Chapter 2
Chapter 2
Chapter 2
INTRODUCTION
The flow of water in hydraulic conduits is governed by:
1. conduit geometry
2. fluid properties
3. conservation laws
The conduit geometry characteristics comprise area, wetted
perimeter, hydraulic radius, and roughness of boundaries. The
fluid properties include density, viscosity, pressure and
compressibility. Conservation laws include laws of
conservation of mass, energy, and momentum.
All hydraulics problems are based on fundamental governing
equations of fluid dynamics, the continuity, momentum and
energy equation. These equations speak physics. They are the
mathematical statements of these fundamental physical
principles upon which all the fluid dynamics is based:
1. Mass is conserved
2. Newton’s second law (F = ma)
3. Energy is conserved
This chapter discusses equations of conservation of mass,
conservation of momentum and conservation of energy for
steady flows in open channels. For simplicity only axial
component of velocity is considered while the components of
velocity in transverse and vertical direction are taken as zero.
CONTINUITY EQUATION
Physical principle: Mass is conserved
Civil engineers deal primarily with the flow of incompressible
liquids, i.e., the mass density of the liquid remains constant.
According to law of conservation of mass in open channels,
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the volumetric flow rates at different channel cross sections
remain equal provided there is no lateral inflow or outflow. In
order to derive continuity equation, consider the flow of an
incompressible liquid in a channel as shown below:
In general
Q2
Fs Z A (11)
gA
Where Fs = Specific Force or Momentum Function
(Each term on RHS represents force per unit weight)
4
Let,
Length of the fluid element along the streamline be ∆s
Length normal to the streamline be ∆n
Thickness of the fluid element perpendicular to the plane
of paper be unity
Pressure force on U/S face pn (1)
p
Pressure force on D/S face = ( p s s)n (2)
W = Weight of fluid element = sn (3)
Component of this weight in ‘s” direction
W sin sn sin (4)
Z
sn( ) ( 4a )
s
-ive sign shows that Z reduces in flow direction‘s’
Z=height above datum, measured positive in upwards direction
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a s ( p Z ) (8)
s
Since V = V(s, t)
as in‘s’ direction may be written as
dV V V ds
as s s s
dt t s dt
(Chain Rule for P/ Diff.)
ds
Now dt
Vs (s = V.t)
Vs V
So as
t
Vs s (9)
s
1st term (∂Vs/∂t) = Local acceleration
Vs
2nd term (Vs s ) = Convective acceleration
Substituting eq. (9) in eq. (8), we get
Vs V
( Vs s ) ( p Z ) 0 (10)
t s s
This equation is called Euler’s equation of motion. The only
assumption is that the fluid is non-viscous otherwise it is
applicable along a streamline for unsteady non-uniform flows.
CASE I: Steady Flow
V
In case of steady flow local acceleration ts 0
So equation (10) reduces to
dVs d
Vs ( p Z ) 0 (11)
ds ds
By multiplying throughout by ‘ ds ’ and integrating
Vs dVs dp dZ Constant
1
Vs 2 p Z Constant (12)
2
Vs 2 p
2g
Z H Constant (13)
This is known as Bernoulli’s equation or energy equation for a
streamline and applicable to steady, irrotational,
incompressible and non-viscous flow. The term ‘H’ is called
total head or energy head.
CASE II: Steady Uniform Flow
Both local and convective acceleration in steady uniform flow
become zero so equation (10) reduces to
6
d
( p Z ) 0 (14)
ds
By integrating
p
Z Constant
p
Where (
Z) is called piezometric head
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Q
q
B
(Since the unit width can be assumed to be unaffected by the
channel bed and sides)
Q Q qB
Now V
A B y B y
q
Or V
y
So equation (2) can be written as
q2
E y (3)
2 gy 2
q2
(E y) y 2 ( 4)
2g
( E y ) y 2 cons tan t
8
Some characteristics of E-y curve
The specific energy or E-y curve has two asymptotes,
i.e.
When E = y (45o line passing through origin)
And y=0
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–ive so there are only two values of ‘y’ for a given ‘E’.
These two depths are called alternate depths.
The flow depth corresponding to ‘C’ is called critical
depth denoted by ‘yc’ and the corresponding flow is
called critical flow.
A flow having depth yc is called sub critical flow and a
flow having depth yc is called supercritical flow.
If ‘q’ varies then we get different specific energy curves
as shown below:
10
Thus, we have,
Q 2
E d cos
2 gA2
Q 2
Or E y cos 2 (as d = ycos)
2 gA2
If we plot a specific energy curve, the upper limb of the curve
is not asymptote to 45o line; this angle depends on slope of the
channel bottom. (45 or 45 ???)
PROBLEM 2-1
Determine an expression for the slope of the straight line to
which the upper limb of the specific energy curve is an
asymptote for a channel having a bottom slope of.
Solution
For a sloping channel, the specific energy is given by
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V 2
E d cos
2g
V 2
E ( y cos ) cos
2g
Q 2
E y cos 2
2 gA 2
q 2 B 2
E y cos 2
2 gB 2 y 2
q 2
E y cos 2
2 gy 2
( E y cos 2 ) y 2 Constant
2 2
( E y cos ) y 0
E
Or y
cos 2
PROBLEM 2-2
Plot the specific energy versus depth curves for Q = 400 m 3/s,
600 m3/s, and 800 m3/s in a trapezoidal channel having a
bottom width of 20 m and side slopes of 2H:1V. Assume the
bottom slope is small. From these curves, determine the
critical depth for each discharge.
Solution:
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The specific energy is given by
13
From Specific Energy Curves
Discharge Critical depth
Q1=400 m3/s yC1=3.0m
Q2=600 m3/s yC2=3.8m
Q3=800 m3/s yC3=4.5m
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APPLICATION OF MOMENTUM AND ENERGY
EQUATIONS
15
CHANNEL TRANSITION
16
Since the channel width is constant, the unit discharge, q, is
the same on both sides of the transition, so same specific
energy curve is applicable to the U/S and D/S sides. Because
the energy losses in the channel transition are assumed to be
negligible, the total head H1 = H2
And E 1 = H 1 = H2
So E2 = H2 - z
Or E2 = E1 - z
On the specific energy diagram of Fig. a, the point
corresponding to flow conditions at section 1 is marked as 1.
To determine the point corresponding to section 2, a vertical
line is drawn such that E = E2 as shown in Fig. b. The flow
depths corresponding to the points where this line intersects
the specific energy curve are the possible downstream depths.
In this case, there are three such points, marked as 2, 2’, and
2’’. Point 2’’ corresponds to a negative depth which is not
physically possible. Hence, we shall not consider this point
any further in our discussion. Of the other two points 2 and 2’,
let us determine which one is actually feasible.
We see no particular problem in going from point 1 to 2 along
the specific energy curve (Fig. b). However, to go from 2 to
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2’, two different paths [Henderson, 1966] may be followed, as
shown in Fig. c (case 1) and d (case 2).
Case I (Path 1)
For the path along the vertical line 2-2’ (as shown below), we
have to move off the specified specific energy curve and pass
through the curves corresponding to higher unit discharges
which is possible only if the channel width is reduced at the
transition, as shown by a hypothetical channel in this figure.
However, since the channel width is constant, there is no such
contraction and consequently this path is not feasible.
Case II (Path 2)
A decrease in E is necessary to follow the second path 2-C-2
as shown below:
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E decreases only if channel bottom rises until E = E c and then
drops again until E = E2. There is no such rise and drop in
bottom of the channel under consideration. Hence the second
path 2-C-2 is not possible either.
Therefore only one depth is possible corresponding to point 2.
In other words, subcritical flow remains subcritical
downstream of the transition.
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For ‘x’ measured along channel length, the d/s flow
direction is considered +ive while u/s flow direction is –ive.
The flow depth ‘y’ increases if dy/dx is +ive and it
decreases if dy/dx is –ive.
For a small change in the flow depth, Δy, change in the flow
area is ΔA BΔy, in which B=top surface width. In the limit,
as Δy 0, we may write dA= Bdy, hence Eq. (5) becomes
dA dy
B ( 6)
dx dx
Substituting equation (6) in equation (4)
d 1 2 B dy
( 2) 3 (7 )
dx A A dx
We know that Froude number is
V V
Fr
gy g( A )
B
2 BV 2 BQ 2
Fr (8)
gA gA3
Substituting equation (7) in equation (3)
dH dz dy Q 2 2 B dy
dx dx dx 2 g A3 dx
dH dz BQ 2 dy
1
dx dx gA3 dx
So
This equation describes the variation of the flow depth for any
variation in the bottom elevation.
Example 2.1
A 4-m wide rectangular channel is carrying 10m 3/s at a depth
of 2.5 m. There is a step rise of 0.2 m in the channel bottom.
Assuming there are no losses at the transition, determine the
flow depth downstream of the bottom step. Does the water
surface rise or fall at the step? For the channel shown in the
figure, does the water surface rise or fall at the step.
Given:
Q = 10 m3/s
B=4m
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Y1 = 2.5 m
z = 0.2 m
Assume head losses negligible in the transition
Solution:
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Q 2 A2 A1
z 2 A2 z1 A1 (2)
g A1 A2
1
For a rectangular channel, A=By and z 2 y . By substituting
these relationship into Eq. (2)
Q 2 y 2 y1 B 1 1
2 y 2 By 2 y1 By1
g y1 y 2 B 2 2
Q2 1 2 2
( y2 y1 ) B 2 y1 y2 ( y2 y1 ) (3)
g 2
Q2 1
B 2 y1 y2 ( y2 y1 )
g 2
y1 2
y2 1
1 1 8 Fr1 (7)
2
y1 2
Thus if flow depth and velocity on one side of the jump are
known, then their values on the other side can be determined
using equations (7) or (8) and continuity equation. The energy
losses can then be computed from energy equation.
Example 2.2
The reservoir level u/s of a 30m-wide spillway for a flow of
800m3/s is at El. 200m. The d/s river level for this flow is at
El. 100m. Determine the invert level of a stilling basin having
same width as the spillway so that a hydraulic jump is formed
in the basin. Assume losses in the spillway are negligible.
Given:
Q= 800 m3/s
B=30 m
U/S water level=El.200 m
D/S water level=El.100 m
Determine:
The invert elevation of the stilling basin =?
Solution:
Let the invert elevation of the stilling basin = z
Thus y2 = 100 – z
25
Since the losses on the spillway face are negligible, and
assuming y1 to be small,
V1 2 gH 2 9.81 ( 200 z )
y1 2
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Thrust on gate = Fg = (Fs1 – Fs2)
Energy loss in jump = E2 –E3
Example 2-3
A hydraulic jump is formed in a 5-m wide out outlet at a short
distance downstream of a control gate as shown above. If the
flow depths just upstream and downstream of the gate are 10
m and 2 m respectively and outlet discharge is 150m 3/s,
determine:
(i) Flow depth downstream of jump
(ii) Thrust on the gate
(iii) Head losses in the jump.
Assume there are no losses in the flow through the gate
Given:
Q = 150 m3/s ; B = 5m ; y1 = 10m ; y2 = 2m
Determine:
Y3 =? ;
Thrust on the gate Fg =? ;
Head losses in the jump E2 - E3 =?
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Solution:
q = Q/B = 150/5 = 30m3/s
V2 = q/y2 = 30/2 = 15 m/s
Fr22 = V22/gy2 = (15)2/ (9.81 x 2) =11.47
Depth d/s of jump (y3)
y3 1
1 1 8Fr 2
2
y2 2
y3
1
2
2 1 1 8 11 .47 8.63m
2 q2 q 2
E2 E3 y2
y
2 3
2
2 gy2 2 gy 3
Problem 2-4.
The flow depth and the flow velocity upstream of a 0.2-m
sudden step rise in the bottom of a 5-m wide rectangular
channel are 5 m and 4 m/s respectively. Assuming there are
no losses in the transition, determine:
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(i)The flow depth downstream of the step and the change in
the water level;
(ii) The flow depth and the water level downstream of the step
if the channel bottom has a 0.2-m drop instead of the rise, as
in (i).
Solution:
(i)
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100 2
5.61 y2
29.81(5 y 2 ) 2
( y2 )3 5.61( y2 )2 20.387 0
(ii) The flow depth and the water level downstream of the step
if the channel bottom has a 0.2-m drop instead of the rise, as
in (i).
Determine:
(i). Flow depth downstream of the jump;
(ii). Thrust on the gate; and
(iii). Energy losses in the jump.
Assume there are no losses in the flow through the gate.
Solution:
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(V1 ) 2 (V2 ) 2
y1 y2 (1)
2g 2g
Eq. (1) can be written as
(V1 ) 2 q2
y1 y2 (2)
2
2g 2( y 2 ) g
Putting values of V1, y1, q and g in Eq. (2) we get
10 2
20 0 y2 2
(3)
29.81( y 2 )
0.511 2
y3 1 8(8.74) 1 6.066m
2
y3 6.066m
(ii). Thrust on the gate
Thrust on the gate per unit weight = (Fs1 – Fs2)
Thrust on the gate = Fg = (Fs1 – Fs2)
Q 2 Q2
Fg z1 A1 z2 A2
gA1 gA2
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40 2 20 40 2 0.511
Fg ( 20 4) (0.511 4)
9.81( 20 4)
2 9.81(0.511 4) 2
Fg 9.81 721.72 7080.07 kN
10 2
10
H 0.511
6.066
L
29.81(0.511) 2
29.81
H 13.85m
L
Problem2-9
On the specific-energy diagram for a rectangular channel,
prove that the slope of the straight line joining the critical
depth for different unit discharges is 2/3.
Solution:
We know that specific energy
q2
E y (1)
2 gy 2
Re-arranging Eq. (1), we get
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q 2 2 gy 2 E y
1 / 2
2
q 2 gy 2 E 2 gy 3
dy 2
dq
For maximum discharge put 0 in Eq (3) and
dy
simplifying
1 / 2
1 2 3 2
0 2 gy E 2 gy 4 gEy 6 gy
2
4 gEy 6 gy 2 0
2
y E
c 3
y 2,
tan c hence we have proved that the slope of
E 3
the straight line joining the critical depth for different unit
discharges is 2/3
Problem 2-11.
Figure shows a step rise in the channel bottom. If the channel
width is constant and there are no losses, determine:
(i). Flow depth downstream of the transition.
(ii).The maximum height of the step so that the upstream
water levels are not affected.
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Solution:
V12 V22
y1 y2 z
2g 2g
2 2
0.8 1.6 1
2 y2 0.15
29.81 y 2 29.81
Problem 2-28
The reservoir level upstream of an overflow spillway is at El
400 ft. The downstream water level for the design flow of
80,000ft3/sec is at El 220 ft. If the spillway width at the
entrance to the stilling basin is 200 ft, determine the invert
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level of the basin so that a hydraulic jump is formed in the
basin at design flow. No baffle piers, chute blocks, or end sill
are to be provided.
Solution:
220 z 1
3/ 2
1 1 80.04 400 z
49.844 2
400 z
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3/ 2
220 z 400 z 24.9221 1 0.32 400 z
Assignment No. 2
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