Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 176 (2008) 36–43

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Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s e v i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / j v o l g e o r e s

The Chimborazo sector collapse and debris avalanche: Deposit characteristics as

evidence of emplacement mechanisms
Benjamin Bernard a,⁎, Benjamin van Wyk de Vries a, Diego Barba b, Hervé Leyrit c, Claude Robin d,
Samantha Alcaraz c, Pablo Samaniego b
a
Laboratoire Magmas et Volcans, CNRS UMR 6524, 5 rue Kessler, 63038 Clermont-Ferrand, France
b
Departamento de Geofísica, Escuela Politécnica Nacional, A. P. 17-2759, Quito, Ecuador
c
Institut Polytechnique Lasalle Beauvais, Département Géosciences (ex-IGAL), 13 bd. de l'Hautil, 95092 Cergy-Pontoise, France
d
Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, Laboratoire Magmas et Volcans, IRD UMR 163, 5 rue Kessler, 63038 Clermont-Ferrand, France

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Available online 28 March 2008 Chimborazo is a Late Pleistocene to Holocene stratovolcano located at the southwest end of the main
Ecuadorian volcanic arc. It experienced a large sector collapse and debris avalanche (DA) of the initial edifice
Keywords: (CH-I). This left a 4 km wide scar, removing 8.0 ± 0.5 km3 of the edifice. The debris avalanche deposit (DAD) is
Chimborazo abundantly exposed throughout the Riobamba Basin to the Río Chambo, more than 35 km southeast of the
debris avalanche deposit volcano. The DAD averages a thickness of 40 m, covers about 280 km2, and has a volume of N 11 km3. Two
block facies
main DAD facies are recognized: block and mixed facies. The block facies is derived predominantly from
mixed facies
structures
edifice lava and forms N80 vol.% of the DAD, with a probable volume increase of 15–25 vol.%. The mixed facies
emplacement was essentially created by mixing brecciated edifice rock with substratum and is found mainly in distal and
marginal areas. The DAD has clear surface ridges and hummocks, and internal structures such as jigsaw
cracks, injections, and shear-zone features are widespread. Structures such as stretched blocks along the base
contact indicate high basal shear. Substratum incorporation is directly observed at the base and is inferred
from the presence of substratum-derived material in the DAD body. Based on the facies and structural
interpretation, we propose an emplacement model of a lava-rich avalanche strongly cataclased before and/or
during failure initiation. The flow mobilises and incorporates significant substrata (10–14 vol.%) while
developing a fine lubricating basal layer. The substrata-dominated mixed facies is transported to the DAD
interior and top in dykes invading previously-formed fractures.
© 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction glacial erosion has increased its slopes, which are typical factors of
instability (McGuire, 1996). Today more than 130 000 inhabitants live on
1.1. Sector collapses top of the Chimborazo debris avalanche deposit (DAD), which is one of
the most voluminous and best exposed examples in Ecuador. Previous
In Ecuador, several of the largest cities, including Quito (1.6 million studies have described and mapped the DAD (Clapperton, 1990; Alcaraz,
people), are built near active volcanoes such as Guagua Pichincha, 2002; Bernard et al., 2006). Based on the excellent exposure provided in
Tungurahua, Cotopaxi, and Chimborazo, all of which have been, and numerous quarries dug in the deposit we have re-estimated the event
may still be, affected by major flank collapse. Debris avalanches (DAs) magnitude and facies distribution through thickness measurement and
issuing form such collapses are major volcanic hazards and are highly facies mapping. Structural and textural investigation of outcrops
destructive phenomena (Leyrit, 2000). Their initiation phases and provides evidence of the avalanche emplacement mechanism.
triggering mechanisms are well studied (Siebert et al., 1987; McGuire,
1996; Voight and Elsworth, 1997; van Wyk de Vries et al., 2001), 1.2. Geological setting
whereas the understanding of DA timing and emplacement processes
is still poorly constrained (Francis and Wells, 1988; Siebe et al., 1992; Located 150 km south-southwest of Quito and 28 km northwest of
Cleary and Campbell, 1993; Ui et al., 2000; Legros et al., 2000). Riobamba, ice-capped Chimborazo is the highest (6 268 m a.s.l.; Lat.
Chimborazo volcano has been active in the Holocene (Barba et al., 1°28′S, Long. 78°49′W) volcano in Ecuador. The Ecuadorian Andes
2006 and this volume). The present stratocone is clearly asymmetric and consist of two parallel cordilleras (Western and Eastern Cordilleras)
separated by the Interandean Valley (Fig. 1). Chimborazo is built on
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +33 4 73 34 67 21; fax: +33 4 73 34 67 44. Western Cordillera basement (Cretaceous to Palaeogene sediments
E-mail address: b.bernard@opgc.univ-bpclermont.fr (B. Bernard). and volcanics) and Neogene rocks of the continental volcanic arc

0377-0273/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.03.012
 B. Bernard et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 176 (2008) 36–43 37

Fig. 1. (A) Map of Ecuadorian Quaternary volcanoes (Monzier et al., 1999; modified), (B) geological setting of Chimborazo (Barberi et al., 1988; modified), and (C) profile across the edifice
(Barba et al., 2006).1: Chimborazo volcano and location of profile; 2: Igualata volcano; 3: Western Cordillera; 4: Cordillera Real; 5: Interandean Valley; 6: Miocene to Quaternary volcanism;
7: Quaternary volcanoes; mmg: maxi-glacial moraines (N33—14 ka 14C BP); mtg: tardi-glacial moraines (12—10 ka 14C BP); mng: neo-glacial moraines (5 ka 14C BP to present).

(McCourt et al., 1997). The Pallatanga fault system (NNE) ends at the 2. Origin and magnitude of the event
southern foot of the volcano and may have influenced the develop-
ment of Chimborazo. There are also NW orientated faults (Fig. 1). 2.1. The avalanche escarpment
Chimborazo is a large, composite stratovolcano with three main
summits oriented WNW–ESE that rise 2200 to 3000 m above its base. Post-avalanche volcanic activity and glacial erosion have erased
Detailed field studies, Ar–Ar ages, and chemical compositions provide most of the scar, making its identification difficult (Fig. 2). Beate and
ample evidence for the construction of three successive volcanic edi- Hall (1989) and Clapperton (1990) proposed that the sector-collapse
fices (Barba et al., 2005, 2006 and this volume; Fig. 1). The basal volcano affected the Politécnica summit and that Nicolás Martínez summit is
(CH-I) is a massive, mainly effusive andesitic and dacitic strato-volcano post-avalanche. Alcaraz (2002) proposed the opposite scenario.
dated between 93 and 60 ka, which produced an ignimbrite and Alcaraz et al. (2005) proposed a removed volume of about 9 km3
andesitic block-and-ash flow deposits. At least one period of explosive calculated with the mean expansion (20 vol.%) for debris avalanche
dome growth occurred before CH-I was destroyed by the major sector deposits (Glicken, 1991). Based on field work and chemical analysis of
collapse. The Politécnica and the Nicolás Martínez summits correspond the present edifice and the DAD, Barba et al. (2006) proposed that the
to the remnants of two edifices (respectively CH-IIA and CH-IIB) destabilization affected the CH-I edifice and that the three current
constructed in the CH-I avalanche caldera (Fig. 1). CH-II is dated summits are all post-avalanche. A semi-circular scarp with a diameter
between 50(?) and 35 ka. The youngest edifice, CH-III, is the highest of ca. 4 km, rising to 5400 m a.s.l., is partially preserved on the western
summit of the complex (Fig.1). It is a well-preserved andesitic stratocone flank. This structure was first interpreted as a collapse caldera (Kilian,
(lava flows, pyroclastic flows, surge, and tephra deposits) constructed on 1987) but no ignimbrite deposits have been found and it is more likely
CH-I and CH-II lavas. This edifice was active between 35 and 1 ka 14C BP. to be the source of the sector collapse. Due to the geometry of the
The Riobamba Basin is a segment of the Interandean Valley and is a ancient edifice, CH-I probably rose to an elevation of ~ 6200 m a.s.l.,
pull-apart basin bounded by major N22°E strike–slip faults (Monzier giving a collapse volume of ca. 8.4 km3 (Barba et al., 2006). Taking
et al., 1999). It is delimited by the Western Cordillera to the west, the account of possible geometrical errors of the scar determination, we
Cordillera Real to the east and the junction of both to the south. suggest a volume of 8.0 ± 0.5 km3.
Chimborazo and Igualata volcanoes form the north side (Fig. 2). This
basin, about 20 km long and 8 km wide, is the main depocenter for 2.2. Age of the collapse and triggering mechanism
volcaniclastics, epivolcanics, and fluviatile sediments from Chimbor-
azo, erosion of Igualata, and the Western Cordillera. The presence of No dating has been done on the DAD itself. Beate and Hall (1989)
the Chalupas ignimbrite, a regional stratigraphic marker (211 ka; found an age older than 35.8 ka 14C BP for a pyroclastic flow deposit on
Hammersley, pers. com.), is observed under more than 15 m of clastic the DAD top near Cochapamba (Fig. 2).
sediments below the DAD base westward from Calpi strombolian Barba et al. (2005) dated this deposit at 42.6 ka 14C BP and
cones (Fig. 2). estimated the collapse age to be between 60 and 50 ka. Alcaraz
38 B. Bernard et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 176 (2008) 36–43

Fig. 2. Maps of the Chimborazo DAD. (A) limits of the Chimborazo avalanche scar and DAD with its buried and eroded part; (B) limits of the Chimborazo DAD facies and location of
hummocks and ridges. Surface morphology is taken and modified from Alcaraz et al. (2003). Cc: Calpi Cones; 1) Chalupas ignimbrite in situ; 2) outcrop RB 9; 3) outcrop RB 269;
4) outcrop RB 4.
 B. Bernard et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 176 (2008) 36–43 39

Fig. 3. Views of basal contacts with different kinds of structures (outcrop RB 4 and RB 9). (A) normal faults and associated fractures affecting the substratum, the contact and part of
the deposit (outcrop RB 9); (B) incorporation of substratum in shears (outcrop RB 4); (C) DA andesite block penetration in the substratum, which is then sheared (outcrop RB 4);
(D) DA block stretching along the contact (outcrop RB 4). Arrows in yellow show transport direction. Hammer for scale.

et al. (2003) found an age of 8.01 ± 0.15 ka 14C BP for a wood 2.3. Distribution of the DAD
sample (RB 9; Lat: 1°39′ S; Long: 78°35′ W; 14C method by the
Centre for Isotope Research in Groningen) in a lahar deposit The northwest DAD margin is not clear because of post-ava-
under the DAD base in the distal region (Fig. 2). This age is not in lanche cover (Fig. 2). The most proximal DAD outcrops are near the
agreement with the new Barba et al. (2006) chronology. As the Cochapamba and Calshi villages, respectively 12 and 13 km from
age of the DAD seems to be beyond the 14C dating range (N40 ka), the source. The northeast DAD edge is also unclear because the DA
other dating methods should be used. For example, dating the has partially climbed the slopes of Igualata volcano. The west,
Guano lava flow that lies on the DAD would give a minimum age southwest and southeast boundaries are easier to recognize, be-
for the DAD. cause they correspond to abrupt changes in topography or rivers.
Clapperton (1990) associated the sector collapse with an in- The reconstructed limits give a DAD area of 235 km2. However, if
crease of explosive activity due to more acidic magma. In addition the buried proximal part (ca. 20 km2 from the break of slope) and
he interpreted a thin ash layer under the DAD as a “blast” deposit. an eroded component in the Río Chambo (ca. 25 km2) are included,
Such a deposit has been observed only near the Calpi locality and it gives a total area of 280 km2, which is much larger than the
could be the result of a surge bearing no relation to the sector Clapperton (1990) estimate of 160 km2 and fits quite well with that
collapse. Except for this spatially restricted layer, no evidence of of Alcaraz et al. (2005). This represents a maximum runout of
syn-collapse activity has been found yet. Bomb-like vitreous two- 41.5 km (from the scar to the distal front) for a drop height of
pyroxene andesite blocks without quenching structures observed 3600 m (Fig. 2), taking the CH-I height estimate of 6200 m a.s.l.
in the southeast mixed facies region could indicate a juvenile (Barba et al., 2006).
component in the DAD but could also be juvenile blocks in-
corporated in the DA. Few hydrothermally-altered blocks have 2.4. Thickness variation and volume of the DAD
been found in the DAD and thus alteration is not likely to be a
cause of the collapse. Significantly, Chimborazo is built upon an Previous volume estimates are 4.8 km3 (Clapperton, 1990), and
active fault system. Westward from the Calpi cones, normal faults 10.4 km3 (Alcaraz et al., 2005). We have separated the DAD into three
N10-35 affect the Chalupas ignimbrite and the overlying deposits zones to estimate its volume (Fig. 2). The proximal area (135 km2) has
(Fig. 2). Fault activity is thus the most likely candidate for a a 3–5% sloping surface and there are few basal contacts, so the
collapse trigger. average thickness has been inferred from the minimum thickness
40 B. Bernard et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 176 (2008) 36–43

The mixed facies is mainly composed of heterogeneous interclast

matrix (N70 vol.%) with a sandy–silty grain size and few blocks. It has
structures such as laminations, stretched clasts, and injections in
cataclased blocks. Much of the mixed facies lithology is the same as in
the block facies, but it also contains substratum material, such as
pebbles, bedded ash, and clay blocks. The mixed facies blocks vary
between cataclased and massive, primarily depending on size. Blocks
≥50 cm in diameter are generally cataclased, while smaller blocks are
mostly massive. The proportion of substratum-derived material
versus edifice-derived material for the fraction N32 mm has been
estimated using the Glicken (1996) 1 m2 window method where an
area % is considered to equal vol.%. We also assume that this N32 mm
fraction is proportional to the whole substratum-derived or edifice-
derived content. This proportion varies from N90 vol.% for substratum-
derived material near the basal contact to b30 vol.% in injections.
Despite this variability, we estimate that, in the entire DAD mixed
facies, the substratum-derived content is ca. 50–70 vol.%. This facies
could correspond to the mainly substratum-derived basal layer at
Parinacota described by Clavero et al. (2002).

3.2. Distribution of the DAD facies

It is hard to map the facies distribution, because the proportion of

mixed and block facies can vary greatly from one outcrop to another.
We estimated the main local component (block or mixed facies) from
124 outcrops throughout the Riobamba Basin (Fig. 2). In the proximal
area, where no basal contacts have been observed, the main
component is clearly block facies. The mixed facies is present
sporadically in clastic dykes and on top of the deposit. Twenty six
outcrops have been found in this area exhibiting a mixed facies
Fig. 4. Photo (A) and drawing (B) of substratum reworking (outcrop RB 4). proportion of less than 10 vol.%. In the medial part, block facies is still
1) Conglomerates; 2) sand and ash lenses; 3) block facies; 4) mixed facies; predominant (ca. 75 vol.%), but outcrops have many more mixing
5) individualized blocks. The basal contact shows shearing features, such as stretched features and more matrix injections. Some quarries to the east of
blocks. The substratum is highly deformed and part of it is eroded piecemeal. Riobamba have almost equal proportions of mixed and block facies. In
the distal area, mixed facies tends to dominate (N50 vol.%), and large,
observed in the deepest quarries. This gives an average of 40 m, and a matrix-supported brecciated blocks are common. The spatial dis-
volume of 5.4 km3. The medial area (95 km2) corresponds to a pre- tribution allows us to estimate the volume of each facies. It gives a
avalanche depression between Guano and Riobamba where huge block facies component of 80–85 vol.% (9.4 ± 0.3 km3) and a mixed
quarries frequently show DAD outcrops more than 40 m in height. facies component of 15–20 vol.% (2 ± 0.3 km3), which corresponds to
Near Guano a thickness of 100 m is observed. The average thickness the Alcaraz et al. (2005) estimate.
in this area is estimated at 55 m, giving a volume of 5.3 km3. The DAD
thins in the distal area (50 km2). Basal contacts are common and the 4. Dad structures
thickness varies from 25 to 6 m. We estimate an average thickness of
15 m, giving a volume of 0.75 km3. This leads to ca. 11.4 km3 for the 4.1. Basal structures
whole deposit, although the thickness is not well constrained so
there may be considerable error. The estimated volume of N11 km3 We found few medial basal contacts, and most of the basal contacts
makes it one of the most voluminous continental DADs (Ui et al., we observed are distal. Structures at the base include: 1) normal and
2000). reverse faults affecting the substratum, the contact and part of the
deposits (Fig. 3A); 2) lamination in the substratum and in the DAD
3. The DAD facies base; 3) incorporation of the substratum in shear zones (Fig. 3B); 4) DA
block and matrix penetration of the substratum (Fig. 3C); 5) DA block
3.1. Facies definition stretching along the contact (Fig. 3D); 6) laterally continuous un-
dulations of the contact; 7) erosional stripping of tephra and pebble
In order to fully explore the genetic nature of the DAD facies we layers (Fig. 4).
describe the different types in detail in the following section, using the A fine-grained layer is commonly present at the DAD base and in
Glicken (1991) facies terminology. places shows shearing features, such as stretched blocks at the contact
The block facies consists of cataclased blocks, with coarse grain size between the layer and the rest of the DAD. We observed an increase in
(up to 5 m2) and many jigsaw cracks. There are few interblock the number and the amplitude of features near paleo-topographic
structures, such as incomplete mixing features. There is a small changes such as paleo-valleys (for example near Cubijies—Fig. 2), or
amount of sandy–silty monolithologic intraclast matrix (b30 vol.%). other topographic obstacles (for example the Calpi cones—Fig. 2).
Thus, the DAD has a typical DAD block facies, but it is remarkable that
no massive blocks N5 m2 have been observed. Most of the rocks are 4.2. Internal structures
two-pyroxene andesite, pyroxene andesite, amphibole andesite, and
pyroxene-amphibole andesite. Some rocks, like amphibole-plagio- In the block facies the most common features observed throughout
clase andesite, are found only in the DAD and probably correspond to the DAD are jigsaw cracks, jigsaw fits, and horizontal to oblique
the top of the destroyed edifice. banding of incompletely mixed blocks. In the DAD body, banding of
 B. Bernard et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 176 (2008) 36–43 41

mixed and block facies also appears. We also found normal faults and difference between flat-topped DAD zones and modified morphology
shear planes near Guano. In the mixed facies we found fewer areas (either by erosion or burial) has not yet been mapped.
structures, and they were mainly located near block boundaries.
Outcrop RB 269 (Fig. 2) presents a magnificent section, with a wide 5. Discussion
variety of structures and the transition between the block facies and
mixed facies near the base. (Fig. 5). Major mixed facies injections 5.1. Generation of DAD facies
(Fig. 5A) can extend vertically through the DAD and spread out on top.
Near the contact between the two facies, mixed facies penetrates Two main facies are observed in the DAD: block facies and mixed
through the jigsaw crack network (Fig. 5B). In the mixed facies, facies (as in other debris avalanche descriptions, such as Siebert (1984),
cataclased blocks are rounded and their boundaries are incorporated Glicken (1991), and Palmer et al. (1991)). The generation of block facies
into the matrix (Fig. 5C). These structures are quite similar to the corresponds to a coarse disintegration of the Chimborazo edifice. The
vortical magma banding textures described by Wada (1995). Near the lack of massive blocks larger than 1 m diameter is similar to the Mount
basal contacts (Fig. 5D), the proportion of massive blocks (either from St. Helens DAD (Glicken, 1996), whereas in most DADs such as
the block facies or the substratum) versus cataclased blocks increases. Parinacota (Clavero et al., 2002) or Augustine (Siebert et al., 1995),
massive blocks exceeding 1 m-wide are common. It might indicate that
4.3. Surface morphology the source was already brecciated in situ and/or broken up at the point
of failure (Fig. 6). In this facies the poorly developed intraclast matrix
The DAD hummocks and ridges (Fig. 2) are mostly formed of block comes from fragmented block facies material. The block facies has
facies, while in the distal region, features formed of mixed facies are variable degrees of mixing throughout the DAD. This variability is not
common. In the proximal and the medial regions, where the block related to distance from the volcano, because some proximal outcrops
facies dominates, the morphology is dominated by ridges, although near San Andrés show advanced mixing, whereas distal outcrops, to
hummocks are locally present. In the distal region, where the mixed the south of Riobamba, have entire sections of non-mixed block facies.
facies tends to dominate volumetrically, the morphology is mainly The mixed facies is mainly located at the base, on top of the deposit,
formed of circular-based, rounded hummocks. The shape, the aerial or in injections within the deposit body (Fig. 6). Observations at outcrop
distribution, and the orientation of morphologies correlate with the RB 269 (Fig. 5) and other field observations of injection shapes indicate
confinement imposed by the topography of the pre-avalanche that the interclast matrix develops mostly near the base by shearing of
Riobamba basin. Near San Andrés (Fig. 2), longitudinal ridges, parallel the DA base and mixing with incorporated material. The substratum is
to the DAD edge, are well defined. In contrast, between Guano and mostly eroded by abrasion (Fig. 4). One outcrop south of Riobamba has a
Riobamba, the marked increase in the hummock concentration and homogeneous volume of Chalupas ignimbrite injected in the block facies
the presence of transverse ridges (Fig. 2) is correlated with a large in a similar fashion to other mixed facies injections. This outcrop
depression in the paleo-topography. displays ignimbrite material up to the top of the deposit and suggests
Some regions have flat surfaces, for example the northwest of bulk incorporation through fluidisation of the substrata. The proportion
Riobamba and the north of Calpi. We found sections up to 12 m thick of of abrasion and bulking is primarily dependent on the substratum
lahars, alluvium, and ash deposits filling inter-hummock depressions rheology. A mechanically weak substratum like the Chalupas ignimbrite
to the north–west of Riobamba. Outcrops in the vicinity of Riobamba is easily incorporated and fluidised, whereas a mechanically strong
have a maximum of only 1 m of ash above a flat DAD surface. The substratum, such as conglomerate, is eroded piecemeal.

Fig. 5. Photos and drawings of RB 269 outcrop underlying the transition between block and mixed facies. 1) block facies with intraclast matrix; 2) mixed facies with interclast matrix;
3) individualised blocks; 4) jigsaw cracks; 5) matrix injection; 6) jigsaw fit. From A to D the basal contact is approached. The arrow in yellow shows the transport direction. Hammer
for scale.
42 B. Bernard et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 176 (2008) 36–43

Fig. 6. Debris avalanche emplacement model. 1) Block facies; 2) Mixed facies; 3) Substratum; 4) Fine grained basal layer; 5) Ridge; 6) Hummock; 7) Substratum incorporation by
shearing; 8) Matrix injection; 9) Substratum incorporation by bulk fluidization.

As Ui and Glicken (1986) noted, the orientation of jigsaw cracks and the are closely related to topographic barriers, indicating contraction.
injection network are closely related. The mixed facies penetrates to the However, sections through hummocks also show extensional features,
core of the DA through injections, and then it infiltrates the block facies and flat topography does not correlate with fewer structures in the
through the jigsaw crack network and causes clasts to separate from the deposit. Importantly this indicates that hummocks are mainly produced as
intraclast matrix. The mixed facies and the intraclast matrix are then the mass passes over or next to an irregularity, but are then lost, or
partially mixed (Fig. 5). This phenomenon is limited to injection borders diminish as the flow progresses.
and penetrates only a few centimetres into the block facies, although there
is greater more mixing when cataclased blocks are isolated in mixed facies. 6. Conclusion
If the substratum-derived content of ca. 50–70 vol.% in the mixed
facies is correct, it gives a volume of ca. 10–14 vol.% of substratum in the New estimates of surface area, thickness and volume for the dif-
entire DAD (1.2 to 1.6 km3). This component can reach up to 35 vol.% in ferent parts of the DAD reveal that the magnitude of the Chimborazo
the distal area, a feature also observed at Ontake, Japan by Endo et al. edifice collapse was even greater than previously described (Clapper-
(1989) and at Taranaki, Palmer et al. (1991). It shows that the DA ton, 1990; Alcaraz et al., 2005) and tends to confirm the new Barba
continually incorporates substratum during transport. This could result et al. (2005 and 2006) hypothesis for the avalanche scar. The new
in a change of flow rheology, as the proportion of finer material increases volume estimate is N11 km3.
with distance. As the volume of volcano-derived material is ca. 10 km3 The facies and structural analysis lead to an emplacement mod-
and the initial scar volume has been estimated at 8.0 ± 0.5 km3, we can el comprising: 1) an initial pre-fracture, lava-dominated edifice;
suggest a dilation of the volcanic products during the DA of 15–25 vol.%, a 2) strong cataclasis during the initiation of failure; 3) a cohesive
value similar to that of Glicken (1991) for Mount St. Helens. avalanche with little mixing between blocks; 4) development and
deposition of a fine basal layer that is partially reworked into the DA; 5)
5.2. Generation of DAD structures significant substratum incorporation during transport by abrasion and
perhaps by fluidisation of the substrata; 6) mixing between block
Basal structures show that the DA base causes deformation in the facies and incorporated substratum; 7) injections of the mixed facies
substratum (Fig. 3A and C), and is strongly erosive in some cases (Fig. 3B and fluidized substrata up to the top of the DAD. Points 5) and 6) lead to
and D; Fig. 4). Also, the fine-grained layer found at the base indicates two a marked proportional increase of matrix along the path of the
temporally separate depositional processes. One is the generation of the avalanche without significant rock fracturing to produce fine material.
fine-grained basal layer during the flow. The second is the final bulk
stopping of the entire mass. The DA can erode, shear, or rework the fine- Acknowledgements
grained basal layer (Fig. 6). Extremely stretched blocks, located between
the fine DAD layer and the upper DAD, indicate major shear at this level. Funds for the field work (2 surveys: summer 2003 and winter
In Palmer et al. (1991) this layer corresponds to the marginal facies, but at 2006) came from the Institut de Recherche pour le Développement
Chimborazo this facies can be overrun by the DA. The structures observed (IRD), the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), and the
in the block facies and mixed facies could correspond to different flow Institut Géologique Albert-de-Lapparent (IGAL) in the framework of a
regimes. The jigsaw fit and banding features observed in the block facies co-operation program between UR 031 “Processus et Aléas volcani-
could be the result of a cohesive laminar behaviour, whereas the lower ques” of the IRD and the Instituto Geofísico de la Escuela Politécnica
swirling or vortical structures suggest turbulence, such as seen in mixing Nacional (IG-EPN) of Quito. Thoughtful reviews by Lee Siebert, Claus
mechanism in a volcanic conduit (Wada, 1995). This could explain the Siebe, and Jean-Luc Le Pennec improved this paper.
decrease in cataclased block concentration close to the basal contact.
Nevertheless, as jigsaw cracks are observed even in the mixed facies, the
DA is thought to be quite cohesive (Ui et al., 2000). As mixed facies References
injections cut the other structures, they may have formed late during Alcaraz, S., 2002. Étude de l'avalanche de débris du Chimborazo, 35 000 BP (Équateur).
emplacement. However, banding features made of block and mixed Mémoire d'Aptitude Géologique, IGAL Cergy-Pontoise, vol. 266. p. 104.
facies suggest that injection also could have occurred earlier. Alcaraz, S., Leyrit, H., Robin, C., Eissen, J.-P., Bernard, B., Samaniego, P., Le Pennec, J.-L.,
2003. La avalancha de escombros del complejo volcánico Chimborazo, Ecuador.
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