flow = A B
is reported to have better corrosion resistance then ‘Ni- System head =
hard’ or 15% Cr cast iron, but is more brittle. ‘Ferralium’
Suction/discharge diameter (mm)
(25/5 Cr/Ni alloy steel), the Pettibone Cr carbide alloy and
the very hard materials, such as metallic carbides, weld Type of volute (Spiral/Circular)
overlays and chrome plating, are also generally both Relative capital cost
corrosion-and abrasion-resistant.
Relative wear part cost
Surface finish also affects the corrosion rate, smooth Efficiency at duty point (%)
surfaces being less prone to attack than rougher ones.
Diameter of impeller (mm)
Number of vanes
Corrosion Resistance of Metals
Shaft speed (rpm)
Natural rubber has generally good chemical resistance Velocity of discharge (m/s)
except when in contact with mineral oils and solvents, or Impeller exit tip velocity (m/s)
strong oxidizing acids.
Impeller entry tip velocity (m/s)
‘Neoprene’ and nitrile rubbers give better resistance to oils; NPSH required (m)
butyl rubbers (e.g. ‘Hypalon’) are also more resistant to
oxidizing agents, and to higher temperatures. Actual average life (h)
Polyurethane also has good overall resistance. Relative operating costs (wear parts only)

Hard rubbers tend to have better chemical resistance, but

less abrasion resistance, than the softer grades.

High-density polyethylene, PVDF, ABS and uPVC pipe,

and many plastic coatings all withstand chemical attack
well, as do other non-metals, such as ceramics and asbestos
cement.

Common Pump Materials

Service experience with centrifugal pumps suggests that

‘Ni-hard’ and high Cr cast irons are most commonly used
for general abrasive solids-handling duties with moderate-
sized particles.

However, for gravel and dredging applications, where the

solids are relatively large, high Mn steels are often
preferred, being work-hardened by impact; ‘Ni-hard’ and
high Cr cast iron tend to be brittle and hence prone to shock
damage, although still offered by pump manufacturers for
impellers handling coarse abrasives.

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Mineral Processing

BEARINGS helical gears used in most transmissions have angled teeth -

- this causes a thrust load that must be supported by a
Bearings are machine elements that reduce the friction bearing.
between two surfaces by providing smooth metal balls or
rollers, and a smooth inner and outer metal surface for the
balls to roll against. The balls or rollers ‘bear’ the load,
allowing the device to spin smoothly.

Ball bearings are probably the most common type of

bearing. These bearings can handle both radial and thrust Roller Thrust Bearing
loads, and are usually found in applications where the load
is relatively small. Bearing life is defined as the length of time, or the number
of revolutions, until a fatigue spall of a specific size
In a ball bearing, the load is transmitted from the outer race develops.
to the ball, and from the ball to the inner race. Since the
ball is a sphere, it only contacts the inner and outer race at a L10 life is the life that 90% of a group of apparently
very small point, which helps it spin very smoothly. But it identical bearings will complete or exceed before the
also means that there is not very much contact area holding area of spalling reaches the defined 0.01 inch² (6 mm²) size
that load, so if the bearing is overloaded, the balls can criterion. If handled, mounted, maintained, lubricated and
deform or squish, ruining the bearing. used in the right way, the life of your tapered roller bearing
will normally reach and even exceed the calculated L10
life.
10 / 3
 B  C 
L10 = a   
 n  P 
where
L10 = Bearing life, hours
C = Radial rating of the bearing, lbf or N
P = Radial load or dynamic equivalent radial load
applied on the bearing in lbf or N. The
calculation of P depends on the method (ISO
or Timken) with combined axial and radial
Ball Bearing Roller Bearing loading
B = Factor dependent on the method; B = 1.5 ×
Roller bearings are used in applications like conveyer belt 106 for the Timken method (3000 hours at
rollers, where they must hold heavy radial loads. In these 500 rpm) and 106/60 for the ISO method
bearings, the roller is a cylinder, so the contact between the a = Life adjustment factor; a = 1, when
inner and outer race is not a point but a line. This spreads environmental conditions are not considered
the load out over a larger area, allowing the bearing to n = Rotational speed, rpm
handle much greater loads than a ball bearing. However,
this type of bearing is not designed to handle much thrust Bearing ratings
loading.
Depending on the life calculation method used, the bearing
A variation of this type of bearing, called a needle bearing, ratings have to be selected accordingly. The “ C r ” rating,
uses cylinders with a very small diameter. This allows the
based on one million revolutions, is used for the ISO
bearing to fit into tight places.
method, and the “C90 ” rating, based on 90 million
revolutions, is utilized for the Timken method.
Ball thrust bearings are mostly used for low-speed
applications and cannot handle much radial load.
ISO 281 Dynamic Radial Load Rating C r

This bearing rating equation is published by the

International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and
AFBMA.

These ratings are not published by The Timken Company

Ball Thrust Bearing nor by any other bearing manufacturers.

Roller thrust bearings can support large thrust loads. They The basic dynamic load rating for radial roller bearings is
are often found in gearsets like car transmissions between function of:
gears, and between the housing and the rotating shafts. The

Page 55
Mineral Processing

Gland Packing

Experience suggests that mechanical seals tend to be

unsatisfactory, particularly for the more abrasive
applications. Hence, gland sealing is the preferred method
Pitch Roller Half included but often regarded as a major problem area for all pumps.
diameter effective outer race angle
length Soft-packed glands are normally preferred for both rotating
and reciprocating shafts with clean water flushing.

Gland packings are always pre-lubricated with greasy

Mean roller diameter
materials such as Teflon, or carbon fiber, often loosely
braided materials contain fillers such as silicone filler in
braided Teflon packing.
C r = bm f c (i × L we × cos a ) 7 / 9 Z 3 / 4 D we 29 / 27
where The lubricants serves as lubricant at the shaft/packing
Cr = Radial rating interface and acts as a filler to prevent leakage through the
= Material constant (ISO 281 latest specifies a packing itself.
bm
factor of 1.1)
= Geometry dependent factor Gland packings are placed in the pump stuffing box and are
fc placed staggered to prevent leakage through them, the
i = Number of bearing rows within the assembly lantern ring is placed in position, with the final three (3)
Lwe = Effective roller contact length pieces of packing tamped in place by the gland plate.
a = Bearing half-included outer race angle Gland Packing
Z = Number of rollers per bearing row
Dwe = Mean roller diameter Stuffing Gland plate
Lantern Box
Ring
Bearing type bm
Cylindrical roller bearings, tapered
roller bearings and needle roller 1.1
bearings with machined rings Pump Shaft

Drawn cup needle roller bearings 1.0

Spherical roller bearings 1.15 The purpose of the lantern ring is to provide a balancing
pressure within the packing set and to allow the cooling
water to flow evenly around the gland. The pressure within
the gland is greater than the pump suction pressure but less
than the discharge pressure of the pump and is calculated
from:
DP - SP
SP +
4
where
SP = Suction pressure
DP = Discharge pressure
=

Normally, slurry pumps would require clean water for

packing glands or seals.

A clean liquid, from an outside source is brought into the

stuffing box through a regulating valve at one atmosphere
(15 psi. /1 bar) higher than stuffing box pressure. The liquid
should be brought in at the bottom of the stuffing box to
insure thorough cleaning. Gland water eventually goes
with the slurry.

If there are two seals in an application one will need a fluid

between them. If the fluid between the seals is higher than
stuffing box pressure we call it barrier fluid. If it is lower
than stuffing box pressure we call it buffer fluid The

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Mineral Processing

liquid can be circulated either by forced circulation, a Mechanical Seals

pumping ring or convection.
Were leakage cannot be tolerated, such as in some chemical
Water is one of the best barrier or buffer fluids because of processes, double mechanical seals with tungsten carbide,
its high specific heat and good conductivity. ‘stellite’ or ceramic faces and clean liquid flushing may be
the only solution.

Shafts get bent and deflect away from the volute throat due
to unequal loading by the spinning impeller which can
cause permanent shaft offset leading to ‘shaft run-out’.

Dial Test
Indicator
(DTI)
Stuffing
Box

Pump Shaft

Single-stage overhung pumps should be checked near the

seal running position but multi-stage pumps should be
checked at suitable intervals along the shaft as well as at
the seal running position. The run-out should not exceed
2/1000 inches or 5/100 millimeters.

A mechanical seal (end face mechanical seal or mechanical

face seal) is a device which helps join systems or
mechanisms together by preventing leakage, containing
pressure, or excluding contamination.

They are usually used in rotating equipments such as

pumps, mixer and agitator applications in maintenance.

Single Multiple

Inside Double
back to back
Outside Double
face to face
Tandem

Staged

Mechanical seal classification by Arrangement

Unbalanced Single Spring Pusher Type

Balanced Multiple Spring Non-pusher Type

O-ring Bellows seal

V-ring
Metal
Wedge ring
Elastomer

TFE

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Mineral Processing

Many other materials can be used depending on the

Mechanical seal classification by Design liquid's chemical properties, pressure, and
temperature.

2) Secondary sealing surfaces (shaft packings and insert

mountings)

The secondary sealing surfaces (there may be a

number of them) are those other points in the seal that
require a fluid barrier but are not rotating relative to
one another.

A simple labyrinth seal 3) a means of actuation

In order to keep the two primary sealing surfaces in

A labyrinth seal is a mechanical seal that fits around an intimate contact, a means of actuation must be
axle to prevent the leakage of oil or other fluids. provided. This is commonly provided by a spring to
maintain contact.
A labyrinth seal is composed of many straight threads that Stainless steel springs or bellows are not used due to
press tightly inside another axle, or inside a hole, so that the chloride stress corrosion since chlorides are
fluid has to pass through a long and difficult path to escape. everywhere. Use hastelloy “C” springs and metal
Sometimes 'threads' exist on the outer and inner portion. bellows instead.
These interlock, to produce the long characteristic path to
slow leakage. For labyrinth seals on a rotating shaft, a very In conjunction with the spring, it may also be provided
small clearance must exist between the tips of the labyrinth by the pressure of the sealed fluid.
threads and the running surface.
4) a means of drive
A mechanical seal must contain four functional
components: The primary sealing surfaces must be the only parts of
the seal that are permitted to rotate relative to one
1) Primary sealing surfaces (one that rotates and one another, they must not rotate relative to the parts of the
stationary) seal that hold them in place. To maintain this non-
rotation a method of drive must be provided.
The primary sealing surfaces are the heart of the
device. Seal Categories

These two rings are in intimate contact, one ring All Mechanical seals must contain the four elements
rotates with the shaft while the other ring is stationary. described above but the way those functional elements are
These two rings are machined using a machining arranged may be quite varied. The standards of modern
process called lapping in order to obtain the necessary mechanical seals are widely defined by API Standard 682 -
degree of flatness Shaft Sealing Systems for Centrifugal and Rotary Pumps.

One of the two faces is usually a non-galling material Mechanical seals are generally classified into two main
such as carbon-graphite which is a natural lubricant. categories: "Pusher" or "Non-Pusher".
In operation the graphite separates from the These distinctions refer to whether or not the secondary
carbon/graphite mixture and transfer to the hard face. seal to the shaft/sleeve is dynamic or stationary.
Moisture must be present for the graphite to separate
from the carbon/graphite mixture. The other will be a Pusher seals will employ a dynamic secondary seal
harder material providing dissimilar materials making (typically an o-ring) which moves axially with the primary
contact and allowing one to be a sacrificial. The softer seal face.
mechanical seal face usually has the smaller mating
surface and is commonly called the "wear nose" of the Non-pusher seals will employ a static secondary seal (either
mechanical Seal. an o-ring, high temperature graphite packing, or
elastomeric bellows). In this case, the face tracking is
A common combination consists of a hard material, independent of the secondary seal which is always static
such as silicon carbide or tungsten carbide, embedded against the shaft/sleeve.
in the pump casing and a softer material, such as
carbon in the rotating seal assembly. A "cartridge seal" is a prepackaged seal that is common in
more complex applications.

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Mineral Processing

The Easiest seal to install as a replacement for pump then the secondary seal failed. In both instances,
packing is a cartridge type mechanical seal: maintenance will need to be performed. This arrangement
is commonly used when sealing fluids that would create a
The Beauty of cartridge seals are they are self-contained. hazard or change state when contacting open air. These are
Holding all the elements of a mechanical seal set: detailed in API Piping Plan 52

In a double seal, the barrier liquid in the cavity between the

* Rotating Face Seal two seals is pressurized. Thus if the primary seal fails, the
neutral liquid will leak into the pump stream instead of the
* Stationary Seal face or faces dangerous pumped fluid escaping into the atmosphere. This
application is usually used in gas, unstable, highly toxic,
* Shaft sleeve abrasive, corrosive, and viscous fluids. These are detailed
in API Piping Plan standards #53a, 53b, 53c; or 54. Plan 74
may also be considered a double seal flush plan, although it
* Gland is used exclusively when describing a dry gas barrier seal
support system. The barrier fluid used in a Plan 74 system
Only being required to slide onto the pump shaft and bolt to is simply a gas, not a liquid. Typically, nitrogen is used as
the pump gland, the cartridge seal cannot be misinstalled. it's inert nature makes it advantageous due to mixing with
the process stream being sealed.
Gap seals are generally used in bearings and other
constructions highly susceptible to wear, for example, in Tandem and double seal nomenclature historically
the form of an O-ring. characterized seals based on orientation, i.e, tandem seals
mounted face to back, double seals mounted back to back
A clearance seal is used to close or fill (and join) spacing or face to face. The distinction between pressurized and
between two parts, e.g. in machine housings, to allow for unpressurized support systems for tandem and double seals
the vibration of those parts. An example of this type of seal has lent itself to a more descriptive notation of dual
is the so-called floating seal which can be easily replaced. pressurized and dual unpressurized mechanical seal. This
These seals are mostly manufactured from rubber or other distinction must be made as traditional 'tandem seals' can
flexible but durable synthetic materials. also utilize a pressurized barrier fluid.

Seal Piping Plans

API-610 Mechanical Seal Classification Code
Since the rotating seal will create heat, this heat will need
to be carried away from the seal chamber or else the seal First Letter: B = balanced
will overheat and fail. Typically, a small tube connected to U = unbalanced
either the suction or the discharge of the pump will help Second Letter: S = single D = double
circulate the liquid. Other features such as filters or coolers T = tandem
will be added to this tubing arrangement depending on the Third Letter: End Plate Type T = throttle bushing
properties of the fluid, and its pressure and temperature. P = plain A = auxiliary sealing device
Each arrangement has a number associated with it, as Fourth Letter:
defined by American Petroleum Institute "API" Static Seal Ring Gasket
specifications 610 and 682.
E F G H I R X
The fluid with the higher pressure is called barrier fluid;
Seal Ring To Sleeve Gasket
lower pressure is called buffer fluid.
Nitrile- FKM
Viton Viton TFE GF AS
Tandem (one behind the other) and Double Seal Buna N Elast.

Since almost all seals utilize the process liquid or gas to

GF – Graphite Foil; AS – As Specified
lubricate the seal faces, they are designed to leak. Process
liquids and gases containing hazardous vapors, dangerous
Fifth Letter:
chemicals or flammable petroleum must not be allowed to
leak into the atmosphere or onto the ground. In these J K L M N X
applications a second "containment" seal is placed after the Seal Ring
primary seal along the pump shaft. The space in between
these two seals is filled with a neutral liquid or gas called a Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon AS
"buffer" or "barrier" fluid.
Mating Seal Ring
In a tandem seal, the seal will leak into the buffer fluid Tungsten Tungsten
contained in the unpressurized cavity. If the cavity registers Ni- Silicon
Stellite Carbide Carbide AS
a dramatic increase in pressure, operator will know that the Resist Carbide
Co-Binder Ni-Binder
primary seal has failed. If the cavity is drained of liquid,

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Mineral Processing

Peristaltic Pumps It is important to select tubing with appropriate chemical

resistance towards the liquid being pumped. Types of
tubing commonly used in peristaltic pumps include:
• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
• Silicone rubber
• Fluoropolymer

The typical materials of construction are:

Description Material

Pump Housing Cast Iron

Front Cover Mild Steel

Rotor Cast Iron

Rotor Shoes Aluminum

Flanges Mild Steel

A peristaltic pump is a type of positive displacement Stainless Steel (316L)
pump used for pumping a variety of fluids. The fluid is Inserts Polypropylene
contained within a flexible tube fitted inside a circular P.V.D.F.
pump casing (though linear peristaltic pumps have been Base Frame Carbon Steel
made). A rotor with a number of "rollers", "shoes" or
"wipers" attached to the external circumference compresses Glycerine based compound /
Lubricant
the flexible tube. As the rotor turns, the part of tube under Silicone oil
compression closes (or "occludes") thus forcing the fluid to Hose NR, NBR, CSM and EPDM
be pumped to move through the tube. Additionally, as the
tube opens to its natural state after the passing of the cam
The lubricant helps keep to lubricate the rotor and the hose
("restitution") fluid flow is induced to the pump. This
and to cool the pump.
process is called peristalsis.

Peristaltic pumps are often used as thickener/clarifier

transfer pump. The reasons for using it are as follows:
1. Can pump high solid content slurries
2. Low maintenance costs
3. Abrasion resistant
4. No moving parts in the liquid stream
5. Dosing (sampling) consistency

Performance Curve

Pressure
Power

Flow Rate / Pump Speed

Shimming Curve

Shims
Pressure

Pump Speed

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Mineral Processing

TOWER CRANES WB A
Mechanical Advantage = =
The tower crane is used by the construction crew to lift
WA B
steel, concrete, large tools like acetylene torches and Load Moment = WB × B = WA × A
generators, and a wide variety of other building materials.
Equilibrium is defined as a point when a particle is at rest
Counter or moves with a constant velocity where all forces acting
Cat Head
jib on it results to zero force.
Tie bars
Working jib

Trolley Weight Lifting Capacity

A typical tower crane has the following specifications:

Falls (a) Maximum unsupported height – 80 m

Hook (b) Maximum reach – 70 m
Counter- Reach Block (c) Maximum lifting power – 19.8 tons (18 metric tons),
weights 300 tonne-meter
Slewing (d) Counterweights – 20 tons (16.3 metric tons). The
unit maximum load that the crane can lift is 20 tons =
Radius 18.14 metric tons, but the crane cannot lift that much
weight if the load is positioned at the end of the
Mast working jib. The closer the load is positioned to the
mast, the more weight the crane can lift safely. For
example, if the rating is 300 tonne-meter the operator
Base (or Kingpost)
can lift a maximum load of 10 tonnes at 300 meters
away from the mast.
Concrete
Pad (e) Limit switches (maximum load switch and load
moment switch)
Mechanical Principles
The two limit switches ensure that the operator does
There are two major consideration that are taken into not overload the crane:
account in the design of cranes. The first is that the crane
must be able to lift a load of a specified weight and the The maximum load switch monitors the pull on the
second is that the crane must remain stable and not topple cable and ensures that the load does not exceed 18
over when the load is lifted and moved to another location. tonnes.

A balanced condition is achieved by equalizing the The load moment switch ensures the operator does not
rearward and forward moments. exceed the tonne-meter rating of the crane as the load
moves out on the jib. A cat head assembly in the
slewing unit measures the amount of collapse in the
A B jib and sense when an overload condition occurs.

Pivot Note:
1 short ton (ton in US) = 2,000 lb (907.18474 kg)
WA 1 metric ton (tonne) = 2,204.6 lb (1000 kg)

WB
Selection

Having decided upon the type(s) of crane, the following

guidelines should be read so that the crane will safely meet
The weight of the load WB multiplied by its distance B all the requirements of planned lifts:
forward from the tipping point must be equalized by the
(a) Weights, dimensions and characteristics of loads
weight of the counterweight WA multiplied by its distance
A rearward from the tipping point. The dimensions and characteristics of the load, as well
as any potential for abnormal loading (eg additional
wind loads), will determine the requirements for rated
capacity of the crane. While cranes have rated
capacity indicator/limiters, preventing the lifting of

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Mineral Processing

items heavier than the crane and equipment can carry, Tower crane components may be carried on site on
these must not be used to routinely limit the loads. articulated trucks, or may be towed as a complete unit
Loads close to the capacity of the crane at the required in the case of a self-erector. In either case, suitable
radius should be identified before lifting is attempted. access to the crane location is needed. In some cases
Some loads may cause non-vertical loading on the space will be needed for parts of the crane before
crane if lifted incorrectly. erection. Space around the crane location is required
for erection, raising and dismantling operations. This
(b) Operational speeds, radii, heights of lifts and areas may need a mobile crane and the working area for this
of movement should be identified. Self-erecting cranes will also
need space for the erection process. Where a crane is
The operational rate and area covered by the crane required to travel with a load, for example on a rail
needs to be checked against the construction schedule base, the space on site needed for the rails may be an
and plans. Check for proximity hazards, numbers of issue within the construction schedule.
cranes needed and oversailing. The freestanding
height of the crane may be important. (g) Any special operational requirements or
limitations imposed
(c) Number, frequency and types of lifting operations
The use of a tower crane near airports, railways,
The number and frequency of lifts need to be highways, or over other buildings that are not part of
evaluated to ensure that the requirements of the the construction site, requires particular care.
construction program can be met. Will the loads need
to be held for a period of time while being fixed, as (h) Prevailing wind-speeds, which can restrict the use
with steel work, which restricts availability of the of tower cranes in certain locations
crane? Or will the crane be required to operate with
high load cycles as with skipping concrete? The rate The location of the site, if positioned on an escarpment
of usage should be discussed with the crane supplier. or other area of high wind speeds, may reduce the
physical dimensions of loads that can be carried. The
(d) Length of time for which the crane will be required likelihood of high in-service wind speeds may reduce
or anticipated life expectancy for a permanently the availability of the crane. High out-of-service wind
installed crane speeds may require the crane to be designed against
additional wind loading.
Short durations may be best served by a tower crane
that can be moved across site, such as rail mounted
crane or a self-erector.

(e) Site, ground and environmental conditions, or

restrictions arising from the use of existing
buildings

The ground conditions may determine the type of

crane base that can be constructed and may restrict the
crane capacity. The loads that must be carried by the
ground, whether during erection, use or dismantling,
need to be considered. The designer of the tower
crane support should take into account any additional
loading applied to the ground and whether this may
affect the foundations of existing buildings or other
construction. The ground conditions should also be
considered if a mobile crane is needed for erection or
dismantling – these cranes need support beneath their
wheels and outriggers. Where existing buildings are
to be used to support the crane tower using ties, the
load capacity of the existing structure must be
assessed. The location of existing structures, and the
location and any requirements for continued operation
of overhead power cables will also need to be
established.

(f) Space available for crane access, erection,

traveling, operation and dismantling

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Mineral Processing

PROJECT MANAGEMENT 3. Implementation of various operations through proper

coordination and control of planning, design,
Project management is the art of directing and coordinating estimating, contracting and construction in the entire
human and material resources throughout the life of a process.
project by using modern management techniques to achieve
predetermined objectives of scope, cost, time, quality and 4. Development of effective communications and
participation satisfaction. mechanisms for resolving conflicts among the various
participants.
The management of construction projects requires
knowledge of modern management as well as an The Project Management Institute (PMI) focuses on nine
understanding of the design and construction process. distinct areas requiring project manager knowledge and
attention:
The basic ingredients for a project management framework
may be represented schematically below. 1. Project integration management to ensure that the
various project elements are effectively coordinated.

2. Project scope management to ensure that all the work

Special required (and only the required work) is included.
General
Knowledge
Management
Domains 3. Project time management to provide an effective
Project project schedule.
Management
4. Project cost management to identify needed resources
and maintain budget control.

5. Project quality management to ensure functional

Supporting requirements are met.
Disciplines
6. Project human resource management to development
and effectively employ project personnel.

A working knowledge of general management and 7. Project communications management to ensure

familiarity with the special knowledge domain related to effective internal and external communications.
the project are indispensable.
8. Project risk management to analyze and mitigate
Supporting disciplines such as computer science and potential risks.
decision science may also play an important role. In fact,
modern management practices and various special 9. Project procurement management to obtain necessary
knowledge domains have absorbed various techniques or resources from external sources.
tools which were once identified only with the supporting
disciplines. For example, computer-based information These nine areas form the basis of the Project Management
systems and decision support systems are now common- Institute's certification program for project managers in any
place tools for general management. Similarly, many industry.
operations research techniques such as linear programming
and network analysis are now widely used in many Risks in construction projects may be classified in a
knowledge or application domains. Hence, the number of ways. One form of classification is as follows:
representation above reflects only the sources from which
the project management framework evolves. 1. Socioeconomic factors
o Environmental protection
The functions of project management for construction o Public safety regulation
generally include the following: o Economic instability
o Exchange rate fluctuation
1. Specification of project objectives and plans including
delineation of scope, budgeting, scheduling, setting 2. Organizational relationships
performance requirements, and selecting project o Contractual relations
participants. o Attitudes of participants
o Communication
2. Maximization of efficient resource utilization through
procurement of labor, materials and equipment 3. Technological problems
according to the prescribed schedule and plan. o Design assumptions
o Site conditions
o Construction procedures

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Mineral Processing

o Construction occupational safety

Responsible Party
In general, there are many ways to decompose a project Task
into stages. The most typical ways are: Owner Designer Builder
Provide adequate time and
Prime
o Sequential processing whereby the project is divided funding for shop drawings
into separate stages and each stage is carried out Arrange for structural design Prime
successively in sequence.
Provide structural design Prime
o Parallel processing whereby the project is divided into Establish overall
independent parts such that all stages are carried out responsibility for connection Prime
simultaneously. design
Accomplish connection
Prime
o Staggered processing whereby the stages may be design (by designer)
overlapping, such as the use of phased design-construct Alternatively, provide loading
requirement and other info
procedures for fast track operation. Prime
necessary for shop drawing
preparation
Turnkey Projects Alternatively, accomplish
some or all of connection
Some owners wish to delegate all responsibilities of design Prime
design (by contractor with
and construction to outside consultants in a turnkey project licensed P.E.)
arrangement. A contractor agrees to provide the completed Specify shop drawing
Review Prime
facility on the basis of performance specifications set forth requirements and procedures
by the owner. The contractor may even assume the Approve proper scheduling Prime Assist Assist
responsibility of operating the project if the owner so
Provide shop drawing and
desires. In order for a turnkey operation to succeed, the
submit the drawing on Prime
owner must be able to provide a set of unambiguous schedule
performance specifications to the contractor and must have Make timely reviews and
complete confidence in the capability of the contractor to Prime
approvals
carry out the mission. Provide erection procedures,
construction bracing, shoring,
The 6 P’s means, methods and Prime
techniques of construction and
Many projects fail due to lack of understanding the construction safety
importance of the 6 P’s rule (proper prior planning prevents
poor performance).
Construction Planning
From the responses of six contractors, the key factors cited
for successful projects are: The development of a construction plan is very much
analogous to the development of a good facility design. The
o well defined scope planner must weigh the costs and reliability of different
options while at the same time insuring technical
o extensive early planning feasibility. Construction planning is more difficult in some
ways since the building process is dynamic as the site and
o good leadership, management and first line supervision the physical facility change over time as construction
proceeds. On the other hand, construction operations tend
o positive client relationship with client involvement to be fairly standard from one project to another, whereas
structural or foundation details might differ considerably
o proper project team chemistry from one facility to another.

o quick response to changes Forming a good construction plan is an exceptionally

challenging problem. There are numerous possible plans
o Engineering managers concerned with the total project, available for any given project. While past experience is a
not just the engineering elements. good guide to construction planning, each project is likely
to have special problems or opportunities that may require
Shop drawings represent the assembly details for erecting a considerable ingenuity and creativity to overcome or
structure which should reflect the intent and rationale of the exploit. Unfortunately, it is quite difficult to provide direct
original structural design. They are prepared by the guidance concerning general procedures or strategies to
construction contractor and reviewed by the design form good plans in all circumstances. There are some
professional. recommendations or issues that can be addressed to
describe the characteristics of good plans, but this does not
Recommended Responsibility for Shop Drawings necessarily tell a planner how to discover a good plan.

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Mineral Processing

However, as in the design process, strategies of manufacturing. Industrialized construction and pre-
decomposition in which planning is divided into fabrication would involve transferring a significant portion
subproblems and hierarchical planning in which general of construction operations from the construction site to
activities are repeatably subdivided into more specific tasks more or less remote sites where individual components of
can be readily adopted in many cases. buildings and structures are produced. Elements of facilities
could be prefabricated off the erection site and assembled
From the standpoint of construction contractors or the by cranes and other lifting machinery.
construction divisions of large firms, the planning process
for construction projects consists of three stages that take There are a wide variety and degrees of introducing greater
place between the moment in which a planner starts the industrialization to the construction process. Many
plan for the construction of a facility to the moment in components of constructed facilities have always been
which the evaluation of the final output of the construction manufactured, such as air conditioning units. Lumber,
process is finished. piping and other individual components are manufactured
to standard sizes. Even temporary items such as forms for
The estimate stage involves the development of a cost and concrete can be assembled off-site and transported for use.
duration estimate for the construction of a facility as part of Reinforcing bars for concrete can also be pre-cut and
the proposal of a contractor to an owner. It is the stage in shaped to the desired configuration in a manufacturing
which assumptions of resource commitment to the plant or in an automated plant located proximate to a
necessary activities to build the facility are made by a construction site.
planner. A careful and thorough analysis of different
conditions imposed by the construction project design and A major problem in extending the use of pre-fabricated
by site characteristics are taken into consideration to units is the lack of standardization for systems and building
determine the best estimate. The success of a contractor regulations. While designers have long adopted standard
depends upon this estimate, not only to obtain a job but also sizes for individual components in designs, the adoption of
to construct the facility with the highest profit. The planner standardized sub-assemblies is rarer. Without
has to look for the time-cost combination that will allow the standardization, the achievement of a large market and
contractor to be successful in his commitment. The result of scale economies of production in manufacturing may be
a high estimate would be to lose the job, and the result of a impossible. An innovative and more thorough
low estimate could be to win the job, but to lose money in industrialization of the entire building process may be a
the construction process. When changes are done, they primary source of construction cost savings in the future.
should improve the estimate, taking into account not only
present effects, but also future outcomes of succeeding Planning of pre-fabrication
activities. It is very seldom the case in which the output of
the construction process exactly echoes the estimate offered When might pre-fabricated components be used in
to the owner. preference to components assembled on a construction site?
In the monitoring and control stage of the construction A straightforward answer is to use pre-fabricated
process, the construction manager has to keep constant components whenever their cost, including transportation,
track of both activities' durations and ongoing costs. It is is less than the cost of assembly on site. As an example,
misleading to think that if the construction of the facility is forms for concrete panels might be transported to a
on schedule or ahead of schedule, the cost will also be on construction site with reinforcing bars already built in,
the estimate or below the estimate, especially if several necessary coatings applied to the forms, and even special
changes are made. Constant evaluation is necessary until features such as electrical conduit already installed in the
the construction of the facility is complete. When work is form. In some cases, it might be less expensive to pre-
finished in the construction process, and information about fabricate and transport the entire concrete panel to a
it is provided to the planner, the third stage of the planning manufacturing site. In contrast, traditional construction
process can begin. practice would be to assemble all the different features of
the panel on-site. The relevant costs of these alternatives
The evaluation stage is the one in which results of the could be assessed during construction planning to
construction process are matched against the estimate. A determine the lowest cost alternative.
planner deals with this uncertainty during the estimate
stage. Only when the outcome of the construction process In addition to the consideration of direct costs, a
is known is he/she able to evaluate the validity of the construction planner should also consider some other
estimate. It is in this last stage of the planning process that aspects of this technology choice. First, the planner must
he or she determines if the assumptions were correct. If insure that pre-fabricated components will satisfy the
they were not or if new constraints emerge, he/she should relevant building codes and regulations. Second, the
introduce corresponding adjustments in future planning. relative quality of traditional versus pre-fabricated
components as experienced in the final facility should be
considered. Finally, the availability of components at the
Industrialized Construction and Pre-fabrication required time during the construction process should also
be considered.
Another approach to construction innovation is to apply the
principles and organizational solutions adopted for

Page 65
Mineral Processing

Phases of an Effective Mining Project Scoping study (Eliminate phase)

To understand what is required to control the risks in A scoping (concept) study should be used to define the
mining projects, the individual phases of these mining potential of a project, eliminate those options that are
projects need to be understood and recommendations made unlikely to become optimal, and determine if there is
as to what the focus and objectives of these phases should sufficient opportunity to justify the investment required for
be. further studies.

The process of technical analysis to determine the viability Typically, a number of operating scenarios are considered.
of a mineral prospect is generally loosely categorised as a It is critical that all potential operating scenarios be
‘feasibility study’. In fact, a feasibility study is no single considered to prevent any unnecessary rework or delays in
study in itself but a sequential series of interdependent later study phases.
technical studies with discrete objectives. Major projects
generally have five distinct phases; Before commencement of a scoping study there should be
• scoping studies, sufficient drilling and sampling completed to define a
• pre-feasibility studies, geological resource sufficient to be representative of the
• definitive feasibility studies, scale of the resource.
• design and construction, and
• operations. Whilst the resource need not conform to any specific
JORC 2004 (The Joint Ore Reserves Committee
of The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Australian
Each project phase serves an important purpose and
Institute of Geoscientists and Minerals Council of Australia)
requires a specific set of management skills. Separate teams
category, the resources should be stated according to JORC
are generally used for the study, the design and
guidelines and be used as a ‘sanity check’ for data
construction, and operations phases in turn.
interpretation and reporting of risk. The resource models
should be audited to understand what the data limitations
The initial phases of a project are broad in nature, looking
and inherent risks are that may influence the mining and
at a range of options. As the project advances, the project
processing techniques being considered.
phases become more detailed and focus on a single option.
Due to the limitations of data and testwork generally
Not all projects will progress through all phases. At the end
available when entering into a scoping study, production
of each phase, a decision is made whether to stop the
schedules and cost estimates are normally simplistic and
project or progress to the next phase. If the decision to
are generally derived based on experience, benchmarks and
progress to the next phase is positive, a work plan is
industry standards. First principles calculations are at times
generally implemented. The work plan should be
used based on broadly anticipated operating conditions.
completed before commencement of the next phase to
Engineering design specification to support processing
ensure that the necessary data is available to commence the
costs is generally very limited.
next phase.
Once the initial analysis of the options has been completed,
As the project advances through the phases, the level of
a process of ranking is performed to develop a smaller
definition and accuracy improves, however, generally, each
subset of options for more detailed analysis in the
study comprises as a minimum:
prefeasibility study. Only those options that are deemed
beyond reasonable doubt to be unlikely to become the most
• go/no go recommendation;
viable operating scenario should then be precluded from
• description of site; advancing to the next study phase. Optimistic assumptions
• description of the project, work completed, findings should be favoured over conservative assumptions in this
and assumptions made; phase. It is important not to throw out the (rare) viable
• a mineral resource and ore reserve statement; project through excessive caution at the scoping phase.
• strategic alignment analysis;
• market analysis; A study of this level is valid to determine whether a project
• health, safety, environment and community (draft) is worth pursuing further but the uncertainty in the
plan; economic parameters suggests any reserve definition is
• ownership, legal, financial and permit analysis and generally not possible until later study phases. Any
statement; decision not to pursue the study in further detail should be
• shortlist and general design features of viable taken in light of the order of accuracy of the study.
operating scenario/s and parameters of the project;
• estimates and sensitivity/statistical testing of capital The work plan required to advance the project to the
and operating costs, revenue and profit; prefeasibility stage should focus on any additional drilling,
• full spectrum risk analysis; sampling or metallurgical analysis required.
• work plan outline to be complete before
commencement of the next phase; and
• estimated scope and budget for the next phase.

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Mineral Processing

Prefeasibility study (Select phase)

The feasibility study usually does not go any further into
Prefeasibility studies should be used to select the preferred detailed engineering design than necessary, so that typically
operating options from the shortlisted options defined by 50 per cent of the engineering remains to be done after the
the scoping study and to provide a case for whether or not feasibility study is complete. If it is a complex operation
to commit to the large expenditure and effort involved in a with multiple processes or new technologies, the level of
subsequent definitive feasibility study. engineering required for the feasibility might rise to 75 per
cent or more.
All shortlisted operating scenarios defined by the scoping
study should be evaluated in the prefeasibility study with At this point, in all cases there should be sufficient
the objective of evaluating only one (or possibly at most information to declare ore reserves, provided the project
two) scenario/s in the definitive feasibility study. has positive economics.

The geological definition work completed prior to At times, a definitive feasibility study is referred to as a
commencement of the prefeasibility study should be bankable feasibility study. Whether there is any difference
sufficient to enable stage testwork for basic engineering between a definitive and bankable feasibility study is
such as process flow diagrams. The testwork and data debatable. The use of the term ‘bankable’ in replacement
generated during the prefeasibility study should be of definitive feasibility study is ambiguous and best not
sufficient to be able to confidently generate realistic used as it implies that there is a underlying attractiveness to
estimates of technical performance, capital and operating the investment which does not necessarily reflect the
costs, manning requirements, price and marketability, accuracy of the study.
environmental and social impact, project profitability and
risks. The level of engineering work in a prefeasibility Design and construction
study should be no more than that is required to select an
option/s. The design and construction phase is about implementing
the best option determined in the definitive feasibility
By completion of the prefeasibility study there is often study. This involves all the necessary detailed engineering
sufficient information to declare reserves, provided the design and procurement functions. This phase requires a
project has positive economics. manager with a focused mindset; intent on implementing
the definitive feasibility plans (specifications) on schedule
The work plan required to advance to the feasibility phase and within budget.
should give particular consideration to geotechnical studies
for mine, waste dumps and tailings facility design, as well Construction management processes are typically common
as further metallurgical testing for refining estimates of across all heavy construction industries.
product recoveries (bulk samples), and tailings disposal
considerations.

Definitive feasibility study (Refine phase)

Definitive (full) feasibility studies should be used to refine

the optimal operating scenario defined by the prefeasibility
study. They are often used to assist with outside financing
requirements. The definitive feasibility study provides the
basis for the decision on whether in fact further study is
required, whether the project is worth pursuing or whether
to advance the project to design and construction.

All uncertain aspects relating to the project should be well

defined and data collated, reviewed and audited prior to
commencing the definitive feasibility study. The study in
itself should be confirmatory in nature and should be
carried out using samples representative of the final mine
plan. There should be some consideration for doing pilot
scale testwork and obtaining tendered mining rates if
mining contractors are to be used.

Key components in the feasibility study are the mine

design, production schedule, a detailed process flow sheet
and piping and instrument diagrams, product recoveries for
the suite of anticipated material types, detailed plant design,
management plans, and a comprehensive economic model
of the project.

Page 67
Mineral Processing

CHEMICALS ELASTOMERS METALS PLASTICS

STAINLESS STEEL

POLYPROPYLENE
POLYURETHANE

POLYETHYLENE
CAST IRON
ALUMINUM
NEOPRENE

VITON®15

TEFLON®
BUNA-N

NYLON
(316)

ETFE

PVC
ALUMINUM HYDROXIDE16 - A A A A A D A B/70 A/250 A B A
BARIUM CYANIDE - A C A - C C A - - - B/70 D
CALCIUM CARBONATE17 - A A A A C - A A A/212 A A/120 A
CALCIUM HYDROXIDE A A A A A C A A A/120 A/250 A/120 D B
CHLORINE (DRY) D D D A A D D - D - D B/70 D
CHLORINE (WET) D D D A A D B D C A/100 D D -
CHLORINE, ANHYDROUS
- D D A A D D D C - D B/120 D
LIQUID
COPPER CYANIDE A A A A A D D A B/70 A/250 A - A
GOLD MONOCYANIDE - A A A - - D A - - - A -
LIME - B A A A C A A B/70 A/250 - A B
MERCURIC CYANIDE - A A - A D C A A A/250 A - A
POTASSIUM CUPRO CYANIDE A A A A A - - - - - - - -
POTASSIUM CYANIDE
A A A A A D B A A/70 A/250 A C/70 A
SOLUTIONS
PROPANE (LIQUIFIED) B B A A A A A A A/70 A/250 B/72 A/120 A
SEA WATER A B A A A D D C A/120 - A - A
SILVER CYANIDE - - - - - - - - - - - A/120 -
SODIUM CYANIDE - A A A A D B A A/70 A/250 A A A
SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE (TO
D D C A A D D C D A/250 B/72 - A
20%)
SODIUM HYDROXIDE18 (20%
B B A A A D B A A A/250 A - A
SOLN)
SODIUM HYDROXIDE (50%
B C D A A D C B A A/250 A - A
SOLN)
SODIUM HYDROXIDE (80%
B C D B A D C D C A/140 A - A
SOLN)
WATER, ACID, MINE - - - - - - - - - A/212 - A -
WATER, DEMINERALIZED - - - - - - - - - A/212 - D -
WATER, DISTILLED, LAB
- - - - - - - - - A/212 - D -
GRADE 7
WATER, FRESH - - - - - - - - - A/250 - D -
WATER, SALT A B B A A D D C A/120 A/250 A A/120 A

Rating: A – Minor Effect Material Temperature Limit

B – Minor to moderate Effect Neoprene -17.8 to 93.3 ºC
C – Moderate to severe Effect Buna-N -12.2 to 82.2 ºC
D – Not Recommended EPDM -51.1 to 137.8 ºC
- – Insufficient information Viton -40 to 176.7 ºC
Teflon -4.4 to 104.4 ºC

Source: Chemical Resistance Guide, Wilden Pumps & Engineering LLC.

15
Teflon® and Viton® are registered trademarks of DuPont.
16
Aluminum Hydrate
17
Limestone
18
Caustic Soda

Page 68
Mineral Processing

POLYETHYLENE (PE) PIPES PN 20 or 20 Bar. HDPE pipe can also be classified by

the material used - PE 100, PE 80, PE63, PE 40 or PE
The pressure rating of a pipe, Pressure Nominal (PN) is 32.
determined by the diameter, wall thickness, and material
type and is expressed as PE pipes are produced in different pressure grades (PN
grades), which indicates the pressure in bars the pipe can
PN – Pipe pressure rating at 20 ºC (Mpa × 10) support with water at 20oC.
The pressure grades available according to European
The basic polyethylene (PE) material types used for pipe standards are
fabrication are PE 63, PE 80 and PE 100, the number
indicating long term strength. • PN 2.5 - max pressure 2.5 bar
• PN 4 - max pressure 4 bar
Among all piping materials, HDPE is the best option due • PN 6 - max pressure 6 bar
to leak proof fusion welded joints, flexibility, no • PN 10 - max pressure 10 bar
corrosion/encrustation, uniform pumping cost over the • PN 16 - max pressure 16 bar
service life and 50-100 years service life. Due to their
high service life specified HDPE piping systems offers Note:
the lowest whole life costing per litre of delivered water. 1 bar = 105 Pa (N/m2) = 0.1 Mpa (N/mm2) = 14.50 psi
This encompasses cost of components, cost of
installation and cost of ownership in terms of lowest
Pressure Rating
leakage rate and maintenance. Outside
Diameter PN 2.5 PN 4 PN 6 PN 10 PN 16
High density polyethylene - HDPE - is a very popular (mm) Inside Diameter (mm)
material for water pipes. It is
20 16 14.4
• resistant to chemicals 25 21 20.4 18
• easy and light weighted 32 28 26.2 23.2
• long living
• low friction 40 36 35.4 32.6 29
• relatively cheap 50 46 44.2 40.8 36.2
• flexible 63 59.8 58.2 55.8 51.4 45.8
• sun resistant
75 71.2 69.2 66.4 61.4 54.4
HDPE pipe is excellent for mining applications because 90 85.6 83 79.8 73.6 65.4
of the following characteristics:

• Scratch Tolerant 110 104.6 101.6 97.4 90 79.8

• Chemically Resistant 125 118.8 115.4 110.8 102.2 90.8
• Readily Installed 140 133 129.2 124 114.6 101.6
• Small to Large Diameter Sizes
• Non-toxic and Non-tasting 160 152 147.6 141.8 130.8 116.2
• Lightweight 180 171.2 166.2 159.6 147.2 130.8
• Economical
• Corrosion Resistant
200 190.2 184.6 177.2 163.6 145.4
• Zero Leak Rate
• Hydraulically Smooth 225 214 207.8 199.2 184 163.4
• Fatigue and Surge Resistant 250 237.6 230.7 221.6 204.6 181.6
• Longevity
280 266.2 258.6 248.2 229.2 203.4
• Heat-Fused Joints
• Strong and Ductile 315 299.6 290.8 279.2 257.8 229
• Durable 355 337.6 327.8 314.8 290.6 258
• Abrasion Resistant
400 380.4 369.4 354.6 327.4 290.6
• Inert
• Self Restrained
• Monolithic 450 428 415.6 399 368.2 327
• Flexible 500 475.4 461.8 443.4 409.2
• Weather Resistant
• Impact Resistant 560 532.6 517.2 496.6 458.4
• Freeze Resistant 630 599.2 581.8 558.6 515.6
• Reliable and Available 710 675.2 655.6 629.6
PE pipes can be used in range of temperatures -40ºC to 800 760.8 738.8 709.4
+60ºC considering the change of operating pressure. 900 856 831.2 798
Typically the standard specification identify class of a
HDPE pipe is by the nominal pressure class - PN - up to

Page 69
Mineral Processing

Outside Pressure Rating Maximum Operating

Diameter PN 2.5 PN 4 PN 6 PN 10 PN 16 Temperature Pressure (bar)
(mm) (ºC) PN
Inside Diameter (mm) PN 6 PN 20
10
1000 951 923.6 887
1200 1141.2 1108.2 20 6.0 10.0 16.0

1400 1331.4 1293 30 3.2 8.0 13.0

1600 1521.6 1477.6 40 2.0 6.0 11.0
50 2.6 4.0 8.0
Approximately weights of polyethylene high density -
PEH - pipes: 60 1.0 3.2 6.0

Color codes used to indicate the pressure grades on the

Outside Pressure Rating pipes are
Diameter
(mm) PN 2.5 PN 4 PN 6 PN 10 PN 16 PE
Color Code
Pressure Grade
Pipe Weight (kg/m)
Yellow PN 4
20 0.11 0.16
Red PN 6
25 0.13 0.17 0.24
Blue PN 10
32 0.19 0.28 0.39
Green PN 16
40 0.21 0.29 0.44 0.61
50 0.32 0.45 0.68 0.95 Polyethylene pipes are also classified by the type of
63 0.33 0.48 0.70 1.1 1.5 material used:
75 0.46 0.69 0.9 1.5 2.1 • PE 32 - low pressure piping systems
90 0.65 0.99 1.4 2.2 3.1
110 0.96 1.5 2.1 3.2 4.6 • PE 40 - low pressure piping systems
125 1.3 1.9 2.7 4.1 5.9 • PE 63 - medium pressure piping systems - irrigation
140 1.6 2.4 3.4 5.2 7.8 system - drinking water connections
160 2.0 3.1 4.4 6.8 9.6
• PE 80 - gas pipe for natural gas distribution
180 2.5 3.9 5.6 8.6 12.1 network with pressure rate up to 4 bars - drinking
200 3.1 4.8 6.9 10.6 15.0 water pipe with pressure rate up to 16 bars - sewers,
outfall pipes, industrial pipes
225 3.9 6.0 8.7 13.4 19.0
250 4.9 7.4 10.7 16.4 23.4 • PE 100 - high demands piping applications
280 6.1 9.2 13.4 20.6 29
The Minimum Required Strength - MRS - according ISO
315 7.6 11.8 17.0 26.0 37 4427 for the different materials are:
355 9.7 14.9 21.6 33.0 47
400 12.3 18.8 27.3 41.9 60 Designation of MRS at 50 years at 20ºC
material MPa (bars)
450 15.9 24.3 35.3 54.3 77
PE 100 10 (100)
500 19.7 30.0 43.0 67
PE 80 8 (80)
560 24.5 37.7 54.5 84
PE 63 6.3 (63)
600 26.9 43.7 63 96
PE 40 4 (40)
630 31.0 47.7 69 106
PE 32 3.2 (32)
710 39.5 60.5 88
800 50 77 111 Among all HDPE materials (PE63, PE80 and PE100),
900 63 97 141 specified PE 100 is the best choice for water distribution
networks due to lowest weight per unit length among all
1000 78 120 173
HDPE, Highest flow area for same pipe OD, highest
1200 112 172 hydrostatic strength (HS), resistance to Slow Crack
1400 Growth (SCG) and Rapid Crack Propagation (RCP).
1600 199 306 Protective additives such as carbon black and hindered
amine light stabilisers (HALS) are used in order to
The operating pressure of PE pipes depends on the minimise degradation. The use of carbon black optimises
temperature. UV stabilisation and thus black pipes dominate general
usage.

Page 70
Mineral Processing

For coloured compounds, stabilisation has not been as AS 1463 PE compounds

effective as carbon black, but the introduction of HALS AS 1667, PE pipes
(hindered amine light stabilisers) has enabled greatly AS 2718
improved UV resistance, albeit still not to the level of AS 4130 PE pipes for pressure applications
carbon black. AS 4131 PE compounds for pressure pipes and fittings
AS 1460 Fittings
Specified PE100 black in pre compounded form offers AS 3723 Pipe installation
the advantages of uniform distribution and dispersion of AS 2033 Installation of PE Pipe Systems
carbon black, which works as UV stabiliser. Improper
distribution and dispersion by physical blending of These dimensions are slightly different than metric pipes.
colour concentrate with natural pipe material in a pipe HDPE is not a magic material but can withstand the
extruder may result in premature failure as the abrasion of taconite and some coarse laterites. As with
agglomerates of carbon black in the pipe wall work as rubber, there must be a cut-off size of particle size
initiation point for failure of pipe. beyond which the use of HDPE is not acceptable. Very
little has been published on this subject.
According to international standard for PE water pipes
ISO 4427, an HDPE material can be certified as PE100, Electrofusion fittings for pressure applications are
only if it passes 10,000 hours Long Term Hydrostatic usually recommended for use with PE pipes SDR17 or
Strength (LTHS) test extrapolated to 50 years to show thicker. Some manufacturers supply electrofusion fittings
that it has a Minimum Required Strength (MRS) of over for thinner pipes, down to SDR33 whereas others limit
10 MPa for a lifetime of minimum 50 years. The test the use of some saddle type fittings to SDR11 or thicker.
procedure and methodology are well defined in the
standards ISO TR 9080 and ISO12162. With electrofusion jointing, an electrical resistance
element is incorporated in the socket of the fitting which,
The term SDR, Standard Dimension Ratio, is introduced when connected to an appropriate power supply, melts
to describe the pipe, in combination with the material and fuses the materials of the pipe and fitting together.
type The effectiveness of this technique depends on attention
Min OD to preparation of the jointing surfaces and ensuring the
SDR = surfaces to be welded have satisfactory contact during
Min Wall Thickness the welding and cooling cycles.
Pipe clamps or other approved methods of restraining,
where OD refers to the Outside Diameter of the pipe. aligning and rerounding the pipes during the fusion cycle
should be used.
A SDR 11 means that the outside diameter , OD, of the
pipe is eleven times the thickness, t, of the wall. PROCEDURE

The higher the SDR, the thinner the pipe, and the lower • Ensure there is sufficient space to permit access to
the pressure rating. the jointing area.

• with a high SDR ratio the pipe wall is thin • Cover the pipe ends remote from the fitting joint, to
compared to the pipe diameter ensure airflow through the pipeline cannot occur
• with a low SDR ratio the pipe wall is thick during the heating and cooling cycles.
compared to the pipe diameter
• Check that the pipe ends to be jointed are cut square
As a consequence a high SDR pipe has a low-pressure to the axis and any burrs removed.
rating and low SDR pipe has a high-pressure rating.
• Wipe pipe ends using clean, disposable, lint free
AS/NZS 4130 uses a standrad SDR series, in material to remove traces of dirt mud, etc. Pipe ends
combination with the three (3) material types, to provide may be washed with clean water if necessary and
standard pipe pressure ratings as shown in the table. dried with the lint free material. Ensure pipe end is
completely dry before proceeding.
SDR PE 63 PE 80 PE 100
• Measure the depth of penetration of the fitting by
41 PN 3.2 PN 4 placing the socket of the bagged fitting alongside the
pipe end and put a witness mark on the pipe at half
33 PN 3.2 PN 4 the fitting length to indicate the area to be scraped.
26 PN 4 PN 6.3 Do not remove the fitting from its packaging at this
stage.
21 PN 6.3 PN 8
17 PN 6.3 PN 8 PN 10 • Check that the pipe clamps are of the correct size for
13.6 PN 8 PN 10 PN 12.5 the pipes to be jointed.
11 PN 10 PN 12.5 PN 16 • Using an appropriate pipe scraper, as recommended
9 PN 12.5 PN 16 PN 20 by the pipe or fitting manufacturer, remove the entire
surface of the pipe over the area indicated, to a depth
7.4 PN 16 PN 20 PN 25

Page 71
Mineral Processing

of approximately 0.3mm. Metal files, rasps, emery If in doubt, check with the supplier or manufacturer as
paper etc are not suitable end preparation tools. unsatisfactory joints are likely to occur if the fitting/pipe
combination is incorrect.
• Wipe the scraped surface with an authorised
Ispropanol impregnated pipewipe, as recommended Pipes of different grades of PE and/or SDR can be
by the pipe or fitting manufacturer, to remove any jointed successfully using electrofusion sockets, provided
dust residue. Methylated spirits, acetone, methyl that all components have adequate nominal pressure
ethyl ketone (MEK) or other solvents are not rating for the operating conditions and the PE materials
recommended for wiping the scraped surface. Ensure comply with AS/NZS4131.
the prepared surfaces are completely dry before
proceeding. Contamination of the jointing surfaces by dust and/or
moisture are likely to result in unsatisfactory joints. A
• Remove the fitting from its packaging and check the shelter should be used to provide adequate protection for
bore of the fitting is clean. The bore of the fitting the pipe, fittings and equipment against adverse weather
may be wiped with an approved pipewipe if conditions and contamination.
necessary. Ensure the bore is completely dry before
proceeding.

• Insert the pipe end(s) into the fitting so that they are
in contact with the centre stops.

• Using pipe clamps, or other suitable means, secure

the pipe(s) so that they cannot move during the
fusion cycle. Check that the pipe end(s) and the
fitting are correctly aligned.

• Ensure the generator is switched on and running

satisfactorily before connecting the electrofusion
control box to the power source.

• Identify the required jointing time, which should be

indicated on the fitting.

• Check that the correct time is shown on the control

box display.

• Press the start button on the control box and check

that the heating cycle is proceeding as indicated on
the display.
• On completion of the heating cycle, one or both melt
indicators should have risen. If there is no apparent
movement of either indicator the joint could be
unsatisfactory and should be investigated.

• If a satisfactory joint has been made, the joint should

be left in the clamps for the cooling period specified
on the fitting.

Only electrofusion fittings that comply with AS/NZS

4129 should be used for pressure applications.

When saddle type fittings are used, the offtake hole in the
pipe must not be cut until the fitting has completed the
required cooling time.

It is good practice to open only one end of the fitting

package if both ends are not to be connected immediately
to a pipe. The package can then be fixed in place to
enclose the exposed end of the fitting to keep the fitting
bore free from contamination.

These limitations are usually detailed on the fitting body

or on the packaging.

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