CE Moskov

Appendix II – MSc Dissertation Submission
Student Name: MILEN MOSKOV

__________________________________ (BLOCK CAPITALS)
Programme: MSc Civil Engineering

___________________________________ (e.g. MSc GIS)
Supervisor: Dr. Ilan Adler

___________________________________
Dissertation Title:
Low-cost, passive solar pumping for the devoping world
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
DECLARATION OF OWNERSHIP
 I confirm that I have read and understood the guidelines on plagiarism, that I
understand the meaning of plagiarism and that I may be penalised for submitting
work that has been plagiarised.
 I declare that all material presented in the accompanying work is entirely my own
work except where explicitly and individually indicated and that all sources used in
its preparation and all quotations are clearly cited.
 I have submitted an electronic copy of the project report through Moodle/turnitin.
Should this statement prove to be untrue, I recognise the right of the Board of Examiners to
recommend what action should be taken in line with UCL’s regulations.
Signature: Date :07.09.2016
12
LOW-COST, PASSIVE SOLAR PUMPING
FOR THE DEVELOPING WORLD
MILEN MOSKOV
SEPTEMBER 2016
Supervisor: Dr. Ilan Adler

MSc Civil Engineering
Department of Civil, Environmental and Geomatic Engineering
ABSTRACT
This report presents the work completed during the latest developmental stage of the passive
solar pump, a technology first conceived by Mr. Peter McKay. This novel water extraction system
is able to harness solar radiation and convert it into alternating pressure cycles that displace
water. Furthermore, the system incorporates no moving parts, it does not require fuel or
electricity and is relatively inexpensive. All of these attributes make a fully developed model of the
passive solar pump significantly advantageous, especially in remote and underdeveloped areas
that are supplied with abundant solar energy.
The passive solar pump comprises of three major components: a main reservoir, a top reservoir
and an evacuated tube collector that are interconnected into a ‘closed’ system. Whenever a heat
source is introduced to the system, pressure forces start to generate in the components,
consequently initiating a pumping cycle that lifts water to the target tank. After the pumping
capacity has been reached, a self-initiated suction cycle cools down and rebalances the system in
preparation for the next cycle.
Two testing stages were designed to examine the functionality of the passive solar pump.
Preliminary testing was completed using a sub-optimal prototype that required manual assistance,
but has yielded positive results. During this stage the system was able to complete up to 4
successive cycles displacing water at combined height of 2 m, with an average flow rate of 0.107
L/min. After the subsequent updates of the prototype, the pump was able to realize several fully
autonomous cycles at a slightly lower mean flow rate of 0.082 L/min. Furthermore, the
operational range of the system (irradiance of 1200-1600 W/m2) was proven to fall within realistic
conditions. The novel technology, however, requires further development for its full capabilities to
be understood and possibly utilized in solving the global water coverage problem
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank Dr. Ilan Adler who gave incredible assistance and supervision
throughout the project. The author would also want to acknowledge the great inventor, Mr. Peter
McKay, whose incredible ingenuity lead to the inception of this project. Special gratitude is
extended to Mr. Dave Kruup who was a main driving force in both the fabrication and the
development of the prototypes. Furthermore, the invaluable assistance provided by Mr. Ian
Seaton and all the staff of UCL’s Environmental Laboratory was crucial to the success of the
project.
The author would like to acknowledge the support extended by the UCL Grand Challenges for
Global Health, which provided the resources required for the successful completion of the project.
Finally, the author would like to appreciate all the work, and its authors, that precedes this
research namely: Simon Wolf, Ayisha Paw, Jia Lin Yong, Myrto Skouroupathi, Anastasia Dharma,
Buqiao Si, Huimin He and Tongmeng Li.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................................. i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................................ ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................................... iii
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................................... v
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................................... vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND NOTATIONS ......................................................................................... vi
1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................. 1
1.1. Background ............................................................................................................................ 1
1.2. Goal and objectives ............................................................................................................... 2
1.3. Plan for development ............................................................................................................ 3
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................................................... 4
2.1. Solar irradiance...................................................................................................................... 4
2.2. Evacuated tubes .................................................................................................................... 5
2.3. Solar cookers ......................................................................................................................... 6
2.4. Competitive technologies ..................................................................................................... 7
2.4.1. PV water pumps................................................................................................................. 7
2.4.2. Wind powered water pumps ............................................................................................. 8
2.5. EWB Mexico deployment ...................................................................................................... 9
2.6. Statistical analysis................................................................................................................ 10
3. PUMP OVERVIEW ....................................................................................................................... 11
3.1. Conceptual layout ............................................................................................................... 11
3.2. Pump components .............................................................................................................. 11
3.2.1. Evacuated tube collector ................................................................................................. 12
3.2.2. Main reservoir ................................................................................................................. 13
3.2.3. Top reservoir and tanks ................................................................................................... 14
3.2.4. Connections and hydraulics ............................................................................................. 15
3.3. Pump operation................................................................................................................... 16
3.3.1. Initial conditions .............................................................................................................. 17
3.3.2. Phase I: Heating and pumping ......................................................................................... 18
3.3.3. Phase II: Cooling and suction ........................................................................................... 19
4. METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................................................... 20
4.1. Preliminary testing .............................................................................................................. 20
iii
4.1.1. Experimental configuration ............................................................................................. 20
4.1.2. Experimental design ........................................................................................................ 21
4.2. Main testing......................................................................................................................... 22
4.2.1. Experimental design ........................................................................................................ 23
4.3. Measurement instrumentation........................................................................................... 23
5. PRELIMINARY TESTING ............................................................................................................... 26
5.1. Preliminary test 1: Single cycle............................................................................................ 26
5.2. Preliminary test 2: Double cycles ........................................................................................ 27
5.3. Preliminary test 3: Multiple cycles ...................................................................................... 28
5.4. Preliminary test 4: Multiple cycles ...................................................................................... 29
5.5. Summary and discussion ..................................................................................................... 30
6. MAIN TESTING STAGE ................................................................................................................. 32
6.1. Baseline determination ....................................................................................................... 32
6.1.1. Baseline test 1.................................................................................................................. 32
6.1.2. Baseline test 2.................................................................................................................. 33
6.1.3. Baseline test 3.................................................................................................................. 34
6.1.4. Energy efficiency .............................................................................................................. 35
6.1.5. Summary and discussion ................................................................................................. 37
6.2. Heating performance .......................................................................................................... 40
6.2.1. Irradiance test 1 ............................................................................................................... 40
6.2.2. Irradiance test 2 ............................................................................................................... 41
6.2.3. Heating results ................................................................................................................. 41
6.2.4. Statistical analysis ............................................................................................................ 43
6.2.5. Summary and discussion ................................................................................................. 44
6.3. Limitations ........................................................................................................................... 45
7. FUTURE DEVELOPMENT ............................................................................................................. 47
7.1. Recommendations for improvement .................................................................................. 47
7.2. Large prototype realization ................................................................................................. 48
7.2.1. Expansion chamber ......................................................................................................... 48
7.2.2. Solar collector .................................................................................................................. 49
8. CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................. 50
REFERENCES: ...................................................................................................................................... 51
iv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Drinking water coverage in rural areas, 2010 (WHO and UNICEF, 2012).......................... 1
Figure 2.1: Average global horizontal irradiation (Solargis, 2016) ...................................................... 4
Figure 2.2: Average global annual temperature (Nelson Institute, 2016) ........................................... 5
Figure 2.3: Design and working of evacuated tube (Apricus, 2015) .................................................... 6
Figure 2.4: Solar cooker technologies: concentrator (a) solar box (b) and indirect solar cooker (c)
(Regattieri et al., 2016) ........................................................................................................................ 6
Figure 2.5: Schematic of a Solar PV water pumping system (Sontake & Kalamkar 2016) .................. 8
Figure 2.6: Typical wind powered water pump (Girma, et al., 2015) .................................................. 8
Figure 2.7: Plan view showing the integration of the solar pump (Paw et al., 2016) ......................... 9
Figure 3.1: Conceptual layout of the passive solar pump ................................................................. 11
Figure 3.2: Evacuated tube design ..................................................................................................... 12
Figure 3.3: Evacuated tube collector schematic ................................................................................ 13
Figure 3.4: Main reservoir design ...................................................................................................... 14
Figure 3.5: Top reservoir design ........................................................................................................ 15
Figure 3.6: Schematic of a complete passive solar pump.................................................................. 16
Figure 3.7: Schematic of initial conditions ......................................................................................... 17
Figure 3.8: Schematic of Phase I ........................................................................................................ 18
Figure 3.9: Schematic of Phase II ....................................................................................................... 19
Figure 4.1: Preliminary testing configuration .................................................................................... 21
Figure 4.2: Main testing configuration .............................................................................................. 22
Figure 4.3: Thermocouple measurement device ............................................................................... 24
Figure 5.1: Flow rate and average temperature during Preliminary test 1 ....................................... 26
Figure 6.1: Flow rate and average temperature during Baseline test 1 ............................................ 33
Figure 6.4: Flow rate and average temperature during Irradiance test 1 ......................................... 40
Figure 6.5: Flow rate and average temperature during Irradiance test 2 ......................................... 41
Figure 6.6: ETC ambient temperature assesment ............................................................................. 42
Figure 6.7: Average ET temperature assesment ................................................................................ 42
Figure 7.1: Schematic of expansion chamber .................................................................................... 48
Figure 7.2: Schematic of water-in pipe .............................................................................................. 48
Figure 7.3: Schematic of solar collector ............................................................................................. 49
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: Weight of evacuated tube components (Engineering Toolbox, 2016) ............................. 12
Table 4.1: Preliminary testing experimental design .......................................................................... 22
Table 4.2: Baseline testing parameters ............................................................................................. 23
Table 6.1: Summary of energy efficiency calculations for Baseline test 2, Cycle 2 ........................... 37
Table 6.2: Statistical analysis of Baseline testing results ................................................................... 38
Table 6.3: Regression analysis input .................................................................................................. 43
Table 6.4: Regression analysis output................................................................................................ 43
Table 6.5: Summary of Irradiance testing results .............................................................................. 44
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND NOTATIONS

c – Specific heat capacity
e – Energy efficiency
ET – Evacuated tube
ETC – Evacuated tube collector
Ein – Energy input
Eout – Energy output
GHI – Global Horizontal Irradiation
hd – Total displacement height (vertical distance between source tank and target tank)
hp – Pumping height (vertical distance between top reservoir and target tank)
hr – Reservoir height (vertical distance between main reservoir and top reservoir)
hs – Suction height (vertical distance between source tank and top reservoir)
ht – Vertical distance between Evacuated tube collector and main reservoir
J/kg˚C – Joules per kilogram degree Celsius
kg – Kilogram
kg/m3 – Kilogram per cubic meter
kW – Kilowatt
kWh/m2 – Kilowatt hour per squared meter
L – Litre
L/min – Litre per minute
m – Mass
m/s – Meters per second
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mm – Millimeter
mm:ss – Minutes:seconds
NR – Non-return
P – Pressure
Pi – Pressure required to initiate pumping
Pp – Pumping pressure
PV – Photovoltaic
Qmax – Maximum flow rate
Qmean – Mean flow rate
RSM – Response surface model
RWH – Rainwater harversting
s2 – Sample variance
S – Irradiance (flux of radiant energy per unit area)
S1 – Irradiance during Irradiance test 1
S2 – Irradiance during Irradiance test 2
̅ – Standard error of the mean

SPWPS - Solar photovoltaic water pumping systems
Ta – Ambient temperature inside ETC
UCL – University College London
Vd – Volume of displaced water
Vd,1 – Volume of displaced water in Cycle 1
Vd,2 – Volume of displaced water in Cycle 2
W – Watt
W/m2 – Watts per squared meter
WEWPS - Wind energy water pumping systems
̅ – Sample mean
ΔT – Change in temperature
ρ – mass density
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1. INTRODUCTION
This project details the 5th developmental stage of the novel passive solar water pump,
conceptualized by Mr. Peter McKay in 2013. A review of the technological background in the area
will be presented, as well as a detailed overview of the latest prototype components and function.
Furthermore, different testing procedures will attempt to quantify the work of the latest pump
iteration, as well as the feasibility of the innovation as a whole. Lastly, recommendations for
future development will be extended.
1.1. Background
With growing populations, climate changes and the more recent widespread ecosystem
degradation, governments around the world are struggling to manage the water resources in a
sustainable and accessible way (Brown et al., 2015). Improving the rural population access to
water is an issue of major concern, as estimations show that by the end of 2015, more than 600
million people, 83% of which live in rural areas, lacked improved drinking water coverage (Muriel
et al., 2016).
Figure 1.1: Drinking water coverage in rural areas, 2010 (WHO and UNICEF, 2012)
This disparity between rural and urban areas shows that in order to reach the more isolated and
energy-poor regions, alternative approaches need to receive more consideration and research.
Furthermore, with the ever increasing water demand for irrigation, and decreasing rainfall in many
arid regions, groundwater appears to be the most reasonable option. This, however, further
1
supports the need for innovations as groundwater table is decreasing, making traditional
mechanical pumping increasingly difficult (Argaw et al., 2003). Even though photo-voltaic powered
groundwater pumps offer a solution to many of these issues, an average price of £2 000 (Practical
Action, No date), makes this technology unavailable for many of the people devoid of water access
due to its substantial upfront cost.
The innovative passive solar pump designed by Mr. Peter McKay can possibly solve all of the
aforementioned issues, providing a system to extract groundwater (potentially up to several
meters) without any requirement for electricity. The patented system relies on harnessing solar
energy, which in turn creates pressure cycles that displace water from the source to the target
without utilizing any moving parts. The predicted cost of the passive pump is considerably lower
than the competing technologies, making a strong case for the development of the prototype.
1.2. Goal and objectives
The passive solar pump has been working successfully during different laboratory setups and
conditions. The goal of this research project is to test the latest iteration of the prototype, which is
expected to yield better results in terms of efficiency and functionality. After the initial assessment
is finished, exploration of the significance of different variables onto the utility of the pump will be
evaluated, leading to possible optimizations and future development.
The objectives of this research can be summarized as follows:
 Review relevant literature to grasp the fundamental principles of the novel technology and
its research gap.
 Describe the basic working principle of the passive solar pump, including a detailed
presentation of the main components.
 Resolve any technical difficulties and malfunctions that have arisen during the assembly of
the latest prototype.
 Test the capabilities of the pump under various experimental conditions and acquire data
for analysis.
 Use the data to draw conclusions regarding the functionality of the pump and its
optimization.
 Make recommendations for future development.
2
1.3. Plan for development
This project will begin with a literature review ensuring a sufficient grasp of concepts such as solar
irradiance, evacuated tubes and solar cookers is acquired. Moreover, competitive technologies
including wind and solar powered water pumps will be researched and analyzed in regards to their
cost and output efficiency, providing a feasibility assessment for the development of the passive
solar pump. Due to the novelty nature of the project only preceding projects can be used for more
specific information on the subject. Finally, a review of the first passive solar pump deployment in
Mexico will be provided.
Chapter 3 gives an overview of the conceptual principle of the innovative pump, followed by
detailed description and schematics of the prototype’s main components and the connections
between them. Furthermore, it will also thoroughly describe the different phases during operation
including the initial conditions required for adequate function.
Chapter 4 describes the adopted methodology during the project, underpinning all testing
configurations, measuring instrumentation and the design of experiments. Chapter 5 presents the
preliminary testing results graphically and gives a summary of the main characteristics and
conclusions.
Chapter 6 describes the central testing stage of the project, including the establishment of a
baseline for the current prototype and the results of several subsequent configurational
alterations. In conclusion, key features regarding the function and the limitations of the pump will
be summarized.
Chapter 7 outlines the recommendations for future development of the latest prototype as well as
the realization process of a new larger prototype that is to be used to test the functionality of
passive solar pumping on a larger scale. Following is the last chapter, which gives a summary of
the major conclusions made throughout the project, in consideration of the initially set objectives.
3
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Solar irradiance
Solar energy is considered one of the most feasible and sustainable sources of energy, mainly due
to its availability and minute environmental impact. Whenever any solar powered project is
designed, an accurate estimation of the available solar irradiance on site is required. It is used to
adequately size and position the system, as well as to predict its performance (Shukla et al., 2015),
(Ayodele and Ogunjuyigbe, 2015). Figure 2.1 is a graphical representation of the long-term global
horizontal irradiation (GHI), which is the total amount of shortwave radiation received by a surface
horizontal to the ground (First Green Consulting, 2012). An average annual sum of 1200 kWh/m2
can be estimated for Europe and 1700 kWh/m2 for North America. Furthermore the regions that
lack thorough water coverage, making them the target of many novel technologies, are estimated
to receive around 1700 kWh/m2 for Central Asia, and up to 2400 kWh/m2 for the most equatorial
regions in Africa (Solargis, 2016). If the standard unit of irradiance (W/m2) is adopted an estimated
global average of 1120 W/m2 on a horizontal surface at ground level can be used (Wikipedia,
2016).
Figure 2.1: Average global horizontal irradiation (Solargis, 2016)
4
Similar to the working principle of solar cookers the operation of the passive solar pump
developed by Mr. McKay is directly linked to ambient temperature as well as to horizontal
irradiance. This characteristic ensures the system is operational in short term absence of direct
solar radiation such as cloud cover or other climatic conditions. Moreover, it can be significantly
advantageous in some of the considered locations, where the pump is to be deployed, mainly Sub-
Saharan Africa and South America where the average ambient temperatures are quite high (Figure
2.2), thus improving the performance (Woolf, 2014).
Figure 2.2: Average global annual temperature (Nelson Institute, 2016)
2.2. Evacuated tubes
Evacuated tubes (ET) consist of two extremely strong borosilicate glass tubes, the ends of which
are fused together and a vacuum is created between them (Figure 2.3). The outer tube has high
transmissivity and low reflectivity allowing maximum radiation to pass through. The inner tube is
coated with selective material that maximizes the solar absorption and minimizes the reflection,
therefore trapping the heat. The vacuum between the tubes acts as an insulator blocking any
short wave radiation trying to escape through the tube (Arora, et al., 2011; Sabiha et al., 2015).
Evacuated tubes are an efficient way of harnessing solar energy and can be integrated into
traditional active systems, as well as into innovative technologies.
5
Figure 2.3: Design and working of evacuated tube (Apricus, 2015)
2.3. Solar cookers
Solar cookers are an efficient way to absorb available solar energy by converting it to heat focused
at a specific location, for example a pot of food or in the case of the passive solar pump an
evacuated tube. The principle, however, is not any novelty, with first experiments dating back to
the 17th century and a surge of public interest in the 1950s and 1960s when the most basic models
were tested extensively (Regattieri et al., 2016). Solar cookers fall into three major categories that
are shown on Figure 2.4 with concentrator technologies being the main point of interest in the
development process of the novel solar pump.
Figure 2.4: Solar cooker technologies: concentrator (a) solar box (b)
and indirect solar cooker (c) (Regattieri et al., 2016)
Response surface method (RSM) is a collection of mathematical and statistical techniques often
used to optimize processes, especially in the development of novel technologies. Recent research
6
by Zamani, performed a RSM analysis on the significance of the parabolic mirror position and
found that the integration of adjustable mirrors can yield a 35.5% increase in overall efficiency of a
solar cooker (Zamani, et al., 2015). This approach could be beneficial to the solar harnessing
potential of the passive solar pump and it can be utilized in the future development of the
prototype.
2.4. Competitive technologies
Whenever a novel system is undergoing a feasibility research, the main competitors sharing a
similar market segment should be considered. If this application is characterized as an
autonomous and renewable water pump with low environmental impact then the two main
technologies to consider are the active solar pumps (PV systems) and wind powered pumps.
2.4.1. PV water pumps
In the recent years solar photovoltaic water pumping systems (SPWPS) have been increasingly
used for supplying domestic, livestock and irrigation water in remote areas, gaining wide
acceptance due to their reliability and performance. SPWPS are quite advantageous when the
water pumping site is not connected to the national electricity grid and can operate in severe
weather conditions including snow and ice. Moreover the use of solar energy for water pumping
systems is considered the most appropriate choice as there is a natural relationship between the
requirement for water and the availability of solar radiation in a global perspective (Sontake &
Kalamkar, 2016). On the other hand, PV water systems suffer either from high initial cost, or
lowered efficiency causing high cost per kW of capacity installed. Traditionally pumps powered by
a PV system require an existing lifting mechanism, as well as the use of sophisticated and fragile
components, resulting in an initial price of around £2 000 for a simple surface suction pump
(Action n.d.; Muriel et al. 2016). In addition, a study on the performance of a 1.14 kW photovoltaic
powered centrifugal pump reports an overall operating efficiency of 1.6%, confirming that SPWPS
suffer from low energy conversion rate (Chandratilleke and Ho, 1986).
7
Figure 2.5: Schematic of a Solar PV water pumping system (Sontake & Kalamkar 2016)
2.4.2. Wind powered water pumps
Wind energy water pumping systems (WEWPS) are another way of using renewable energy to
collect water and have been gaining research attention with the increase of fossil fuel prices.
There are two types of wind turbines: horizontal and vertical, with horizontal axis turbines mostly
used in electricity generation and water pumping systems. Compared to SPWPS, wind harnessing
pumps can operate on a much higher efficiency, converting up to 17% of the available energy
making them significantly advantageous in regions with average wind speeds greater than 5 m/s
(Girma et al., 2015; Lara et al., 2011). Furthermore, WEWPS have relatively low maintenance cost,
approximated at around 3% of the initial cost of the system, adding to their sustainability rating
(Gopal et al., 2013).
Figure 2.6: Typical wind powered water pump (Girma, et al., 2015)
8
The main disadvantages of wind powered systems include climate dependence, high initial capital
cost and significantly larger size compared to other technologies serving the same function,
including the novel passive solar pump. Moreover, special skills are required for the wind powered
pump to be assembled making this technology quite unsuitable for the remote and economically
stagnated regions requiring water coverage (Muriel et al., 2016).
2.5. EWB Mexico deployment
In 2015, a team from the Engineers Without Borders UCL installed a 5 000 L rainwater harvesting
system in a school in La Onza, Mexico. The system was expanded in 2016, integrating a previous
and more simplistic iteration of the passive solar pump developed by Mr. Peter McKay. The aim
was to eliminate the need for the electrical pump that is currently lifting the water, therefore
increasing the sustainability of the system. The RWH system (Figure 2.6) collects rainwater, which
undergoes a ‘first flush’ phase, removing any coarse materials before entering the harvesting tank.
The passive solar pump is connected to the large tank in such a way to ensure a pumping height of
up to 4 meters storing the water in the target tank positioned on the roof of the school (Paw et al.,
2016).
Gutters collecting rainwater
Figure 2.7: Plan view showing the integration of the solar pump (Paw et al., 2016)
9
The system in La Onza is designed to utilize the gravitational flow coming from the RWH tank and
reset the pump passively, allowing for several cycles to be completed in a single day. The
approximated result is a cumulative yield of 800 L per day (Paw et al., 2016). The results of the
project in Mexico are essential for the assessment of the passive solar pump’s feasibility and must
be considered in the future development as being the first realistic implementation of the novel
technology.
2.6. Statistical analysis
Whenever data is acquired through repeated experimental measurements there is the issue of
inherent error. Statistical analysis is often used to summarize these observations and provide the
researcher with important estimates such as sample mean, variance and standard error (Peters,
2001).
Sample mean, ̅ , is a statistic that estimates the central tendency of the measured variable and is
calculated as (Peters, 2001):
∑
̅
where:
n is the number of observations
and xi is the ith individual observation
The inconsistency in the data can be measured using the statistical estimation of variance, s2
(Peters, 2001):
∑ ̅
It is often helpful to translate the variance between measurements into uncertainty in our mean
estimation using the standard error of the mean:
̅
√
Statistical approximations are dependent on sample size, with uncertainty significantly reduced by
increasing the number of measurements (Peters, 2001).
10
3. PUMP OVERVIEW
The innovative technology first conceived by Mr. Peter McKay is a way of harnessing solar energy
and converting it into pressure forces. Pressure differences inside the system initiate alternating
cycles of pumping and suction, the result of which is the displacement of water from the source to
the target.
3.1. Conceptual layout
Figure 3.1 shows a simplified schematic of the working principle and the main components of the
pump. The main phases of pumping and suction are also included and will be explained thoroughly
in Section 3.3.
Figure 3.1: Conceptual layout of the passive solar pump
3.2. Pump components
Before a more detailed explanation of the passive solar pump can be given, a technical description
of the main components is required (all dimensions are given in millimeters).
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3.2.1. Evacuated tube collector
The evacuated tube collector (ETC) acts as the power generator of the prototype, converting solar
energy into pressure forces, initiating both pumping and suction depending on the temperature of
the chambers. This phenomenon is governed by Gay-Lussac's Law, stating that in a system with
constant mass and volume the pressure is directly proportional to the absolute temperature
(Ladino & Rondón, 2015). Figure 3.2 shows the adaptations made to the evacuated tubes in order
to integrate them into the passive pump system. A 40 mm internal copper bore combined with an
8 mm perforated copper tube are installed throughout the length of the tubes (tube diameter of
44 mm), ensuring water access and the generation of vapor. Furthermore, a steel mesh (wire
diameter – 0.56 mm; aperture – 1.56 mm) lining was introduced to maximize the surface area
available for evaporation. Table 3.1 gives information concerning the weight of the materials used
in the production of the evacuated tubes.
Figure 3.2: Evacuated tube design
Specific heat
Density, ρ (kg/m3) Weight, m (kg)
capacity, c (J/kg˚C)
Internal copper bore 8940 1.88 385

Perforated copper tube 8940 0.17 385
Stainless steel mesh 7750 0.74 510
Table 3.1: Weight of evacuated tube components (Engineering Toolbox, 2016)
12
The evacuated tubes are contained in a specially designed collector box. The collector is made of
5mm thin ABS plastic coated with silver nitrate on the inside to maximize reflection. The shape
and dimensions of the box can be seen on Figure 3.3. The collector is designed in a way similar to
solar cookers and ensures maximum temperature inside the tubes, thus increasing the efficiency
of the pump. Lastly an artificial slope of 0.1% is introduced to ensure water flow out of the
evacuated tubes is in the direction of the main reservoir.
Figure 3.3: Evacuated tube collector schematic
3.2.2. Main reservoir
The main reservoir is an integral part of the passive solar pump as it is the first component in
which vapor pressure is converted into water lifting forces. The heat generated pressure coming
out of the evacuated tube collector is stored inside the main reservoir until enough force is
accumulated to start pumping out water up to the top reservoir. Figure 3.4 shows the dimensions
and the valves connecting this component to the system including the newly introduced back
pressure release valve, which balances the system.
13
Figure 3.4: Main reservoir design
The inventor Mr. McKay has established that the volume contained in the main reservoir during
operation is directly proportional to the number of evacuated tubes used. The full capacity of the
reservoir (2 Litres) should only be used if all 3 tubes are present.
3.2.3. Top reservoir and tanks
The top reservoir (Figure 3.4) is constructed of a thick plastic cylinder with two flanges at the ends
to support the structure and the connections to the system. The major change from the previous
stage of the pump is the inclusion of a 2 L bladder inside of the top reservoir, responsible for both
pumping and suction cycles (see Chapter 3.3). Both the bladder and the reservoir should be
primed up before starting the pump to ensure proper function.
14
Figure 3.5: Top reservoir design
Source and target tanks are independent of the system and are interchangeable, which is practical
when considering the fact that the pump is to be deployed in multiple different locations. During
this project several containers were used to store water successfully
3.2.4. Connections and hydraulics
The pipe system between the components consists of 8mm Speedfit pipes, ensuring easy
reconnections if necessary. Furthermore, the length of the system is minimized to reduce the head
loss due to frictional forces, thus increasing the efficiency of the pump. The expected flow rates of
the solar pump are relatively small (0.1-0.2 L/min), hence the effects of minor head losses can be
neglected (Woolf 2014), however unnecessary restrictions throughout the pipe system have been
avoided in the current prototype.
15
3.3. Pump operation
The details of the connections between components and their position are presented in Figure
3.6. The numbers shown correspond to different transfer pipes as follows:
1. Air transfer from the evacuated tubes to the main reservoir

2. Water/air transfer from main reservoir to top reservoir
3. Water transfer (pumping) from bladder bag to target tank
4. Water transfer from top reservoir to evacuation tubes
5. Water transfer (suction) from source tank to bladder bag
6. Back pressure release between main reservoir and evacuated tubes
7. Closed valve used for refilling the reservoir or releasing excess pressure
Moreover, there are three non-return valves (V1 - V3) ensuring the water is flowing in the
intended direction, therefore increasing the efficiency of the pump.
Figure 3.6: Schematic of a complete passive solar pump
16
3.3.1. Initial conditions
To ensure proper operation and optimal performance all initial conditions should be satisfied.
After each cycle the system rebalances itself in preparation for the next, if necessary. The initial
conditions are presented in Figure 3.6 and include the following steps:
 Prime up the bladder and the top reservoir with water. Minimizing the air in the system
when setting the initial conditions improves the efficiency of the pump.
 Fill the main reservoir with water, the amount of which depends on the number of
evacuated tubes. The inventor has calculated that every tube holds around 0.6L initially,
which is equal to the amount required in the main reservoir per tube.
 Choose on suitable tanks depending on the number of cycles to be performed and fill the
source tank accordingly. In realistic conditions the source will most probably be natural.
 Ensure all pipe connections are properly fixed and all valves are open (except main
reservoir pressure release valve).
Figure 3.7: Schematic of initial conditions
17
3.3.2. Phase I: Heating and pumping
The first phase starts immediately after the heat source is introduced to the system. Firstly, the
temperature of the evacuated tubes increases, commencing the evaporation process. The
generated vapor exits the collector to enter the main reservoir, where it should accumulate
enough positive pressure to initiate the first pumping cycle. Water from the main reservoir, starts
being pumped to the top reservoir, where it generates positive pressure. Whenever enough water
has entered the top reservoir, the pressure will start forcing water out of the bladder bag and up
to the target tank. This process continues with a consistent flow until the main reservoir has
emptied, ending Phase I.
Figure 3.8: Schematic of Phase I
18
3.3.3. Phase II: Cooling and suction
Whenever the main reservoir has emptied to such an extent, that the pressure generated inside
the evacuated tubes starts to force air into the top reservoir the second phase of operation has
started. The aforementioned process forces water from the top reservoir to flood the evacuated
tubes, substantially decreasing their temperature and creating significant negative (suction)
pressure throughout the system. The newly established conditions in the top reservoir ensure that
through suction forces the bladder bag will refill itself with water from the source (Figure 3.8).
Furthermore, a rebalance of the water in the main reservoir is finished as well, with conditions in
the end of Phase II similar to the initial conditions (see Figure 3.6). After the rebalance has finished
and if the heat source is still present, the system initiates a new cycle of pumping followed by
suction. Theoretically these cycles can be repeated multiple times without compromising the
efficiency of the pump.
Figure 3.9: Schematic of Phase II

19
4. METHODOLOGY
This Chapter describes the different configuration layouts, measuring instrumentation and the
experimental parameters used throughout this project. The complete set of testing procedures
was performed in UCL’s Environmental Engineering laboratory.
4.1. Preliminary testing

Due to delivery delays of essential parts, slowing the development of the pump, a sub-optimal
iteration of the prototype was tested. The test results will be used to assess the heating capacity
of the evacuated tubes, the water flow output to the target tank and the capability of performing
consecutive cycles. Furthermore, this assessment will contribute to the development of the final
prototype that is to be tested in the next stage of project.
4.1.1. Experimental configuration

The preliminary testing experimental setup has just one change from the schematic on Figure 3.5.
Due to unavailability of a suitable non-return valve at position V3, it will be substituted by a simple
valve. This change introduces the requirement of a manual opening of water transfer (4),
whenever the pumping cycle has concluded. Figure 4.1 shows the laboratory arrangement used
during the preliminary testing phase with details summarized as follows:
 The heat source consists of four 250W Philips infrared lamps located at 300 mm above the
evacuated tube solar collector. The intensity of the lamps is controlled by a dimmer switch
to ensure as realistic conditions as possible.
 During the preliminary testing Evacuated tubes 1 and 3 (see Figure 3.3) will be used to
generate positive pressure.
 Initial volumes of water in the main components are set only before Test 1, afterwards the
system rebalances itself. Main reservoir filled with 1.2 L (volume required for 2 evacuated
tubes; see Chapter 3.3.1.). Bladder bag filled with 1.4 L of water to be used in the first
pumping cycle. Finally the top reservoir is primed with water and all excess air in the
components is released.
 The experimental configuration on Figure 4.1 includes a pumping height hp= 0.85 m,
suction height hs= 1.25 m, vertical distance between the main and top reservoirs hr= 0.55
m and vertical distance between the ETC and the main reservoir ht= 0.15 m.
20
Target height
Top reservoir
Evacuated tube
collector
Main reservoir
Source tank
Figure 4.1: Preliminary testing configuration
4.1.2. Experimental design
The central objective of the preliminary testing stage was to evaluate the function of the passive
solar pump prototype and mainly its capability of performing consecutive cycles of pumping and
suction. Four tests with identical settings (summarized in Chapter 4.1) were designed to assess
the prototype, differing only in the number of cycles completed during each of them (see Table
4.1). Heat source intensity was set to a higher value to speed up the experiments, ensuring more
consecutive cycles can be performed. Sample size during this stage was kept to minimum due to
the lengthy nature of the tests, ensuring enough time is available for the main testing procedures.
No pressure readings were taken during the preliminary testing as suitable measurement
apparatus was not available.
21
Irradiance, S
Number of cycles
(W/m2)
Experiment 1 1 1550
Experiment 2 2 1600
Experiment 3 3 1600
Experiment 4 4 1650
Table 4.1: Preliminary testing experimental design
4.2. Main testing

After a discussion with the inventor Mr. McKay and the conclusions drawn from the preliminary
testing stage, an upgrade of to the passive solar pump design was made. Components 4 and 5 (see
Figure 3.6) were swapped with 15 mm pipes to ensure higher maximum rate of water flooding the
evacuated tubes and the corresponding suction to the top reservoir. Moreover a suitable non-
return valve was installed on position V3 to remove the requirement of manual operation
between cycles.
Figure 4.2: Main testing configuration

22
4.2.1. Experimental design
In order to assess the efficiency of any future alterations made to the prototype a baseline
performance should be established first. Three experiments that will provide the data necessary to
determine a Baseline were designed, with their parameters summarized in Table 4.2. The
prototype was set to the initial conditions before the first test, with system rebalancing
autonomously between consecutive cycles and experiments.
Parameter
Pumping height, hp (m) 0.85
Suction height, hs (m) 1.25
Distance between reservoirs, hr (m) 0.50

Distance between ETC and main 0.10
reservoir, ht (m)
Irradiance, S (W/m2) 1600
Number of evacuated tubes 2
Number of cycles performed 2
Total displacement height, hd (m) 2.00

Table 4.2: Baseline testing parameters
Following the baseline determination, two additional tests were designed to assess the correlation
between irradiance and the key output parameters of the passive pump. Irradiance test 1 and 2
were performed using identical parameters as the ones summarized in Table 4.2, with the
exception of the S value (S1=1200 W/m2 and S2=1400 W/m2). Both tests required manual setting
of the initial conditions as the prototype was not rebalancing itself during this development stage.
4.3. Measurement instrumentation
In order to properly assess the passive solar pump prototype several parameters regarding its
function were measured. All instrumentation was calibrated at the beginning of the project.
The main function of the pump is to displace water from a source to the target, hence a volumetric
flow measurement is essential in the assessment of the pump. For that reason, a 2 L measuring
cylinder was used as a target tank, with measurements being taken every 30 seconds during the
pumping cycles. The amount of flow into the bladder bag during suction was measured by the
collected volume during the next pumping phase as the bladder empties in a complete cycle.
23
Thermocouple thermometers (Figure 4.3) were
used to record the internal temperature of the
evacuated tubes every minute (30 seconds
during suction) throughout the experiments.
These measurements were used to analyze the
heating capacity of the tubes, the required
temperature to initiate pumping and the
effectiveness of the solar collector. Furthermore,
a digital probe thermometer (Figure 4.4) was
utilized every minute to measure the ambient
temperature inside the evacuated tube collector.
Figure 4.3: Thermocouple measurement device
Figure 4.4: Digital probe thermometer
Intensity of the heat source was measured (in

W/m2) at the mid-point of the solar collector
using a ST-1307 Solar Power Meter shown on
Figure 4.5. The dimmer switch is used to set the
required irradiance at the start of each
experiment and is constant throughout it.
The exact position of measurement apparatus

inside the ETC during measurements is shown
on Figure 4.6. Figure 4.5: Irradiance intensity meter
24
Figure 4.6: Position of measurement devices inside ETC
During the main testing stage an EN 837-1

pressure gauge (Figure 4.7) was installed to the
Top reservoir and was utilized to measure both
positive pressure during pumping and negative
pressure during suction cycles. Pressure readings
were made every 2 minutes and will be used to
calculate the energy losses and corresponding
efficiency of the prototype. Another pressure
gauge was initially added to the main reservoir,
but was deemed unnecessary after several
experiments and was removed from the system. Figure 4.7: Top reservoir pressure gauge
25
5. PRELIMINARY TESTING
This chapter provides a graphical representation and an analysis of the results acquired during the
preliminary testing phase. A complete record of the measurements is contained on the CD
attached to this document.
5.1. Preliminary test 1: Single cycle
The heating phase of Preliminary test 1 lasted for 7 minutes, reaching an average ET temperature
of 57 ˚C and initiating the first pumping cycle. Figure 4.2 shows the fluctuating nature of the flow
rate with average values falling between 0.1 and 0.13 L/min. Pumping continued until the
evacuated tubes reached 103.1 ˚C, thus generating enough pressure to empty the bladder bag
and initiate the suction cycle. An important observation is the sudden upsurge of the flow rate,
reaching a maximum value of Qmax= 0.22 L/min just at the end of the pumping cycle. Lastly the
theoretical sudden drop in temperature causing suction forces was present, with evacuated tubes
cooling down to 35.4 ˚C in 1 minute and 30 seconds. The complete experiment lasted for 21
minutes, raising 1.41 L from the source to the target and rebalanced the system in preparation for
the next test.
120 0.25
100
0.20
Flow rate (L/min)
Temperature (˚C)
80
0.15
60
0.10
40
0.05
20
0 0.00
00:00
02:00
04:00
06:00
08:00
10:00
12:00
14:00
16:00
18:00
20:00
22:00
Time (mm:ss)
Average ET temperature Flow rate Linear (Flow rate)
Figure 5.1: Flow rate and average temperature during Preliminary test 1
26
5.2. Preliminary test 2: Double cycles
Preliminary test 2 started with a slightly longer heating phase due to the lower initial temperature
(28.8 ˚C) of the evacuated tubes. The first pumping cycle commenced with steady average flow
rate of approximately 0.12 L/min, lifting 1.4L of water to the target. The subsequent reheating was
significantly faster with pumping starting about 3 minutes after the end of the previous cycle. The
second cycle was characterized by more fluctuations, similar average flow rate – 0.11 L/min and
total volume of displaced water equal to 0.72 L. The maximum ET temperature recorded during
Preliminary test 2 was 104.7 ˚C. Furthermore, the suction phase was not self-initiated, requiring a
pressure release using valve 7 (see Figure 3.6) in order to balance the system between the cycles.
120 0.25
100
0.2
80
Temperature (˚C)
Flow rate (L/min)

0.15
60
0.1
40
0.05
20
0 0
00:00
04:00
08:00
12:00
16:00
20:00
24:00
28:00
32:00
36:00
Time (mm:ss)
Average ET temperature Flow rate Cycle 1 Flow rate Cycle 2
27
5.3. Preliminary test 3: Multiple cycles
Preliminary test 3 started with a heating phase of 16 minutes, followed by a comparatively slow
initial pumping. This changed midway through the cycle with flow rate reaching a maximum of 0.2
L/min. Pumping concluded at an average ET temperature of 93 ˚C, resulting in the displacement of
1.72 L of water to the target. The subsequent heating phase continued for 6 minutes at which
point the next pumping stage was initiated. The second pumping cycle was characterized by its
descending but rather stable flow rate (average of 0.1 L/min) lifting 0.97 L to the target in 9
minutes and 30 seconds. The third heating phase lasted for 7 minutes, generating enough
pressure to start an unstable but effective final pumping stage. Despite the sudden mid-cycle drop
in the flow rate, a high initial rate combined with a final flow surge during suction have resulted in
the displacement of 1.54 L with Qmean=0.13 L/min.
All three suction phases during Preliminary test 3 were not self-initiated requiring a back pressure
release using valve 7 (see Figure 3.6).
120 0.3
100 0.25
Flow rate (L/min)

Temperature (˚C)
80 0.2
60 0.15
40 0.1
20 0.05
0 0
00:00:00
00:08:00
00:16:00
00:24:00
00:32:00
00:40:00
00:48:00
00:56:00
01:04:00
01:12:00
Time (hh:mm:ss)
Average ET temperature Flow rate Cycle 1 Flow rate Cycle 2 Flow rate Cycle 3
28
5.4. Preliminary test 4: Multiple cycles
The first pumping of Preliminary test 4 started with low initial flow rates, increasing with time and
peaking midway through at 0.2 L/min. The complete cycle displaced 1.82 L of water between the
main pumping and the final flow surge during suction. The second cycle was initiated after a short
reheating of 4 minutes and 30 seconds and was characterized by a high initial flow rate, an interval
of low pumping pressure midway through the cycle and a remarkably pronounced final surge.
Cycle 3 started after a considerably longer reheating of the system but showed properties very
similar to its predecessor, peaking at 0.26 L/min during suction. The last cycle showed an unstable
behavior with flow rate decreasing to zero before the mid-cycle peak, lifting 1.32 L over its
duration of 13 minutes.
All four suction phases during Preliminary test 4 were not self-initiated requiring a back pressure
release using valve 7 (see Figure 3.6).
120 0.3
100 0.25
80 0.2
Flow rate (L/min)

Temperature (˚C)
60 0.15
40 0.1
20 0.05
0 0
00:48:00
00:00:00
00:12:00
00:24:00
00:36:00
01:00:00
01:12:00
01:24:00
01:36:00
01:48:00
Time (hh:mm:ss)
Average ET temperature Flow rate Cycle 1 Flow rate Cycle 2
Flow rate Cycle 3 Flow rate Cycle 4
29
5.5. Summary and discussion
The most essential data collected during the preliminary testing are summarized in Table 4.1, with
all major findings discussed afterwards.
Preliminary test
1 2 3 4
Initial heating duration (mm:ss) 07:00 12:30 15:00 12:00
Average reheating duration (mm:ss) - 03:30 06:15 10:40
Cycle 1
Average ET temperature at start of pumping (˚C) 57.0 50.5 47.2 44.2
Duration (mm:ss) 12:00 12:00 19:30 28:00
Displaced volume (L) 1.41 1.40 1.72 1.82
Mean flow rate (L/min) 0.12 0.12 0.09 0.07
Average ET temperature at end of pumping (˚C) 103.1 92.9 101.5 102.4
Lowest ET temperature during suction (˚C) 35.4 35.75 37.9 45.8
Cycle 2
Average ET temperature at start of pumping (˚C) - 61.0 62.1 62.8
Duration (mm:ss) - 06:30 09:30 12:30
Displaced volume of water (L) - 0.72 0.97 1.38
Mean flow rate (L/min) - 0.11 0.10 0.11
Average ET temperature at end of pumping (˚C) - 100.5 102.7 102.8
Lowest ET temperature during suction (˚C) - 37.75 42.7 46.7
Cycle 3
Average ET temperature at start of pumping (˚C) - - 60.2 71.3
Duration (mm:ss) - - 12:00 13:00
Displaced volume of water (L) - - 1.54 1.59
Mean flow rate (L/min) - - 0.13 0.12
Average ET temperature at end of pumping (˚C) - - 102.8 102.7
Lowest ET temperature during suction (˚C) - - 42.3 46.4
Cycle 4
Average ET temperature at start of pumping (˚C) - - - 75.8
30
Duration (mm:ss) - - - 13:00
Displaced volume of water (L) - - - 1.32
Mean flow rate (L/min) - - - 0.10
Average ET temperature at end of pumping (˚C) - - - 101.8
Lowest ET temperature during suction (˚C) - - - 45.3
Table 5: Summary of preliminary testing results
The main conclusion drawn during the preliminary testing of the passive solar pump concerns the
absence of the theoretical self-initiating suction, thus forcing the requirement of a manual
pressure release. This discrepancy from the intended function is considered a reason for an
unquantifiable amount of inconsistency between the separate cycles. This, however, does not
eliminate the possibility of drawing several qualitative conclusions regarding the operation of the
pump:
 The heating and cooling of the evacuated tubes between the separate cycles and
experiments is considerably consistent with temperatures reaching around 102 ˚C at the
end of pumping and dropping considerably (approximately 60 ˚C) during suction.
 An important feature of the pump described as a final surge during suction was present
during several cycles. The peak flow rates of all experiments (except Preliminary test 3)
happened during these final surges, making it a property worth consideration during future
prototype changes.
 Reheating takes increasingly more time with every consecutive cycle, meaning that the
prototype might need resetting if a higher amount of cycles is required.
 Flow rates are largely characterized as inconsistent throughout the cycles, including sudden
drops fluctuations and mid-cycle spikes. On the other hand, mean flow rates have shown a
more reliable nature, averaging 0.107 L/min throughout the preliminary testing stage.
After the preliminary testing was finished, several configuration and design changes (see Chapter
4.2) were made to the prototype in an attempt to improve the consistency and performance of
the passive solar pump.
31
6. MAIN TESTING STAGE
This chapter presents the data acquired throughout the central testing phase of the project. This
includes the determination of a baseline and the evaluation of several parametrical alterations.
Furthermore, energy balance calculations will assist in the assessment of the prototype’s
operational efficiency. Lastly, a discussion and summary of the key features regarding the passive
pump will be provided.
6.1. Baseline determination
Baseline test 1, 2 and 3 were specifically designed to provide the necessary data to establish a
control performance of the passive solar pump. This includes flow rate and pressure
measurements, as well as an assessment of the heating capacity of the prototype.
6.1.1. Baseline test 1

The experiment started with a prolonged heating phase, generating 0.1 bar of pressure and
initiating a relatively slow flow. Midway through the first pumping cycle the flow rate started to
increase steadily, peaking at 0.18 L/min (P=0.13 bar). The final stage of the cycle was characterized
by moderate fluctuations, concluding with a sudden drop of the flow rate. The second cycle was
initiated after a 6 minute reheating phase. Similar to its predecessor, the pumping cycle started
slowly, reaching average values of 0.12 L/min midway through. The experiment ended with a
sudden drop of the flow rate, followed by a powerful surge during the suction phase. The
complete experiment successfully displaced 3,32 L (Vd,1=1.6 L; Vd,1=1.72 L) with a mean flow rate
of 0.07 L/min. Furthermore, both cycles had a maximum recorded pressure of 0.15 bar (at the end
of pumping) and similar negative pressure readings (-0.3 and -0.2 bar respectively) during suction.
In the end of the experiment full system rebalance was self-initiated by the prototype in
preparation for the next test.
32
0.3 0.25
0.2
0.2
0.1
Flow rate (L/min)

Pressure (bar)
0 0.15
-0.1 0.1
-0.2
0.05
-0.3
-0.4 0
00:00:00
00:06:00
00:12:00
00:18:00
00:24:00
00:30:00
00:36:00
00:42:00
00:48:00
00:54:00
01:00:00
01:06:00
01:12:00
Time (hh:mm:ss)
Pressure in top reservoir Flow rate Cycle 1 Flow rate Cycle 2
Figure 6.1: Flow rate and average temperature during Baseline test 1
A heating phase of 15 minutes and 30 seconds was required to generate enough pressure (P=0.08
bar) to initiate Cycle 1. Pumping showed behavior consistent with the previous experiment,
starting with a slow flow, followed by steady mid-cycle pumping and concluding with a sudden
drop. A maximum flow rate of Qmax=0.20 L/min was recorded during the suction flow surge,
finalizing the cycle which yielded 1,85 L to the target. Reheating lasted for a duration of 5 minutes
and 30 seconds, and was followed by a short and considerably more stable pumping phase. The
second cycle ended with a minor suction flow surge, resulting in the displacement of 0.99 L of
water (Qmean=0.12 L/min). Maximum pressure during the experiment was recorded in the
conclusion of both pumping cycles at 0.15 bar. Minimum pressure was measured in the suction
phase of Cycle 1 at P=-0,3 bar. Lastly, full system rebalance was self-initiated by the prototype in
preparation for the next test.
33
0.2 0.25
0.15
0.1 0.2
Flow rate (L/min)

0.05
Pressure (bar)
0.15
0
-0.05
0.1
-0.1
-0.15 0.05
-0.2
-0.25 0
00:06:00
00:00:00
00:12:00
00:18:00
00:24:00
00:30:00
00:36:00
00:42:00
00:48:00
00:54:00
01:00:00
Time (hh:mm:ss)
Pressure in top reservoir Flow rate Cycle 1 Flow rate Cycle 2

During the heating period of Baseline test 3 the passive pump generated 0.06 bars of pressure in
12 minutes. The following pumping phase started at a moderate speed, gradually increasing with
time and reaching a Qmax=0.17 L/min at the end of the experiment. The system however did not
initiate a suction cycle, compromising the realization of any further cycles. Maximum pressure
recorded (0.15 bar) during the test was consistent with the previous baseline experiments.
34
0.2 0.2
0.15
0.1 0.15
Flow rate (L/min)

Pressure (bar)
0.05
0 0.1
-0.05
-0.1 0.05
-0.15
-0.2 0
00:00
03:00
06:00
09:00
12:00
15:00
18:00
21:00
24:00
27:00
30:00
Time (mm:ss)
Pressure in top reservoir Flow rate Cycle 1 Linear (Flow rate Cycle 1)
6.1.4. Energy efficiency

Energy balance calculations are required for the quantification of the efficiency and will assist in
the feasibility assessment of the prototype. This is done by comparing the energy inputted to the
system by the heat source and the energy that is outputted in the form of water pumping force. In
a past research on the novel technology, Wolf has proposed to define the heat source as a
‘surrounding system’, thus limiting the energy input to the amount of energy heating the
evacuated tubes (Woolf 2014). After this assumption, the specific heat formula is used to calculate
the energy input:
Using Table 3.1, the energy required to increase the temperature of the combined evacuated tube
material (using 2 Evacuated tubes) is calculated as follows:
35
The work output of the passive pump is quantified as the energy required to displace water
through the system, which can be calculated using Bernoulli’s Equation:
where:
Eout – total energy output per unit weight (J/s)
Pp – pumping pressure (Pa)
v – flow velocity (m/s)
h – pumping height (m)
Flow velocity, v, is calculated as follows:
with
5.03 x 10-5 m2 (for an 8mm pipe)
Pumping pressure, Pp, is calculated by adding the mean pressure during the cycle, Pmean, and the
atmospheric pressure Patm= 101325 Pa.
A summary of the energy calculations using the data acquired during the second cycle of Baseline
test 2 is given in Table 6.1 to ensure better understanding of the calculation process.
Parameter
Change in temperature, ΔT (˚C) 39.5

Time period (seconds) 750
Energy input, Ein (J/s) 128.1
Mean pressure, Pmean (Pa) 12000
Pumping pressure, Pp (Pa) 113325
Density of water, ρ (kg/m3) 1000
Gravitational acceleration, g (m/s2) 9.81
Mean flow rate, Q (m3/s) 2x10-6
36
Flow velocity, v (m/s) 0.04
Pumping height, hp (m) 0.85
Energy output, Eout (J/s) 12.4
Energy efficiency, e=Eout/Ein (%) 9.7

Table 6.1: Summary of energy efficiency calculations for Baseline test 2, Cycle 2
Energy efficiency calculations for the complete set of Baseline experiments are presented in
Chapter 6.1.5.
6.1.5. Summary and discussion

Table 6.1 gives a summary of the key measurements taken during the complete set of Baseline
tests. A full record of the measurements is contained on the CD attached to this document.
Baseline test #
1 2 3
Initial heating duration (mm:ss) 19:30 15:30 12:00
Reheating duration (mm:ss) 6:00 4:30 -
Cycle 1
Average ET temperature at start of pumping (˚C) 49.6 46.1 46.0
Pressure in TR at start of pumping (bar) 0.10 0.08 0.06
Duration (mm:ss) 27:00 28:30 17:00
Displaced volume of water (L) 1.60 1.85 1.4
Mean flow rate (L/min) 0.06 0.07 0.08
Mean pumping pressure (bar) 0.12 0.12 0.12
Maximum pressure in TR (bar) 0.15 0.15 0.15
Minimum pressure in TR (bar) -0.30 -0.20 0
Average ambient temperature in ETC (˚C) 54.2 54.7 53.2
Average ET temperature at end of pumping (˚C) 102.6 102.1 92.9
Lowest ET temperature during suction (˚C) 48.4 54.4 -
Energy efficiency (%) 18.7 17.9 13.4
Cycle 2
Average ET temperature at start of pumping (˚C) 53.4 71.2 -
37
Pressure in TR at start of pumping (bar) 0.06 0.06 -
Duration (mm:ss) 21:30 08:30 -
Displaced volume of water (L) 1.72 0.99 -
Mean flow rate (L/min) 0.08 0.12 -
Mean pumping pressure (bar) 0.11 0.12 -
Maximum pressure in TR (bar) 0.15 0.15 -
Minimum pressure in TR (bar) -0.2 -0.2 -
Average ambient temperature in ETC (˚C) 55.4 58.4 -
Average ET temperature at end of pumping (˚C) 102.6 93.9 -
Lowest ET temperature during suction (˚C) 50.1 50.9 -
Energy efficiency, e (%) 14.0 9.7 -
Table 6: Summary of Baseline testing results
Table 6.2 contains the statistical approximations calculated using the data acquired during the
Baseline testing stage:
Parameter Mean, ̅ Variance, s2 Error of mean, ̅
Flow rate, Q (L/min) 0.082 5.27x10-4 0.010

Duration, t (mm:ss) 20:30 77:23 03:56
Displaced volume, Vd (L) 1.510 0.098 0.140
Pressure to initiate pumping, Pi (bar) 0.072 3.2x10-4 0.008
Energy efficiency, e (%) 14.74 13.35 1.63
Table 6.2: Statistical analysis of Baseline testing results
The changes made after the preliminary testing stage altered the function of the prototype by a
moderate degree. Most importantly, on two separate occasions the passive pump was observed
to complete a full cycle(without the need of manual assistance). The conclusions from the updates
however were not only positive, with major findings summarized below:
 Probably due to the addition of the non-return valve on position V3, the need of manual
operation, including valve control and pressure release were avoided in Baseline test 1 and
2.
 On average, the updated prototype produced a lower mean flow rate (Qmean= 0.082 L/min)
and hence longer cycles. The pumping cycles, however, did show a more consistent
38
character, starting with a slow initial flow that steadily increased during the mid-cycle.
Furthermore, most of the cycles experienced flow surges in the concluding phase.
 The reason for the malfunction in Baseline test 3 is most probably due to the exceeding
volume of water in the main reservoir at the end of the cycle, thus preventing the initiation
of suction. This might be caused by the increase in pipe diameter and the introduction of
NR valve V3.
 The pressure required to initiate pumping was moderately consistent, particularly in Cycle
2. Furthermore, an identical maximum pressure (0.15 bar) has been recorded during all 5
cycles, with considerable evenness in the minimum pressure during suction as well.
Deviation in Baseline test 1, Cycle 1 was probably caused by a sub-optimal set up of the
initial conditions, hence the system required a single cycle to balance itself.
 Heating and cooling of the evacuated tubes continued to show consistent behavior. The
changes made after the preliminary testing, and most probably the addition of the NR
valve have reduced the temperature drop during suction. The effect of this reduction
requires more experimental data to be characterized. Further assessment on the heating
capacity of the prototype will be discussed in Chapter 6.2.
 Average energy efficiency of 14.7% was recorded throughout the Baseline testing, a value
which gives the novel technology a significant edge over competing active solar systems
and is similar to the efficiency produced by WEWPS. This characteristic feature increases
the feasibility of the prototype and raises an argument for further research.
 Observations show that longer cycles operate at a higher efficiency, a correlation probably
caused by an increased volume of water contained in the evacuated tubes. Even though
more energy is required to heat up the system, the prototype seems to be operating at a
higher efficiency during such conditions. This correlation requires further research and
quantification.
 Statistical analyses have shown that the measurements of parameters such as flow rate,
pressure to initiate pumping and displaced volume are relatively consistent between each
other. Furthermore, their corresponding means are approximated with a fairly small error.
On the other hand, the approximation of the mean cycle duration is quite unreliable due to
the significant discrepancy between separate measurements.
Despite the small sample size, Baseline testing stage can be considered successful as it has lead to
several important conclusions. One of the main objectives was achieved, as the prototype was
39
fully-functioning during two separate experiments. Furthermore, energy efficiency calculations
have expanded on the feasibility of the technology, adding to the argument in favour of the
development of the prototype.
6.2. Heating performance
The data acquired during Irradiance test 1 and 2 combined with Baseline test 2 was used to
analyze the correlation between the heat energy input and the function of the prototype. In
addition, it provided essential knowledge on the operational range and the heating/cooling
performance of the passive solar pump.
6.2.1. Irradiance test 1

17 minutes and 30 seconds were required for the system to generate a pressure of 0.09 bar inside
the top reservoir and initiate the pumping cycle. The flow started slowly with significant
fluctuations throughout the cycle. At the end of the experiment, the theoretical drop in flow rate
and temperature was observed but the prototype was not able to complete the suction cycle,
leaving the system unbalanced.
0.2 0.12
0.15
0.1
0.1
Flow rate (L/min)

0.08
Pressure (bar)
0.05
0 0.06
-0.05
0.04
-0.1
0.02
-0.15
-0.2 0
00:00
04:00
08:00
12:00
16:00
20:00
24:00
28:00
32:00
36:00
40:00
44:00
48:00
Time (mm:ss)
Figure 6.4: Flow rate and average temperature during Irradiance test 1
40
6.2.2. Irradiance test 2
Initial heating lasted for 12 minutes, followed by a relatively slow flow that gained speed steadily
until the end of the cycle. Measurements have shown fluctuations similar to the previous test, but
with considerably lower frequency and magnitude. Pumping ended with a substantial flow surge
during the suction phase. Similarly to Irradiance test 1, the cycle was not completed despite the
drop in pressure and temperature.
0.15 0.14
0.1 0.12
0.05 0.1
Flow rate (L/min)

Pressure (bar)
0 0.08
-0.05 0.06
-0.1 0.04
-0.15 0.02
-0.2 0
00:00
04:00
08:00
12:00
16:00
20:00
24:00
28:00
32:00
36:00
40:00
44:00
48:00
Time (mm:ss)
Figure 6.5: Flow rate and average temperature during Irradiance test 2
6.2.3. Heating results
Ambient temperature inside of the ETC has shown considerable consistency between different
experiments and energy inputs. Figure 6.6 is a graphical representation of the temperature
measurements taken throughout the three tests that will be analyzed at this stage. All
experiments start with a rapid heating phase which lasts for approximately 7 minutes and is
followed by slightly fluctuating consistent temperature measurements until the end. It is observed
that maximum temperature is strongly dependent on the irradiance value.
41
Ambient temeprature (˚C) 60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
00:00
03:00
06:00
09:00
12:00
15:00
18:00
21:00
24:00
27:00
30:00
33:00
36:00
39:00
42:00
45:00
48:00
Time (mm:ss)
Baseline test 2 (S=1600W/m2) Irradiance test 1(S=1200W/m2)
Irradiance test 2 (S=1400W/m2)
Figure 6.6: ETC ambient temperature assesment
Measurements of the evacuated tubes internal temperature (average between the two) show a
behavior that is inconsistent with the basic principles of the pump. During Irradiance test 2 the ETs
heated up considerably faster compared to Baseline test 2, despite the fact that less energy was
inputted to the system. On the hand, system cool down during suction has shown great similarity
between the experiments, with internal tube temperature drops of 50 ˚C on average.
110
Average ET temeprature (˚C)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
00:00
03:00
06:00
09:00
12:00
15:00
18:00
21:00
24:00
27:00
30:00
33:00
36:00
39:00
42:00
45:00
48:00
Time (mm:ss)
Baseline test 2 (S=1600W/m2) Irradiance test 1(S=1200W/m2)
Irradiance test 2 (S=1400W/m2)
Figure 6.7: Average ET temperature assesment
42
6.2.4. Statistical analysis
In order to analyze the relationship between the independent variable, S, and the explanatory
variable, Qmean, a linear regression data analysis will be conducted using Microsoft Excel. Table 6.3
and 6.4 summarize the input and output of the regression model.
Irradiance, S (W/m2) Mean flow rate, Q (L/min)
1200 0.05
1400 0.07
1600 0.08
Table 6.3: Regression analysis input
Regression Statistics
Multiple R 0.981980506
R Square 0.964285714
Adjusted R Square 0.928571429
Standard Error 0.004082483
Observations 3
ANOVA
df SS MS F Significance F
Regression 1 0.00045 0.00045 27 0.121037718
Residual 1 1.66667E-05 1.67E-05
Total 2 0.000466667
Coefficients Standard Error t Stat P-value Lower 95% Upper 95%

Intercept -0.03833333 0.020344259 -1.88423 0.31062 -0.296831658 0.220164991
S 0.000075 1.44338E-05 5.196152 0.12104 -0.000108398 0.000258398
Table 6.4: Regression analysis output
Adjusted R2 value of 0.929 signifies that 92.9% of the variation in flow rate is explained by the
independent variable irradiance (0.4% standard error). The linear regression equation is:
. This analysis has been produced using a low sample size due to the
time constraints of the project, hence the lower than optimal statistical significance.
43
6.2.5. Summary and discussion
Table 6.5 gives a summary of the key measurements taken during the two Irradiance tests:
Irradiance test
1 2
Initial heating duration (mm:ss) 17:30 12:00
Cycle 1
Average ET temperature at start of pumping (˚C) 54.6 46.4
Pressure in TR at start of pumping (bar) 0.09 0.07
Duration (mm:ss) 28:00 20:00
Displaced volume of water (L) 1.49 1.40
Mean flow rate (L/min) 0.05 0.07
Mean pumping pressure (bar) 0.14 0.09
Maximum pressure in TR (bar) 0.15 0.10
Minimum pressure in TR (bar) -0.17 -0.10
Average ambient temperature in ETC (˚C) 48.9 51.8
Average ET temperature at end of pumping (˚C) 96.1 94.3
Lowest ET temperature during suction (˚C) 38.4 47.3
Energy efficiency (%) 22.2 14.9
Table 6.5: Summary of Irradiance testing results
Successful pumping cycles during Irradiance test 1 and 2 show that the prototype is able to
operate under lower and more realistic conditions (S=1200 W/m2). Other key conclusions include:
 Initial heating duration was not significantly impacted by the change in irradiance. Similar
correlation was present with the following parameters: pressure to initiate pumping,
duration, volume of displaced water, maximum and minimum pressure. This consistency is
an argument for the operational ability of the prototype under a range of heat input
values.
 Flow rate has shown great dependence on irradiance. Furthermore, lowering the heat
input has shown to induce more inconsistent flows, probably due to points of low pressure
generation.
 Energy efficiency calculations confirm the conclusion that the prototype operates more
efficiently under slower cycles.
44
 Irradiance test 1 and 2 have concluded with the same malfunction of the system. Shortly
after suction is initiated, water from the evacuated tubes started to enter the MR, ending
the suction cycle prematurely. Further testing is required to resolve the cause of the fault.
 Evacuated tube heating inconsistency measured during Irradiance test 2 was most
probably caused by the increased amount of air in the system. This issue is presumed to be
the factor causing most of the inconsistencies between experiments, as the amount of air
directly impacts the function of the passive solar pump.
 Average ambient temperature inside the ETC are consistent and relatively high (Ta = 48.9˚C
at S = 1200 W/m2) showing that the design of the solar collector was successful.
6.3. Limitations
Considering the fact that the main interest of this project was the development process of a novel
technology, reasonably a number of limitations were present throughout the work process. A
comprehensive list of the main limitations encountered includes:
 The passive solar pump prototype is available for testing only in UCL Environmental
Laboratory making it impossible to test the system under authentic solar radiation
conditions. During the test four 250 W lamps were used and set up in such a way to act as
solar radiation as realistically as possible. Furthermore, space constraints in the laboratory
limit the possibility of controlling the position of the different components, hence pumping
and suction heights.
 Another limitations of this project is the small sample size used for the different
experimental conditions. With the extensive pre-testing pump development and the time
required to set up, test and reset the pump, a larger sample size is considered out of the
scope of the project. Nonetheless increasing the number of different test runs will most
certainly yield more reliable and conclusive results.
 There is almost no available literature directly related with the subject, except for the
previous stages of the prototype development. Any problem that is encountered during
the process requires an innovative and combinative approach.
 Using light bulbs as a heat source probably causes inhomogeneous thermal areas
throughout the ETC, including the evacuated tubes.
45
 The development process required the ordering and assembly of many different parts. This
meant that any changes and improvements onto the prototype demanded significant
interval of time beyond the projects duration.
 A certain degree of human error was introduced to the results, as all measurements were
read and taken by the experimenter.
 Despite the performed calibrations, measurement instrumentation have introduced a
systematic error to the data and all subsequent calculations. Moreover, simplifications and
approximations of the modeled system add to the systematic error in the results.
 This research has encountered many unsuccessful experiments, mainly due to malfunction
during suction. A substantial amount of the data acquired during those trials was
considered unfit for analysis.
 Evacuated tube number 2 was not available for testing, making it impossible to test the full
pumping capacity of the prototype during this project.
 Sources of random error in the project include: variation in the uncontrollable
experimental conditions (temperature, pressure), error in the observers judgment and
interference by other users of the laboratory.
 The rigidity of Component 6 (see Figure 3.6) causes an irregular position of the main
reservoir, possibly hindering the efficiency of the pump. Furthermore, the length of
Component 5 might be causing functional reductions during the suction cycle.
 Flooding of MR during suction, interrupting the completion of the cycle. This is the main
malfunction observed during the experimentation on the latest pump prototype.
 Access inside the main components is mostly limited, making the precise measurement of
volumes contained in each component impractical. Moreover, the evacuated tubes are
completely sealed during operation, hence all vapor generation processes can be theorized
but not observed.
46
7. FUTURE DEVELOPMENT
This project is part of a succession of developmental research on the subject of passive solar
pumping. The latest prototype still requires experimental work for the full capabilities of the novel
technology to be assessed. Both the measures to improve the function of the current system and
the realization of a completely new prototype are discussed in this Chapter.
7.1. Recommendations for improvement
The current prototype has shown promising results, completing several fully autonomous cycles.
On the other hand, the consistency and reliability of the system were far from optimal, thus
introducing research gap for future work. A list of the recommendations developed during the
current project include:
 Reproduce the experiments to increase the sample size, therefore making the analysis
more accurate.
 Examine the flooding of the main reservoir during suction. Probable solutions include
switching Component 5 back to an 8mm tube and changing the connections between the
ETC and the main reservoir.
 The reason for the generation of excess air inside the main components during consecutive
cycles needs to be understood and its effect on the system assessed.
 Expand on the experiments with variable energy input to understand the full operational
range of the pump.
 Introduce new experimental configurations including variations in: positions of main
components, number of evacuated tubes, heat source, pumping and suction height.
 Resolve the aforementioned issues with the length of Component 5 and the rigidity of
Component 6.
 Integrate data loggers to the system (possible for both temperature and pressure), to limit
the error and increase the number of measurements.
47
7.2. Large prototype realization
As a part of the development of the passive solar water pumping technology a larger prototype
similar to the one in Mexico is to be built and tested. This project engaged with two parts of the
realization process: the adaptations made to the expansion chamber and the design process of the
solar collector.
7.2.1. Expansion chamber

Figure 7.1 shows the schematic of the specifically manufactured steel tank that is to be used as an
expansion chamber in the new prototype. The tank has a removable flange that is supported by 12
bolts with diameter of 10mm and length of 300mm. This flange ensures access inside the tank and
has an integrated window for observation during the operation of the pump. The thickness of the
steel used for the construction of the tank is 6 mm.
Figure 7.1: Schematic of expansion chamber
Water supply to the prototype will be provided via a 19 mm steel tube shown on Figure 7.2 that
was specifically modified for the purpose. The water-in pipe runs throughout the complete length
of the expansion chamber and will supply the system with water, spraying out of the eighth 5 mm
holes that were introduced. Furthermore, a 1 mm hole was included at the end of the pipe to
ensure adequate drainage.
Figure 7.2: Schematic of water-in pipe

48
The last component of the expansion chamber is a steel mesh that similarly to previous prototypes
will increase the surface area available for water evaporation. After water retention testing of
several different options a Grade 316 Stainless Steel Mesh (wire diameter – 0.355 mm; aperture –
0.915 mm) was found to produce the best results and was installed on the inside wall of the
expansion chamber.
7.2.2. Solar collector

During operation the excavation chamber will be contained in a solar collector that will improve
the heat and vapor generation of the system. A plywood box (Figure 7.3), coated with reflector foil
on the inner surface was designed and assembled specifically for the purpose.
Figure 7.3: Schematic of solar collector
49
8. CONCLUSION
The main objectives of this research were the characterization and quantification of the latest
passive solar pump, a technology first conceptualized by Mr. Peter McKay. Relevant literature and
experimental procedures have provided sufficient information regarding the operational
capabilities and the feasibility of the prototype.
The concept of utilizing a passive pressure generation system to pump water was proven on
multiple occasions throughout this project. The latest prototype has shown promising results,
managing to complete up to four consecutive cycles and to operate under a range of different
temperatures. Furthermore, several fully autonomous cycles were completed, proving the
functional capability of the novel technology. During laboratory testing the system operated at a
mean overall efficiency of 14.74%, giving the technology an edge over active solar systems.
Moreover, the passive solar pump offers significantly lower upfront and maintenance costs,
making it much more suitable for remote rural areas lacking water coverage.
On the other hand, measurements have shown that the prototype is producing relatively low and
inconsistent flow rates (ranging from 0.05 to 0,13 L/min) with significant differences in the
behavior between different tests. This persistent trend demonstrated the need of further
development, for passive solar pumping to be considered a reliable option for water supply.
Recommendations for future development of the technology include: expansion of the
experimental procedures and sample size to ensure more reliable and conclusive results;
examination and solving of the limitations that were encountered during this research;
characterization and quantification of different prototypes including the large prototype that was
assembled in the end of the project.
As a conclusion, research on the subject of passive solar pumping have proven the functionality
and, to a certain extent, the feasibility of this innovation. The technology, however, requires
further development for its full capabilities to be understood and possibly utilized in solving the
global water coverage problem.
50
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Appendix II – MSc Dissertation Submission

Student Name: MILEN MOSKOV

Programme: MSc Civil Engineering

Supervisor: Dr. Ilan Adler

 I have submitted an electronic copy of the project report through Moodle/turnitin.

Signature: Date :07.09.2016

Supervisor: Dr. Ilan Adler

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND NOTATIONS

̅ – Standard error of the mean

1.2. Goal and objectives

The objectives of this research can be summarized as follows:

2.1. Solar irradiance

Figure 2.1: Average global horizontal irradiation (Solargis, 2016)

Figure 2.2: Average global annual temperature (Nelson Institute, 2016)

2.2. Evacuated tubes

2.3. Solar cookers

2.4. Competitive technologies

2.4.1. PV water pumps

2.4.2. Wind powered water pumps

2.5. EWB Mexico deployment

Gutters collecting rainwater

2.6. Statistical analysis

3.1. Conceptual layout

Figure 3.1: Conceptual layout of the passive solar pump

3.2. Pump components

Figure 3.2: Evacuated tube design

Internal copper bore 8940 1.88 385

Figure 3.3: Evacuated tube collector schematic

3.2.2. Main reservoir

3.2.3. Top reservoir and tanks

3.2.4. Connections and hydraulics

1. Air transfer from the evacuated tubes to the main reservoir

Figure 3.6: Schematic of a complete passive solar pump

Figure 3.7: Schematic of initial conditions

Figure 3.8: Schematic of Phase I

Figure 3.9: Schematic of Phase II

4.1. Preliminary testing

4.1.1. Experimental configuration

Figure 4.1: Preliminary testing configuration

4.1.2. Experimental design

4.2. Main testing

Figure 4.2: Main testing configuration

Distance between reservoirs, hr (m) 0.50

Number of evacuated tubes 2

Number of cycles performed 2

Total displacement height, hd (m) 2.00

4.3. Measurement instrumentation

Figure 4.3: Thermocouple measurement device

Figure 4.4: Digital probe thermometer

Intensity of the heat source was measured (in

The exact position of measurement apparatus

During the main testing stage an EN 837-1

5.1. Preliminary test 1: Single cycle

Flow rate (L/min)

Flow rate (L/min)

Flow rate (L/min)

6.1. Baseline determination

6.1.1. Baseline test 1

Flow rate (L/min)

6.1.2. Baseline test 2