Romero Et Al.,2021

VOLGEO-107281; No of Pages 19
Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research xxx (xxxx) xxx
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Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jvolgeores
Centennial-scale eruptive diversity at Volcán Calbuco (41.3°S; Northwest

Patagonia) deduced from historic tephra cover-bed and
dendrochronologic archives
Jorge E. Romero a,⁎, Brent V. Alloway b,c, Romina Gutiérrez d, Daniel Bertín b,d, Angelo Castruccio e,f,
Gustavo Villarosa g, C. Ian Schipper h, Alicia Guevara i, Jorge Bustillos j, Alessandro Pisello k, Romina Daga l,m,
Mauricio Montiel n,o, Emma Gleeman n, Mauro González n,o, Daniele Morgavi k,
Sergio Ribeiro Guevara l, Mauricio Mella f
a
School of the Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
b
School of Environment, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
c
Núcleo Milenio Paleoclima, Centro de Estudios del Clima y la Resiliencia, Departamento de Ciencias Ecológicas, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
d
Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería (SERNAGEOMIN), Santiago, Chile
e
Centro de Excelencia en Geotermia de los Andes, Santiago, Chile
f
Departamento de Geología, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.
g
IPATEC, CONICET-Universidad Nacional del Comahue, Bariloche, Argentina
h
School of Geography, Environment and Earth Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
i
Departamento de Metalurgia Extractiva, Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Quito, Ecuador
j
Facultad de Geología, Minas, Petróleos y Ambiental, Carrera de Ingeniería en Geología, Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador
k
Department of Physics and Geology, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
l
Laboratorio de Análisis por Activación Neutrónica, Centro Atómico Bariloche, (CNEA), Bariloche, Argentina
m
Centro Científico Tecnológico (CONICET) Patagonia Norte, Bariloche, Argentina
n
Laboratorio de Ecología de Bosques, Instituto de Conservación, Biodiversidad y Territorio, Facultad de Ciencias Forestales y Recursos Naturales, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
o
Center for Climate and Resilience Research (CR)2, Santiago, Chile
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Since the late-18th Century, eye-witness accounts have documented a wide-spectrum of eruptive activity
Received 26 September 2020 sourced from Volcán Calbuco located in northwest Patagonia. Despite these observations there is very little
Received in revised form 13 May 2021 known about the eruptive products themselves that can account for this eruptive diversity. In this study, we
Accepted 16 May 2021
examine the tephrostratigraphic record post-dating the interval 1578–1702 cal. yr BP, with emphasis on his-
Available online xxxx
torical eruptions (i.e. <130 years, including the 2015 eruption) at proximal to medial distances (<16 km from
Keywords:
source) to characterize the composition, distribution, volume and style of these units. At least 11 discrete
Volcán Calbuco tephra units are recognized which are in accord with documented eruptive activity between ~1760 CE and
Tephra deposits 2015. Juvenile pyroclasts from these units span a narrow compositional range from basaltic-andesite to andes-
Eruptive history ite (55–60 wt% SiO2), and contain plagioclase (71–73%), pyroxene (~21%), cristobalite (3–5%) and scarce oliv-
Physical volcanology ine and Ti-magnetite (1–2%). The largest documented historic eruption occurred in 1893–95, and produced a
Southern Andes thick mantle of coarse-grained tephra fallout (0.32–0.50 km3 non-DRE) accompanied by intense ballistic bomb
Northwest Patagonia barrage closer to source. The 1893–95 eruption is comparable to the 1961 and 2015 eruptions both in terms of
Andesite
magnitude and explosivity, despite pyroclastic density currents (PDCs) not being documented in 1893–95.
Both the 1929 and 1961 eruptions generated lava-flows, tephra fallout and PDCs, from which the 1961 volume
totalled ~0.17 km3 non-DRE, affecting valleys northeast, up to a distance of 6 km from the crater. In contrast,
the 2015 eruption only produced PDCs, tephra fallout and ballistics (0.26–0.36 km3 non-DRE). Results ob-
tained from dendrochronological analysis of Nothofagus dombeyi trees within the study area reveals growth
suppression indicated by structural damage during the 1893, 1929 and 1961 eruptions, probably related to
thicker overall accumulations of tephra. Collectively, the componentry, architecture and volume of historic
(AD 1893, 1961 and 2015) Calbuco tephra indicate sub-Plinian parental events derived from more mafic prod-
ucts with disequilibrium textures, than smaller eruptions characterized by c. 60% wt. SiO2 probably triggered
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: jorge_eduardorm@hotmail.com, jorge.romero@postgrad.manchester.ac.uk (J.E. Romero).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2021.107281
0377-0273/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article as: J.E. Romero, B.V. Alloway, R. Gutiérrez, et al., Centennial-scale eruptive diversity at Volcán Calbuco (41.3°S; Northwest
Patagonia) deduced from h..., Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2021.107281
J.E. Romero, B.V. Alloway, R. Gutiérrez et al. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research xxx (xxxx) xxx
by crystal fractionation, providing a centennial time scale eruptive heterogeneity. This data is meaningful in
terms of better understanding eruptive diversity at basaltic-andesite centers elsewhere that have high erup-
tion frequencies (e.g. centennial time-scales).
© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Moreno, 1997; Moreno, 1999; Petit-Breuilh, 1999a; Sellés and

Moreno, 2011 and references therein) with a few distal observations
The correlation of pyroclastic deposits sourced from eruptive centers is of late Holocene tephra beds associated with laharic deposits (e.g.
essential for the reconstruction of past activity and the refinement of vol- Castruccio et al., 2010) and preserved in lake sediments on the eastern
canic hazard maps and eruption contingency plans. Tephrostratigraphy side of the Andes (e.g. Daga et al., 2008, 2010, 2014). The best historical
involves defining, describing, characterizing and dating tephra layers in accounts come from the most recent eruptions (i.e. 1893, 1917 and
the field and laboratory (Lowe and Alloway, 2014). Volcán (Vn.) Calbuco 1960; Table 1; Fig. 2) which apparently had little effect on the then
(41.3°S; 71.6°W, 2.003-m above sea level [a.s.l.]) currently holds the sparsely populated region. Despite this frequent eruptive activity in re-
third highest-threat level designation of active volcanoes in Chile (www. cent historic times (VEI 2 → 29 years, VEI 3 → 49 years and VEI 4 → 79
sernageomin.cl) with its last eruption unexpectedly occurring on April years; Reyes et al., 2020), there is scarce detail on the characteristic of
22, 2015, accompanied with a modest (3–4 h) pre-eruptive seismic each eruption that could corroborate explosivity index/frequency esti-
swarm (Valderrama et al., 2016). This ‘blue sky’ event generated a > 15- mates. Over the last decade there has been considerable infrastructural
km high Sub-Plinian eruption column that lasted 6.5 h and dispersed and residential development (‘parcelization’) in areas immediately sur-
tephra (non-dense rock equivalent [non-DRE] volume between 0.27 and rounding Vn. Calbuco and this growth provides a very clear imperative
0.56 km3; Mella et al., 2015; Castruccio et al., 2016; Romero et al., 2016; to better characterize these eruption products. In fact, the study of
Van Eaton et al., 2016) northeast over the Chilean tourist town of Ense- tephra deposits provides essential evidence required to determine de-
nada and across the Chilean-Argentine frontier that straddles the Cordil- posit distribution, and to infer eruption size (volume or mass erupted)
lera de los Andes. Pyroclastic density currents (PDCs) accompanied the by integration and eruption intensity (plume height, or mass eruption
eruption, descending up to 8-km down several tributaries on different rate) by forward or inverse modeling (Bonadonna, 2006; Pyle, 2016).
flanks of the volcano (Fig. 1). Despite there not being any loss of life, this These studies result fundamental to assess volcanic hazards through
moderate-sized (VEI-4) eruption damaged a large number of properties the estimation of credible eruptive physical parameters and for under-
and public infrastructure (roads, bridges) and had a highly detrimental ef- standing eruptive dynamics as well as the volcano's behavior or mag-
fect on the local tourist economy through access exclusion (Mella et al., matic triggers of eruptions (Oladottir et al., 2008; Bonfils et al., 2012).
2015; Hayes et al., 2019). In fact, it appears from the 2015 eruption that On this basis, we hypothesize that studying the historical tephra de-
Calbuco was able to explosively erupt without any precursory warning, posits of Vn. Calbuco can indeed provide clues on its eruptive behavior
and with unrest occurring below the usual detection threshold levels (in terms of eruptive style and size of eruptions) and insights into the
(Valderrama et al., 2016; Lara and Esperger, 2015; Reath et al., 2020). triggering mechanisms of these eruptions. Thus, in this work we present
Eruptions sourced from Vn. Calbuco are mostly summarized from a detailed tephrostratigraphy of eruptive events generated from Vn.
historical accounts over the last c. 230 years (e.g. Petit-Breuilh and Calbuco post-dating the interval 1578–1702 cal. yr BP (1767 CE ± 23
Fig. 1. Location map of Calbuco volcano and the distribution of historic lavas, PDC and lahar deposits according to Sellés and Moreno (2011), Petit-Breuilh and Moreno (1997), Mella et al.
(2015) and this study.
2
Table 1
Summary of historic eruptions of Calbuco volcano eruptions.
Year Description VEI Source Unit
1792 • Seismic activity and lava emission, according to indigenous accounts 2 3 –

1893 • New lava dome nested in the main crater by February 1893. Fumarolic activity, discrete ash emissions, lahars and seismic 4 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 CHF3
activity by March and August 1893.
• Violent sub-Plinian eruption on September 5, 1893 (1 h?). Column up to 10-km high dispersed northwards (Fig. 2A). New
Sub-Plinian eruption on October 5, 1893. Column up to 12-km high. Ballistic ejection as far as 8-km east-northeast, killing
cattle and producing fires. It finished at 10 am on October 6 (2 h).
• Intermittent ash fallout in October. Ash dispersion towards southwest. Ash fallout in Puerto Octay and Osorno (north) on
October 22, 1893. Latest strong eruption by November 29, 1893 (5 h). A 5 mm-thick ash blanket was deposited in Puerto
Montt, southwest from Calbuco
1894/95 • Intermitent ash emissions and fumarolic activity between 1894 and 1895. No larger eruptions were observed in this period of 1 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 CHF4
time.
1906 • Small ash explosions, probably with phreatic origin, producing ballistic blocks 2 3, 15, 19, 27 CHF5
1907 • Small phreatomagmatic or phreatomagmatic eruption by April 22. 2 3, 19, 27 CHF6
1909 • Small phreatomagmatic eruption by March 2 27 CHF7
1911/12 • Small ash explosions, sourced from either a nested cone or small lava dome inside the main crater of 1 km diameter. 2 3, 12 CHF8
1917 • Tephra fallout in Bariloche (100 km east-northeast from Calbuco) on April 13–14, 1917 3 7, 8, 9, 10 CHF9
• Effusion of an andesite lava flow (59.30 wt% SiO2) towards the northeast. Lahars affected lower flanks, including Ensenada.
• Formation of 3 spines (~50-m high) in the summit of a lava dome in May 1917. Extrusion and degassing persisted up to April
1917 (Fig. 2B).
1929 • Seismic swarm and underground sounds noticed on January 5, 1929. 4 9, 11, 12, 13 CHF10
• Main eruption started by January 6, 1929, at 01 am an lasted a few hours. A series of PDCs affected the northeast flank,
producing lahars that entered Lago Llanquihue.
• Basaltic andesite lava (55.47 wt% SiO2) flew down the north on the same day, at 07 am. Ice melting produced new lahars to the
north and eastern flanks.
• Ash fallout affected Puerto Montt, but was also reported in Peulla and Bariloche.
1961 • Seismic swarm and increasing fumarolic activity by January 25, 1961. 3 9, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 CHF11
• Lahars descending to the north, northeast and southeast were produced on February 1, 1961, at 05 am. Tepu, Blanco Este-Frío
and Amarillo rivers were affected. The lahars from Tepu were hot, containing c. 30% of juvenile material, and producing
damage in the road connecting Ensenada with Puerto Varas. These fresh deposits were still warm, but consolidated two days
after their deposition. The sedimentology of these deposits may be correlated to block-and-ash-flows. In addition, charcoal
was found within it.
• Two basaltic-andesite lavas flew down the Tepu and Amarillo rivers, at a rate of 4 m/h until February 20, 1961.
• A paroxysmal Sub-Plinian eruption occurred on March 10, 1961 at 06 am, and persisted by 8.5 h. The eruption column rose
12-km high and produced lapilli fallout in Petrohué, and ash fallout in Peulla and Bariloche, thus with a northeast drift.
1972 • Small ash emissions on August 26 between 00.00 and 03.00, which were preceded by earthquakes and underground sounds. 2 3, 19, 27 –
2015 • Eruption started unexpectedly on April 22, 2015 at 21.04 UTC. The eruption consisted of three explosive pulses (April 22, 23 4 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, CHF12
and 30). 24, 25, 26
• Eruption column up to 23 km, and produced c. 0.27 to 0.58 km3 of basaltic andesite tephra (55–56 wt% SiO2) with andesite to
dacite glass composition (61–65% SiO2). PDCs radially descended from the vent.
• Lahars affected rivers to the south, north and northeast. They consisted in hyperconcentrated and debris-flow facies.
• Two hypothesis around the triggering mechanism support a) a second boiling and internal triggering, and b) local-scale
heating and eruption due to the arrival of a fresh and hot magma in the lower part of the magmatic reservoir.
Sources: 1) Pöhlmann (1893), 2) Martin (1895), 3) Petit-Breuilh and Moreno (1997), 4) Kinzel and Horn (1983), 5) Fisher (1893), 6) Kinzel and Horn (1983), 7) González (1898), 8) Held
(1993), 9) Steffen (1917), 10) Casertano (1963), 11) Sellés and Moreno (2011), 12) Reichert (1917), 13) Stone (1930), 14) Stone and Ingerson (1934), 15) Jaggar (1929), 16) Castruccio
et al. (2010), 17) Moreno et al. (2006), 18) Klohn, 1963, 19) González-Ferrán, 1995, 20) Arzilli et al., 2019, 21) Vidal et al., 2015, 22) Van Eaton et al., 2016, 23) Morgado et al. (2019), 24)
Romero et al. (2016), 25) Castruccio et al., 2016, 26) Mella et al. (2015) and 27) Global Volcanism Program (2013a). The eruption of 1837 was discredited, while there is no information of
the probable eruptions on 1932 and 1945, which were only reported by the media.
yrs), with a focus on their products (i.e. lithology, grain size distribution, ranging from basalts to dacites (50.5 to 64.5 wt% SiO2) and historic
petrography, geochemistry and mineralogy) identified from outcrops products dominated by basaltic andesites and andesites (54.8–59.3 wt
exposed at proximal to medial distances (<16 km) from source in % SiO2; Sellés and Moreno, 2011). The antiquity of Vn. Calbuco has re-
order to better characterize the eruption styles and mechanisms of cently been challenged by an array of new 40Ar/39Ar ages that suggest
their parent eruptions. When possible, the dynamics of these eruption much of the current edifice is <20 ka (Mixon et al., 2021). Irrespective
events are also assessed. We also report a tree-ring chronology of of this new age data, the explosive behavior of Vn. Calbuco is docu-
Nothofagus dombeyi trees within the study area covering the last ~200 mented from numerous post-late last glacial PDCs and tephra fall de-
years, which both complements our tephrostratigraphy and offers an al- posits (e.g. Bertín, 2020; Moreno, 1999; Moreno and Naranjo, 2004)
ternative source of information to evaluate the impact of these erup- described at medial to distal sites (E-NE) from the volcano.The explo-
tions. Such information is intended to understand the range of likely sive behavior of Vn. Calbuco is documented by numerous PDCs and
eruptive scenarios expected from Vn. Calbuco and to better understand tephra fall deposits (e.g. Moreno, 1999; Moreno and Naranjo, 2004;
their impact in this rapidly developing lifestyle home-owner and tourist Bertín, 2020) to the E-NE of the volcano. This record contains PDC de-
region. Our study is also fundamental for updating existing hazards posits with charcoal 14C ages coincident with the 1893 and 1792 erup-
maps of this volcano (e.g. Moreno, 1999), which may benefit local gov- tions, as well as 330 ± 60 yr BP and 570 ± 50 yr BP, plus two tephra
ernment and municipal authorities as well as community stakeholders fallout deposits between 1550 ± 60 and 330 ± 60 yr BP (Moreno and
in their ongoing land-use planning decisions. López-Escobar, 2004; Bertín, 2020). Watt et al. (2011) recognized 13
tephra fall deposits erupted during the Holocene (c.1.3 to 10.5 cal. ka
2. Geologic background BP), mainly eastwards from the volcano as consequence of the domi-
nant wind direction over this region. They include several Plinian events
Volcán (Vn.) Calbuco corresponds to a truncated and highly eroded (Ca-1, Ca-8, Ca-11 and Ca-12; non-DRE volumes between 0.4 and
edifice constructed within the last ~320 ka, with eruptive products 1.0 km3), especially between 10.5 and 7.0 cal. ka BP, and over the past
3
Fig. 2. Sketches and pictures of historic eruptions at Vn. Calbuco. A: The 1893–95 eruption drawn by Julius Held. B: Calbuco seen from the north after the 1917 eruption, on April 26 (Museo
de la Patagonia, Bariloche). C: View of Calbuco from the west after the 1929 eruption, on Jan 6th (E. Karl). D: The 10 March 1961 eruption seen from the southwest at 06.15 local time (Totila
Litz Strange, Memoria Chilena). E: The 22 April 2015 eruption seen from Puerto Varas at 18.44 local time (Christian Valenzuela).
2 ka. The youngest of them corresponds to the Ca-13 pumice tephra fall- our proximal tephrostratigraphy to these distal lake records on the
out, 1304–1108 cal. yr BP (Watt et al., 2011). To the west, off the chilean eastern (Argentina) side of the Andes remains an important future
margin, only a 14.4 cal. ka BP cryptotephra can be correlated to Calbuco objective.
(Martinez Fontaine et al., 2021).
At least thirteen eruptions have been reported since 1792, with 5 3. Methods
events exceeding VEI 3 (Table 1). These eruptions have typically pro-
duced tephra fallout, diverse types of pyroclastic density currents 3.1. Data collection and sampling
(PDCs), as well as lava flows and lava domes (Fig. 1); these manifesta-
tions also evidence glaciovolcanic interactions that have generated High rainfall (>2000 mm.year−1) and precipitous terrain on, and
debris-hyperconcentrated-flood flow events (Petit-Breuilh, 1999b; adjacent to, the Calbuco edifice has significantly limited the preserva-
Moreno, 1999; Moreno et al., 2006; Castruccio et al., 2010). tion of primary tephra deposits through high surface run-off, erosion
Sediment cores retrieved from large lakes on the eastern side of and downslope remobilization. Consequently, complete outcrops of
the Andes have recently revealed distal deposits of Calbuco-sourced past eruption deposits unaffected by these post-depositional processes
tephras. Indeed, at Lago (L.) Ilón (IL, 70 km ENE from Calbuco), are relatively scarce. Immediately after Calbuco's 2015 eruption, 27
L. Moreno Oeste (MO, 98 km ENE) and L. Tonček (TK, 94 km ENE; tephrostratigraphic sections (Fig. 3) were described, most of them at
Daga et al., 2006, 2008, 2010, 2014) identified cm-thick tephra proximal-to-medial distance from the volcano's summit (i.e. ~2 to ~16
beds that they correlated to the 1961 (IL1 and MO-1), 1929/32 km) (Table S1). Two sections were excavated to a depth of 2-m on a
(MO-2 and TK-1), 1893–95 (MO-3 and TK-2) and 1792 (TK-7) erup- broad gently sloping interfluve located on the northern flank of the vol-
tions, intercalated with tephras generated from Osorno and Cordón cano at the Parque Volcánico Valle Los Ulmos (Fig. 3). Site 6 (P6; ~4.7 km
Caulle volcanoes (distant ~26 and ~ 94 km northeast from Calbuco, NE from the vent) is designated here as a key reference section since it
respectively). These deposits are composed of pumice, scoria, and contains a complete sequence of at least twelve pyroclastic units (here
glass shards with basaltic-andesite to andesitic composition (~52.5 informally named CHF-1 (oldest) to CHF-12 (youngest); Fig. 4). The
to 58.5 wt% SiO2) and subordinate free crystals (plagioclase feldspar, thickness of the 2015 tephra (CHF-12) was systematically measured
pyroxene, amphibole, and quartz). Hence, more specific correlation of and collected following the protocol of Villarosa and Outes (2008) at
4
5
proximal-to-medial distances, whereas at distal localities (in Argentina) to calculate the chronology. The variance was stabilized using the Briffa
ash thickness was measured from flat surfaces and a deployed network rbar-weighted method (Osborn et al., 1997). Using the chronology, a
of collection receptacles. The full CHF-12 dataset accounts for 150 prox- Super Epoch Analysis (SEA) was conducted for a window of eight
imal to medial sites in Chile (<40 km of the volcano), and 22 distal sites years around the eruption in order to verify the statistical significance
in Argentina (up to 475 km downwind) allowing the definition of a sub- of the effect of historical eruptions on the growth of N. dombeyi.
millimeter continuous cover (Smm-cc) outer isopach limit.
Erupted volume estimation was possible in tephras with a minimum
3.3. Laboratory analyses
number of field observations (i.e. >10), thus only at units CHF-3 (18
sites), −11 (11 sites) and − 12 (150 sites); we used the Exponential
In this study, we qualitatively described the vesicle fraction of pyro-
Thinning, Power Law and Weibull methods to integrate the volume of
clastic particles following the approach of Houghton and Wilson (1989),
isopachs (Pyle, 1989; Fierstein and Nathenson, 1992; Bonadonna and
and the classification of Murcia et al. (2013) for grain size. Scanning
Houghton, 2005; Bonadonna and Costa, 2012; Table 2), which represent
Electron Microscope (SEM) images of juvenile components (i.e. pumice,
minimum estimates for CHF-3 and -11 due to small datasets. The 2015
scoria and glass shards) were obtained at the Departamento
volume estimation (CH-12) also represents a lower constraint since
Caracterización de Materiales (Centro Atómico de Bariloche) and the
the isopach designated sub-millimeter cover (Smm-cc) was observed
University of Salta in Argentina, in order to carry out textural descrip-
by satellite to extend further north-east (e.g. Reckziegel et al., 2016),
tions of units CHF-2, −3, −10, −11 and −12. Juvenile polished thin sec-
even reaching Buenos Aires (1450 km away from the volcano), far be-
tions (30 μm-thick) of coarse scoria lapilli and bomb fragments were
yond our mapped outer limit. Given further chance of compaction and
prepared at both the Departamento de Geologia at Universidad de
ash resuspension in distal areas (e.g. Forte et al., 2018), we tested here
Atacama (11) and at the Van Petro laboratory (12; Canada), and the
two plausible values for the outermost Smm-cc (a maximum of
mineral abundance was estimated using visual comparison charts.
0.1 cm and an assumed minimum of 0.01 cm). Finally, the largest pum-
Seven medium-to-coarse lapilli clasts (CHF-2, −3, −11 and −12) and
ice, scoria and lithic fragments (MP, MS and ML, respectively) were de-
one lava sample (CHF-11) were crushed, ground and burned at 950 °C
termined using the average of the 5 largest particles and their 3
for 30 min in a SNOL muffle, and then analyzed through X-Ray Fluores-
orthogonal axes (see Bonadonna and Houghton, 2005). We followed
cence (XRF) using a S8-Tiger (Bruker) spectrometer, and the software
the approach of Pyle (2015) to estimate mass eruption rate (MER),
Spectraplus at the Departamento de Metalurgia Extractiva of the
eruption magnitude and intensity, using known deposit masses and
Escuela Politécnica Nacional (DEMEX-EPN, Ecuador). For other units
taking the eruption durations from the literature (Table 1).
this procedure was not conducted as the amount of juvenile material
was generally insufficient. For tephra units CHF-9 and -10, there were
3.2. Stratigraphic correlation and dating available XRF compositions of coeval lava flows in Sellés and Moreno
(2011) which were also incorporated in this work. X-Ray Diffraction
In this study, we carried out one radiocarbon analysis at the very top (XRD) Mineralogy was semi-quantified through a D8 ADVANCE
of the soil lying between CHF-1 and CHF-2. This sample (D-AMS (Bruker) diffractometer using the software Diffrac plus (EVA & TOPAS)
040732) was analyzed at Direct AMS (Bothell Washington, United at the DEMEX-EPN laboratory for 8 samples. Geochemical measure-
States; https://www.directams.com) and the age was calibrated over ments were only carried out at juvenile clasts of units CHF-2, −3, −11
the SHCal20 curve (Hogg et al., 2020) using the software CALIB rev. and −12, as they are composed of abundant juvenile material,
8.2 (Stuiver et al., 2021). Radiocarbon (14C) ages are reported as 2σ, preventing any sampling of lithic fragments which are dominant in
with 95% area enclosed and present-day (considered as 1950 CE). The other tephra units. For instance, Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS)
results were compared with calibrated ages (same calibration curve) were carried out on crystals and groundmass of polished samples at
from the stratigraphy of Watt et al. (2011) and Moreno and López- the Departamento de Geología at Universidad de Chile for units CHF-3,
Escobar (2004). No radiocarbon ages were obtained from other expo- −11 and −12. Major element compositions of glass and crystals were
sures. We utilized our lowest (and oldest) CHF-1 and -3 tephra beds, also obtained from cut and polished, carbon-coated epoxy chips using
as recognizable stratigraphic markers, due to their distinctive morpho- a CAMECA SX100 Electron Microprobe Analyzer (EMPA) from the De-
logical characteristics (i.e. texture, colour), stratigraphic association partment of Earth and Environment at the University of Munich for
and persistent lateral exposure through different sections (Fig. 3; see the samples of units CHF-2 and -3-B, while a JEOL Superprobe (JXA-
tephrostratigraphy section). 8230) housed at the Victoria University of Wellington (New Zealand)
In order to better identify those eruptions with more significant im- was used to analyze the proximal and distal CHF-12 glass shards and
pact in our area of study, and at a centennial scale, we also carried out a crystals. These instruments were operated at 15 kV acceleration volt-
dendrochronology analysis of tree cores collected by Hernández (2018), ages and 8–20 nA beam current, defocused beam of 10–20 μm (for
supplemented with new cores samples collected in 2019. Cores were groundmass/glass) and focused beam (for non-glassy mineral phases).
taken from dead individuals of Nothofagus dombeyi located on the A suite of natural and synthetic standards were routinely used in instru-
northern flank of Vn. Calbuco (Fig. 3; ~900 m a.s.l.). The 2015 eruption mental calibrations and during analyses. All glass shard analyses were
caused a total mortality of both trees and shrubs in this area up to normalized to 100 wt% anhydrous, with H2O by difference being
4 km from the vent. Samples were processed according to the method- given, and total Fe is reported as FeO. Glass shard major element analy-
ology of Stokes and Smiley (1968) and later cross-dated using the pro- ses are presented in Table S2 while phenocryst data is presented in
gram COFECHA (Holmes 1983). A standard chronology was created Table S3.
with the program ARSTAN (Cook and Krusic, 2006), in which the series Bulk samples of thicker tephra deposits were dried at 30–40 °C for
were adjusted to a negative exponential curve, linear regression, or hor- 24 h, and then sieved mechanically at 0.5 or 1 phi grain size fractions be-
izontal line in order to eliminate the growth trend. Then, an tween −7 and 5 phi. Only the grain-size of distal ashes of the 2015 erup-
autoregressive model was used in order to eliminate any autocorrela- tion was determined using a Beckman Coulter LS13 320 laser diffraction
tion among the series, and a double weighted robust mean was used particle size analyzer at the Victoria University of Wellington (Fig. S2).
Fig. 3. Tephrostratigraphic correlation of historic eruptions of Vn. Calbuco between representative field sites (red circles in location map) from the whole visited sections within this study
(yellow circles). Parque Valle Los Ulmos is represented by the shaded area. Depths are measured in meters. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.)
6
Fig. 4. Stratigraphy at site P6, with the correlation to historical eruptions according to the Global Volcanism Program (2013b). Two outcrops of deposit CHF-1 are indicated in the lower part
of the figure.
Component analyses were carried out using >100 particles of the sieved Table 2 and Fig. 3) intercalated with yellow-brown to dark brown
samples between −4 and 0 phi, and mean values are presented in andic soil material with highly variable amounts of ash and lapilli dis-
Table 2 and Fig. 5. tributed within the soil matrix (Fig. 4). All sections are described
bottom-top and the lowermost tephra bed corresponds to a dark gray-
4. Results coloured and well-sorted sandy ash bed (CHF-1). This ash marker bed
is usually partially reworked and forms discontinuous irregular-
4.1. Tephrostratigraphy, dispersal and volume shaped pods, consisting either of compacted ash (Fig. 4) and/or locally
over-thickened ash accumulations, highly indicative of remobilization
Most of the late Holocene explosive eruptive record preserved at Vn. closely following deposition (Fig. 4). CHF-1 maintains similar fine
Calbuco occurs predominantly in a northeast direction from its summit grain-size and regular thickness irrespective of its location and elevation
crater, including a c. 2 ka PDC deposits containing abundant cauliflower on the flanks of Calbuco and suggests that it might be sourced from ei-
bombs (Fig. S1). The reference stratigraphic section at our key site P6 ther nearly Vn. Osorno or more distally from a minor eruptive center
consists of several pyroclastic deposits (both tephra fall and PDCs; (MEC) associated with the nearby Cayutué-La Viguería group - a cluster
7
Table 2
Summary of stratigraphic and sedimentologic characteristics of the different tephra units present in P6.
Stratigraphic Parental T Unit description

unit eruption (cm)
CHF12-D 2015 6 Ungraded, medium lapilli fallout, containing c. 71% LV, 25% HV and 7% lithics, with 3% of hydrothermally altered lithics. The largest juvenile
particles are 1.9–2.2 cm and lithics reach 1.2 cm.
CHF12-C 2015 23.5 Reversely graded, medium brown lapilli fallout, with c. 61% HV and 37% LV and 2% lithics. The largest juvenile particles are 1.8–2.3 cm
diameter and lithics reach 1.1 cm.
CHF12-B 2015 16 Ungraded, coarse lapilli fallout with a few bombs, containing c. 60% HV, 37% LV and 3% lithics. The largest juvenile particles are 3.4–3.7 cm
and lithics reach c. 1 cm.
CHF12-A 2015 13.5 Reversely graded, medium-to-coarse gray lapilli fallout, with c. 74% HV and 23% LV and 3% lithics. The largest juvenile particles are 2.4–2.7 cm
diameter and lithics reach c. 1 cm
CHF11 1961 17 Ungraded Fine lapilli fallout with 34% lithics, 28% brown scoria, 30% LV and 8% HV.
CHF10 1929 6 Bluish-gray fine-to-very fine massive ash (70%) supporting a central bed of sub-rounded, fine-to-medium lapilli-sized lithics (20%), of them
5% black blocky particles of porphyritic andesite.
CHF9 1917 5 Massive fine to medium (2–3 cm diameter) lapilli layer composed of 75% brown scoria with subordinate LV and lithic clasts (15 and 10%
respectively).
CHF8 1911 2.5 Medium lapilli individual clasts of scoria admixed to brown andic soil matrix.
CHF7 1909 7 Massive coarse ash to fine lapilli fallout, containing 60% brown scoria, 30% lithic fragments and 10% black glassy scoria. Cross lamination
structures to the bottom.
CHF6 1907 1.5 Medium lapilli individual clasts of scoria admixed to an andic soil matrix.
CHF5 1906 5 Fine lapilli individual clasts of scoria admixed to an andic soil matrix. Juvenile fragments correspond to subrounded brown scoria (65%), lithic
fragments (15%), black vitrophyric scoria (18%) and few free crystals of plagioclase and pyroxene (2%).
CHF4 1894 8 Massive medium-size gray ash.
CHF3-D 1893 32 Normally graded lapilli fallout, composed of 77% LV, 17% HV and 6% lithics. Juvenile particles range from coarse lapilli to bomb (3–16 cm
diameter).
CHF3-C 1893 11 Dark-gray lapilli fallout with reverse grading of LV gray scoria, which represents 93% of the particles and reaches up to10 cm in diameter.
Lithics constitute 3% of the particles, while HV scoria represents the remaining 3%.
CHF3-B 1893 13 Ungraded layer composed of 68% brown scoria, 17% HV and 15% lithic fragments. Bombs up to 8 cm diameter.
CHF3-A 1893 12 Normally-graded lithic-rich tephra fall deposit. Consist of 44% brown scoria, 40% lithics and 16% HV scoria. HV is 3–5 cm diameter. Lithics
decrease to 15% from to the top.
CHF2 Ca13 12 Normal-graded, yellow pumiceous lapilli bed mantling a c. 15 cm of andic soil material (paleosol). Bimodal (−0.5 and 3.86 phi) and
moderately sorted (0.71 phi) grain size distribution. Contains 92% of low-density highly vesicular blocky pumice lapilli, up to 2 cm diameter
and 8% vol. lithics.
CHF1 unknown 5 Reworked, medium ash to fine lapilli tephra fall deposit. It contains abundant lithic fragments and brown clay, but also back and highly
vesicular scoria and glass shards.
of late Holocene aged monogenetic cones that extend from the head of deposit is typically thicker than CHF-12, and relatively easy to distin-
Seno Reloncavi northwards to the south-central arm of Lago Todos Los guish and correlate in the field due to its thickness, internal architecture,
Santos. The definitive age of CHF-1 is presently unknown, however, an low lithic content and ubiquitous occurrence of bombs at several sites
organic-rich soil sample from the uppermost section of a thin (0.2 suggesting a narrow dominantly N-NE dispersal direction (Fig. 6a).
m) paleosol (D-AMS 040732; Fig. 4) between CHF-1 and -2 at P6, yields The tephra fall bulk volume of unit CHF-3 is estimated between 0.32
a close minimum limiting mean age of 1767 CE ± 23 yrs. (1578–1702 and 0.50 km3 (Table 3). Bertín (2020) has recognized a c. 10 cm-thick
cal. yr BP). CHF-2 is the only exclusively pumiceous lapilli bed found tephra deposit near Lago Cayetué (c. 27 km NE from Calbuco), also cor-
within stratigraphic sequences of this time span (Table 2). Due to its col- related to CHF-3. While CHF-4 unit directly overlies −3 and contains
our, and distinctive juvenile content, this layer is easily identifiable in massive bedded medium size-ash (thus here correlated to waning erup-
other outcrops located east of P6 (Fig. 3), as at P5, where CH-2 is tions in 1894–95), units CHF-5 to −8 (here correlated to eruptions be-
~34 cm thick, with MP of ~3.5 cm. The clear/wavy upper contact of tween 1906 and 1911) form subtle, identifiable layers but whose ash
CHF-2 is separated from the sharp/wavy basal contact of CHF-3 above and lapilli constituents admixed with an ashy-medial and/or
by ~15-cm of ashy-medial andic material. Considering its maximum pumiceous-medial matrix of andic soil material largely affected by bio-
age and textural characteristics (abundant dense pumice) CHF-2 is turbation, root penetration and other post-depositional soil-forming
here correlated with the Ca-13 deposit (1304–1108 cal. yr BP; Watt processes (Table 2; Fig. 3). These units are usually separated by inter-
et al., 2011), which is the youngest tephra bed described east of Calbuco, vening cm-thick interbeds of ashy-medial andic soil material and their
and mapped as having a SE dispersal. It is also correlated with the ~35- tephra constituents largely comprise individual lithic clasts, with sub-
cm thick pumice tephra bed lying between two charcoal-bearing PDC angular shape, high-vesicularity (HV) scoria with porphyritic texture,
deposits with calibrated ages between 497 and 569 and 1297–1521 yr and scarce pumice (Table 2).
BP as reported by Moreno and López-Escobar (2004) from a site along At P6, CHF-9 (here correlated to the 1917 CE eruption) overlies the
Highway −215 near the Hueñuhueñu river. At this locality (see succession CHF-5 to −8 separated by a ~ 7-cm thick andic soil material
Moreno and López-Escobar, 2004), the youngest tephra fall above and consist of a ~ 14-cm thick massive fine to medium (2–3 cm diame-
these PDC deposits, is ~10-cm thick and was estimated to have an age ter) lapilli layer mostly composed of brown scoria (75%). A ~ 14-cm
of between 300-to-500 years old. thick andic soil separates CHF-9 from unit −10 above.
CHF-3 (correlated in this study to the AD 1893 eruption) is the CHF-10 (here correlated to the 1929 CE eruption) has a distinctive
thickest unit within the historic stratigraphy (~70-cm in P6) and field appearance and is therefore another useful tephra marker enabling
subdivided into four distinct tephra fall beds (A, B, C and D) with no ap- field correlation, comprising a dominantly bedded, bluish-gray fine ash
parent intervening time breaks (expressed either as rudimentary soils matrix supporting fine lapilli-sized pumices (Table 2; Fig. 3). The thick-
or erosional gaps). With exception of bed A, which is lithic-rich ness of this unit ranges between ~2 to ~7 cm, with thicker occurrences
(~40%), the remaining beds are mostly composed of both low- and on low-lying areas near Río Tepu (P22 and P23; 8 km northeast from
highly-vesicular (LV and HV, respectively) scoria (Fig. 5). At P7, CHF-3 the summit crater). Within the study area this unit is intermittently ex-
is >1.7 m-thick (base not exposed), comprising bomb-sized dark-gray posed largely on account of downslope post-depositional erosion. At
porphyritic scoria clasts. According to our field observations, CHF-3 site P4, this deposit has a thin layer of charcoal associated with its
8
Fig. 5. Lithology and grain size of selected tephra units, indicating the site of sampling (P) and the bed or vertical position of sampling within it.
base. Thicker exposures of this unit are challenging to correlate, but we lapilli with 34% lithics, 28% brown scoria, 30% LV and 8% HV in average
found a 55 cm-thick PDC deposit in the watersheds of Río La Poza (P27; (P6; Fig. 5). At proximal locations (e.g. P8, P9, P18; 3.5 km distance;
Fig. 2; Fig. S1) which lies below the 1961 lava flow, thus suggesting that Fig. S1), it consists of a basal reversely graded tephra fall layer, ~7 to
it was deposited sometime prior to the 1961 eruption. This PDC consists 9 cm thickness, made up of fine to medium lapilli (52% brown scoria,
of a 5 cm-thick medium ash deposit at its base, overlain by a 50 cm-thick 15% LV and 8% HV) and a high amount of lithics (25%; Fig. 5). At 3 km
clast-supported deposit composed of 70% cauliflower-shaped porphy- from the crater (P26) the deposit consists of a 5 cm-thick layer, com-
ritic andesite lapilli and bombs (3 to 10 cm-diameter), 25% of gray posed by normally graded fine-to-medium lapilli with abundant lithics,
fine-to-medium ash and ~ 5% lithics displaying reverse grading overlain by ~18 cm-thick of massive fine-to-coarse gray ash with re-
(Fig. S1b). This eruption was presumably distributed to the north in a verse grading and a few lithic clasts. An 8 cm-thick medium-to-coarse
vast area, according to the outcrops observed in the field (Fig. 1). CHF- tephra fall layer is found at the top, showing reverse grading with 60%
10 is generally overlaid by between 2 and 4 cm-thick of sandy- juvenile and 40% lithics (5% hydrothermally altered). The non-DRE
textured andic soil material, which typically separates CHF-10 from bulk tephra volume of CHF-11 ranges between 0.087 and 0.092 km3
−11 above. (Table 3) and was dispersed east-northeast from the vent (Fig. 6b).
CHF-11 (correlated to the 1961 CE eruption) corresponds to an eas- This sequence is covered by a veneer of sand and fine gravel as well as
ily recognizable pyroclastic sequence with noticeable lateral variations by the sandy-textured soil forming at the ground surface prior to the
in the field (Fig. S1c). It varies in thickness from 1-to-31 cm, and most 2015 eruption.
of the well-preserved exposures are located on the northeastern flank Finally, CHF-12 corresponds to the 2015 eruption. The deposit from
of Vn. Calbuco. Medial distance exposures (e.g. Sections P4, P6, P17 the first eruptive phase (layer A) thins rapidly away (northeast) from
and P19; >5 km distance) consist of a single layer composed of fine the vent, and becomes indistinguishable beyond ~20 km. Thus, most
9
10
of the fall deposit is derived from the second eruptive phase (layers B, C (Table 4) shows a homogeneous mineralogy, characterized by feldespar
and D; Castruccio et al., 2016). There is a clear transition upward in the (labradorite and bytownite, 71–73%), ~21% pyroxene (~11% pigeonite,
stratigraphy from dominant HV to LV gray scoria, corresponding to an ~7% augite and ~ 3% diopside), cristobalite (3–5%) and low amounts of
overall decrease in vesicle size (Van Eaton et al., 2016). The LV gray sco- olivine and titaniferous magnetite (1–2% each one). Olivines represent
ria is texturally similar to juvenile blocks in the pyroclastic density cur- relicts within crystal aggregates. Vesicularity ranges from about 15% in
rents (PDCs), found up to 7.5 km down the Rio Blanco Este (Castruccio dense gray scoria (Fig. 8g) to ~50% in low density gray scoria (Fig. 8h)
et al., 2016). While the distal deposits of CHF-3 and -11 are dispersed to- and 60–85 wt% in brown scoria (Fig. 8i). Higher vesicle fractions are re-
wards the east-northeast, CHF-12 exhibits a northeast distribution lated to a higher degree of rounding of the vesicles, and to a higher de-
(Fig. 6c, d, e), developing a conspicuous secondary thickness maximum gree of interconnection between them, but mineralogical differences
at Junín de los Andes (about 200 km northeast), where local residents are not observed.
reported at least 3-cm of freshly fallen ash (Fig. 6f; Romero et al.,
2016). Here we re-estimate the non-DRE volume of CHF-12 in the 4.4. Bulk-rock, glass and mineral geochemistry
range between 0.3 and 0.45 km3 (Table 3). Distal ash samples collected
between 22 and 29 April 2015 are bimodal to trimodal, and display a Bulk-rock XRF geochemistry of analyzed samples (Table 5) is re-
size range between extremely fine to coarse ash, while ashes collected stricted to the basaltic-andesite and andesite fields (55–60 wt% SiO2;
up to 13 May 2015 are bimodal and extremely to very fine in size Fig. 9a), with the most silicic compositions occurring within CHF-2
(Fig. S2). and -9 (~60 wt% SiO2; Fig. 9a). All the samples have sub-alkaline and
low-K affinities (Fig. 9b). Harker diagrams (Fig. 9c) show a reverse rela-
4.2. Morphology and texture of tephra tion (i.e. compatible elements) of CaO, FeOt, AlOt, TiO2, MgO and MnOt
with increasing SiO2, which is interpreted as the fractional crystalliza-
Distal juvenile scoria of units CHF-2, −3, −10, −11 and −12 corre- tion from bulk to residual melt. Groundmass geochemistry of glass mea-
spond to either brittle or ductile particles (Fig. 7). Brittle particles have a sured through EMPA in selected samples of CHF-2, −3, −11 and −2 is
blocky morphology, sub-angular to angular in shape and curvi-planar more evolved than bulk rock compositions of correspondent units, with
perimeters, displaying a range of vesicle fractions (from poorly vesicular andesitic and dacitic composition (Fig. 9a, b) with the highest wt% SiO2
to very vesicular; Fig. 7). Smaller vesicles (<50 μm) use to be sub- recorded within glass shards of CHF-2 (69 to 73 wt% SiO2; Table S2)
spherical to irregular, and they are often elongated sub-parallel to the while juvenile components of CHF-3 and -11 display rhyodacite compo-
longest axis of the particle. Larger vesicles are generally sub-spherical sitions (Fig. 9a). The groundmass of glass shards at proximal and distal
and contain smooth internal walls. Molten surfaces are not common Calbuco tephra from CHF-12 spans a tightly clustered compositional
in brittle particles, but are frequently observed in particles with ductile range from andesite through to dacite (61.5 to ~64 wt% SiO2; Fig. 9a,
shapes (i.e. fluidal; Fig. 7). These fluidal particles are elongated, with b; Table S2), with very homogeneous major element compositions
smooth perimeters and bulbous surfaces which result from the preser- (Fig. 9c). EMPA analyses conducted on phenocrysts from the 2015 erup-
vation of tensional surfaces bowed by bubbles that did not burst at tive cycle reveal feldspar ranging in composition from labradorite to
the time of eruption (e.g. Bustillos et al., 2017). At smaller scales anortite, whereas pyroxene is represented by both augite and enstatite
(<100 μm), vesicle coalescence, plagioclase microlites and adhering (Fig. 9d). In the case of CHF-3, feldspar ranges from oligoclase to
ash particles (10 μm) are all common features (Fig. 7). Unlike other andesine whereas enstatite is the primary pyroxene (Fig. 9d). These re-
tephra layers described here, we did not observe such ductile particles sults are similar to those retrieved by XRD analyses (Table 4).
in the 2015 juvenile material (CHF-12; Fig. 6), and its vesicles are elon-
gated and sub-spherical forming arcuate inter-vesicular walls (Fig. 6). 4.5. Impacts of eruptive events on forest
4.3. Petrology and mineralogy The tree-ring chronology showed a significant reduction (p < 0.05)
in growth of Nothofagus dombeyi during the eruptions of 1893, 1929
The mineral paragenesis observed within thin sections of juvenile and 1961 (VEI ≥ 3; Fig. 10). In the 1893 and 1929 eruptions some indi-
fragments from units CHF-2, −3, −11 and −12 is very similar in vidual trees showed a complete reduction in growth of up to 10 years
terms of the mineral phases present and their relative proportions without forming any rings. For the 1961 eruption, the reduction in
(Table 4). Both scoria and lava develop vitrophyric (Fig. 8a) or porphy- growth only occurred during the growth season of the eruption year.
ritic (Fig. 8b) – glomeroporphyritic (Fig. 8c) textures. Plagioclase Other eruptions recorded during the years 1906–07, 1911–12, 1917,
subhedral phenocrysts are dominant (10–15%) varying between 0.03 1932, 1945, and 1972 (Petit-Breuilh, 1999a) did not show any apparent
and 0.5 mm in length, generally showing normal zoning (Fig. 8d), re- effect on the radial growth of N. dombeyi.
verse and oscillatory zoning, while dissolution features like embayed
rims and sieve texture are frequently observed, especially in larger phe- 5. Discussion
nocrysts of plagioclase and pyroxene of CHF-3, −11 and −12 samples.
These textures have been not observed within CHF-2. Anhedral to 5.1. Eruptive chronology and behavior
subhedral clinopyroxene (Fig. 8e) and orthopyroxene are present in
much smaller amounts (2–4% and 1–2%, respectively), and their length The maximum age of our tephrostratigraphic archive extends back,
vary from 0.04 to 0.7 mm. Opaque anhedral minerals never exceed 3% to ~1767 CE ± 23 yrs. (1578–1702 cal. yr BP) and encompasses only
and their length is 0.4 to 0.15 mm. Xenoliths were only recognized in the most recent historic events. The longest continuous tephra sequence
a sample from CHF-2, and they consist of high grade metamorphic so far registered on the flanks of Vn. Calbuco occurs at P16 (Fig. 3) where
rocks, one of them a granulite or amphibolite associated to an mafic ig- a > 10-m high exposure was described. Here, tephra units described as
neous protolite and the other to a metamorphic quartz, possibly sam- part of this study occupy the uppermost ~2-m of this sequence. Within
pled from a granitic rock (Fig. 8f), both with lengths varying from the middle and lower portions of this section we recognize a prominent
1.0–1.5 mm. Glassy groundmasses are sometimes altered to clay min- meter-thick block-and-ash flow deposit and at least 13 tephra beds that
erals, especially in the older samples (e.g. CHF-2). XRD analysis indicate intermittent eruptive activity likely centered from the
Fig. 6. Isopach maps (in cm) of selected (most representative) tephra fall units. Thicknesses are reported in cm in white numbers with black shadows. Black dotted line represents the limit
between Chile and Argentina. 15 m Hillshades retrieved from Alos-Palsar (https://search.asf.alaska.edu/#/) and SRTM (30 m) for proximal and distal areas, respectively.
11
Table 3
Volume estimates for the three largest historic eruptions of Vn. Calbuco. Magnitude (M) and Intensity (I) are given by the equations of Pyle (2015): M = log10(erupted mass) − 7; I = log10
(MER) + 3.MER is the mass eruption rate.
Eruption Isopachs Method Volume, km3 Uncertainty, km3 Erupted mass, kg Duration, h MER (kg/s) Magnitude M Intensity I
CHF12 2015 15 Exponential 0.255 0.137

Power Law 0.278 0.227
Weibull 0.356 0.123
Average 0,297 0.162 2.97E+11 7.5 1.5e+7 4.47 10.18
CHF11 1961 4 Exponential 0.097 0.008
Power Law 0.100 0.018
Weibull 0.095 0.005
Average 0,097 0.010 1.21E+11 8.5 5.5e+6 4.08 9.74
CHF3 1893 6 Exponential 0.514 0.011
Power Law 0.552 0.195
Weibull 0.540 0.171
Average 0,535 0.126 6.69E+11 8.0 3.2e+7 4.83 10.51
immediately adjacent Vn. Calbuco. Exposed at the base of this section is our locations, as it can be correlated to Ca-13 (Watt et al., 2011)
a 1.8-m + thick highly-weathered pale-yellow pumiceous coarse ash which was dispersed in a southeast direction from the volcano. The
(informally named El Tepú tephra) which is widely recognized within sub-angular to sub-rounded shape of pumices may be indicative of pri-
Holocene-aged cover-bed sections exposed on the southern and eastern mary fragmentation at larger depths and particle erosion/secondary
side of Lago Llanquihue (north-east of Vn. Calbuco). Despite its wide- fragmentation within the conduit.
spread occurrence, there is a paucity of radiocarbon dating control for CHF-3 is both the coarsest and thickest of all our units, and its inter-
this tephra and those closely encapsulating it. Similarly frustrating, El nal architecture is complex with large variations of grain-size and litho-
Tepú tephra has yet to be stratigraphically associated with Chana logic components are observed at every outcrop. Thickness, internal
Tephra - a ~ 9.5 cal. ka BP marker bed distally sourced from Vn. Chaitén architecture and componentry are comparable to those of the 2015
(Alloway et al., 2017) which has been described within sections of the tephra deposit (CHF-12) (e.g. Castruccio et al., 2016; Romero et al.,
same vicinity. El Tepú tephra is likely to be of early Holocene age 2016). We suggest that CHF-3 was deposited in several explosive pulses,
based on its lower stratigraphic position within the Holocene andic which is also a common feature in some basaltic-andesite sub-Plinian
soil sucession (Sr1 of Alloway et al., 2018). Ultimately, correlation to tephra fallouts (e.g. Self and Rampino, 2012; Maeno et al., 2019). Corre-
nearby well-dated tephra-bearing lake records (i.e. Lago Fonk, lating CHF-3 to the 1893 eruption is appropriate since at least 3 sub-
Henríquez et al., 2021) should resolve the age of this and other key Plinian pulses were recorded between September and November,
Calbuco-sourced tephra. These extended records of Holocene activity 1893 (Table 1). Despite the limitations estimating the volume for each
centered at Vn. Calbuco provide a very tantalizing opportunity to refine eruptive phase due to difficulties in field correlation (tracking individual
the overall eruptive history for Vn. Calbuco and scrutinize the validity of tephra bed), an overall sub-Plinian eruption is suggested (0.514–0.552
the new 40Ar/39Ar age data (i.e. Mixon et al., 2021), both aspects of km3 non-DRE; Table 2). According to historical accounts, the second
which is clearly an important imperative for more broadly assessing po- eruptive pulse seems to have been the most energetic of the 1893 erup-
tential hazards over a longer timeframe. tive cycle, as ballistics were allegedly ejected up to 8 km from the vent,
Eruptive records established from previous stratigraphic studies (i.e. which suggest that the largest clasts found in layer B, and eventually
Moreno and López-Escobar, 2004; Watt et al., 2011; Bertín, 2020) layer C, result from this event. Layer D can thus be correlated to the
mostly commence below the base of our historic tephra archive (i.e. be- third pulse while CHF-4 documents the final ash fallouts of the waning
neath CHF-1), hence this study fills an important gap in the latest period stage of the eruption during 1894 (see Table 1).
of explosive activity centered at Vn. Calbuco, which to date has only Grain size and textural characteristics of CHF-5 to −8 are typical of
been documented from narrative sources. This record is therefore im- Vulcanian eruptions where a plug of magma in the volcanic conduit pre-
portant for two reasons: 1) it allows a qualitative and quantitative char- vents efficient degassing, producing over-pressure and decompression-
acterization of these historical eruptive events from a physical driven fragmentation, ejecting both crystallized and newly fragmented
volcanology point of view, and 2) provides a more complete insight magma accompanied by wall rock, some of them affected by hydrother-
into frequency/periodicity and triggering processes of explosive erup- mal alteration (e.g. Matthews et al., 1997; Morrissey and Mastin, 2000).
tions that have occurred over recent historic time (< ~1760 CE). Thus, these indistinct thinner and pedogenically disturbed units either
CHF-2 is the only tephra unit that is almost exclusively composed of may represent short-lived transient or low-energy eruptions or repre-
poorly crystalline pumice. This pumice has the highest bulk SiO2 content sent cross-wind tephra deposition during an eruption that was primar-
(59.6 wt%) and is the only unit containing xenoliths; its higher SiO2 con- ily directed across another sector. This interpretation is in agreement
tent may be suggestive of assimilation processes (e.g. Horst, 2007; Sellés with a series of weak, transient and sporadic explosions in the eruptive
and Moreno, 2011) however a detailed petrogenetic model is required records of Vn. Calbuco between 1906 and 1912 (Table 2; Petit-Breuilh
to support this hypothesis. The incorporation of metamorphic frag- and Moreno, 1997; Global Volcanism Program, 2013a).
ments, may help to constrain the fragmentation processes occurring CHF-9 representing a fallout deposit displays a large quantity of ju-
deeper within in the conduit, since silicic andesitic magmas convection venile fragments (75%) comprising brown scoria and HV scoria, thus
and uprising in conduits is able to erode and fragment country rock suggesting an exclusively magmatic eruption. This latter tephra has
(metamorphic basement in this case) at high strain rates (e.g. Del been correlated to the 1917 explosive eruption, which lasted only for
Gaudio and Ventura, 2008). CHF-2 has a finer grain size than any a few hours but produced ash fallout reported in Bariloche and Puerto
other tephra deposit in the sequence (Fig. 4), thus suggesting either a Montt (Table 1; Fig. 6). Similarities in lithologic components with
lower column height, a sampling bias towards the crosswind-upwind other eruptions within our tephra record (e.g. CHF-3 and -12) suggest
plume dispersed to the south or an efficient secondary fragmentation that this was a Vulcanian eruption but with a size not large enough to
enhanced by a fragmentation front at larger depths (e.g. Gonnermann, promote its continuous lateral preservation within the soil forming
2015). We favor the hypothesis of cross wind dispersal of CHF-2 in environment.
12
Fig. 7. Scanning Electron Microscope images of brittle and ductile particles from selected tephra fall deposits, captured at Departamento Caracterización de Materiales (Centro Atómico de
Bariloche) (CHF-2 to −11) and University of Salta (CHF-12) in Argentina. IVW and AA are inter-vesicular walls and adhering ash, respectively.
CHF-10 is composed of a fine to very fine gray ash matrix supporting cm). If the 55 cm-thick exposure underlying the front of the western
fine lapilli fragments, which in addition to charcoal directly underlying 1961 lava corresponds to the same unit, we suggest the occurrence of
this deposit, are diagnostic of the elutriated facies of a PDC deposit (or either a single or multiple PDCs affecting most of the topography of
even the overbanking of a PDC?; e.g. Douillet et al., 2013). Turbulent the northeast flank by overbanking, which is in well agreement with
bedding structures were not identified, nor was a blast stratigraphy, the historical accounts of the 1929 eruption (Table 1).
thus a dilute-PDC or directed blast might be discarded (e.g. Belousov Just like eruptive units CHF-5 to −8, the CHF-11 does have a con-
et al., 2007). Outcrops are mostly found in the upper reaches of Los siderable percentage of lithic fragments present (predominantly abun-
Ulmos Valley, 50–60 m higher than the two adjacent river thalwegs dant) at its base. We therefore correlate CHF-11 to the initial explosive
(Rio Tepú and Blanco), where they were probably deposited but eroded phase of the 1961 eruption, which was closely followed by the extru-
afterwards. Moreover, the thickest expressions of CHF-10 are found in sion of two lava flows. This exceedingly large proportion of lithic frag-
exposures at lower topography, ~8 km northeast from the vent (7 ments can be interpreted as the fragmentation of a volcanic plug, so
13
an initial Vulcanian vent-clearing event seems likely. In terms of vol-
1.7
0.9
1.2
0.9
0.5
0.5
1.1
Average 1σ
ume, the explosive phase involved ~0.1 km3 non-DRE (Table 2),
which is consistent with the range of volumes typical of sub-Plinian
11.,4
72.0
eruption.
6.6
1.8
1.8
3.0
3.5
Finally, CHF-12 represents the latest 2015 eruption, preserving the
typical architecture of a pulsatory sub-Plinian eruption, as it was widely
moderate-to-high
Brown blocky HV
described (e.g. Castruccio et al., 2016; Romero et al., 2016; Van Eaton
CHF12-P18-C
et al., 2016).
Andesite
Layer C
scoria
100.0
5.2. Size of the eruptions, repose intervals and impacts
72.0
12.0
P18
7.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
3.0
Taking into account the variety of lithologic components observed
within units CHF-3 to −4, −11 and − 12 (AD 1893–95, 1961 and
Gray blocky LV
2015 eruptions), coupled with a deposit density of ~1000 kg/m3 for

Middle bed
CHF11-P4
Andesite
the 2015 eruption (Romero et al., 2016), we assume a higher deposit

scoria
100.0
70.0
11.0
density of 1250 kg/m3 for units CHF-3 and -11 due to their higher pro-
low
7.0
3.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
P4
portion of LV gray scoria and lithic fragments (respectively; See

Romero et al., 2016 for densities). These results rank the 1893–95
Top tephra bed
Gray blocky LV
eruption as the largest (Table 2), with at least twice the erupted ma-
terial of the 2015 eruption, and about 5.5 times the 1961 explosive
CHF11-P8
Andesite
phase. The 2015 recalculated volume is larger than the estimate of

scoria
100.0
72.0
13.0
low
6.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
3.0
Romero et al. (2016) and more similar to that of Castruccio et al.

P8
(2016) but smaller than that obtained by Van Eaton et al. (2016).
Black porphyritic
The total (non-DRE) volume of the 1961 eruption may be estimated

by considering the volume of the lava flows (0.07 km3; Gutiérrez,
Río Frío lava
2020), and of the PDC (it covers 1.61 km2 with a tickness of 8 cm in
Andesite
average), roughly equivalent to 1.3·105 m3. Thus, the total minimum

100.0
LV11
70.0
12.0
lava
low
P26
volume is ~0.17 km3 and the subsequent erupted mass is about

8.0
2.0
1.0
2.0
5.0
2.96·1011 kg (lava density estimated to 2475 kg/m3; measured from

seven lava fragments with densities from 2229 to 2806 kg/m3),
moderate-to-high
Brown blocky HV
which is fairly similar to the 2015 erupted mass here estimated. Fi-
Middle bed
nally, all these three eruptions display similar magnitudes (4–5), orig-
CHF11-P6
Andesite
inal durations of their sustained pulses (7.5 to 8.5 h; Table 1), MER
scoria
100.0
(106–107 kg/s) and intensities (~10), but with different mass budget
73.0
11.0
5.0
3.0
2.0
3.0
3.0
P6
partitioning due to their different products. Time repose intervals be-

tween these Calbuco eruptions are 54 and 68 years (60 ± 10 years),
Brown blocky HV
much larger intervals than the frequency of small-scale eruptions

low-to-medium
which seems to occur every ~20 years. Even though the other erup-
CHF3-P6-B
Bulk rock mineralogy as measured through XRD. The general features of samples are described on top.
tions identified in this study were not quantified, both their styles
Andesite
Layer B
scoria
100.0
and their sizes are much smaller than the three major eruptions de-
73.0
10.0
7.0
1.0
1.0
3.0
5.0
P6
scribed above. In fact, none of the eruptions correlated to CHF-5 to

−9 produced recognizable suppression of N. dombeyi trees in the
moderate-to-high moderate-to-high
study area. It is possible that during these eruptions, the quantity of

Brown blocky HV
ash that fell on the stand where the tree cores were sampled, was
Content (relative proportion, %)
CHF3-P6-A
not enough to generate structural damage to tree foliage and thereby

Andesite
Layer A
cause reduced (post-eruption) growth (Montiel et al., 2016). On the

scoria
100.0
75.0
11.0
contrary, it has been observed that with a smaller quantity of tephra

5.0
2.0
2.0
3.0
2.0
P6
deposited in an eruption, radial growth tended to increase due to an

improvement in physical and chemical properties of soil and greater
Blocky pumice
water availability for plants (Mahler and Fosberg, 1983; González

Largest clast
et al., 2015). Ultimately, these results indicate that the reduced growth
CHF2-P6
Dacite
of N. dombeyi at the northern flank of Calbuco Volcano can be attrib-

100.0
71.0
11.0
8.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
P6
uted to the occurrence of volcanic eruptions that generated volumi-

4
nous ash-fall that subsequently inundated the flanking forest, such

(Na,Ca)Al(Si,Al)Si2O8
Petrographic name
(Mg,Fe,Ca)(Mg,Fe)
(Ca,Mg,Fe)2(Si,Al)
as in the 1893, 1961 and 2015 eruptions. However, growth suppres-

Chem. Formula
sion coinciding with the 1929 eruption also is indicative of a larger

Fe2,75Ti 0,25O4
(Mg,Fe)2SiO4
Observations
Vesicularity
CaMgSi2O6
scale volcanic event than suggested via eye-witness accounts and is

in good agreement with our interpretation of CHF-10 tending to be
Si2O6
Type
SiO2
Site
2O6
widely dispersed and associated with PDC emplacement affecting

Calbuco's north flank.
Plagioclase (labr,
5.3. Triggering processes

Magnetite
Titaniferous
Cristobalite
Pigeonite
Diopside
Mineral
Fractional crystallization from a parental basaltic melt is the domi-

Olivine
Augite
byt)
Totals
Table 4
nant differentiation process in the magmatic system of Calbuco, produc-

ing basaltic andesites which then evolve to more-silicic enriched
14
Fig. 8. (a-f) Microscope images (crossed nicols versus plane polarizing light) of dense scoria juvenile particles from selected tephra fall deposits. PLG = Plagioclase, CPX = clinopyroxene,
VES = vesicles, GL = glass, GM = groundmass. (g-i) show comparatively the vesicle and crystal fraction of gray HV, gray LV and brown scoria, respectively. (For interpretation of the
references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Table 5
Bulk rock geochemistry as measured through XRF (unnormalized totals). LOI values represent the loss on ignition. Please refer to Table 4 for details on each sample characteristics.
Oxide (wt%) Content (wt%)
CHF2-P6 CHF3-P6-A CHF3-P6-B CHF11-P6 LV11 CHF11-P8 CHF11-P4 CHF12-P18-C
SiO2 58.59 53.86 53.36 55.47 55.39 56.03 54.48 55.33

Al2O3 18.02 18.61 18.76 18.81 18.76 18.27 18.48 18.27
Fe2O3 7.12 8.97 8.53 8.24 8.62 8.42 9.03 8.42
CaO 6.12 7.9 7.94 7.84 8.19 7.81 7.85 7.97
Na2O 3.81 3.36 3.42 3.6 3.63 3.73 3.5 3.72
MgO 2.65 4.08 3.75 3.7 4.25 3.98 4.24 3.84
K2O 0.85 0.61 0.58 0.64 0.62 0.66 0.6 0.67
TiO2 0.68 0.94 0.91 0.84 0.92 0.84 0.91 0.93
Mn2O3 0.23 0.27 0.26 0.24 0.25 0.25 0.27 0.25
P2O5 0.17 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.15 0.16 0.15 0.16
LOI 1.74 1.53 1.33 0.5 0.14 0.11 0.92 0.23
Total* 99.98 100.29 99.00 100.04 100.92 100.26 100.43 99.79
15
16
Fig. 10. Ring-width chronology for Nothofagus dombeyi located on the northern flank of Vn. Calbuco. Vertical lines indicate documented historical eruptions of VEI ≥ 3. The number of series
included in the chronology is indicated by the gray curve.
compositions (andesites and dacites) by crustal assimilation of hydrous Textural diversity of erupted products here studied (vesicle and
country rocks as well as olivine, clinopyroxene and hornblende extrac- crystal fraction variations in different juvenile types) may be derived
tion (López-Escobar et al., 1995; Horst, 2007; Sellés and Moreno, from changing conditions of magma cooling, ascent rates or volatile
2011; Montalbano et al., 2017; Morgado et al., 2019a, b). In our study, content (Gutiérrez, 2020) rather than strong variations in the composi-
silica-rich eruptions are represented by CHF-2 and -9 (~60 wt% SiO2; tion of magmas. In fact the eruptive styles are highly variable and appear
Fig. 9a), from which CHF-2 does not show any disequilibrium texture. to change over medium-term timescales (e.g. decades to centuries) but
In contrast, CHF-3, −10, −11 and −12 show mafic (basaltic andesite) preserving such homogeneous compositions and mineral assemblages.
compositions and disequilibrium textures like sieve texture and Fractional crystallization processes may cyclically act in the intervals be-
embayed rims in rims. These textures are often interpreted as evidence tween “rejuvenated” eruptions (here suggested to be controlled by
of magma mingling or mixing, but also attributed to rapid decompres- deep magma intrusions), deriving from a cooling reservoir that triggers
sion of magma (e.g. Eichelberger, 1980; Nelson and Montana, 1992; eruptions by over-pressurization of the system, producing either effu-
Tepley III et al., 1999; Morgavi et al., 2017). This may suggest that the sive or transient explosive eruptions. These triggering mechanisms
1893, 1961 and 2015 eruptions were triggered by deep magma intru- should be properly assessed through detailed petrologic research of
sion into the reservoir, or either by rapid magma ascent. The source of both large- and small-scale eruptions. Moreover, the understanding of
these parental magmas seems to be a melt derived from the partial pre-eruptive mechanisms may be informative to understand the lack
melting of a granulite or amphibolite (Hickey-Vargas et al., 1995; of eruptive precursors in the volcano, thus being a valuable for volcanic
López-Escobar et al., 1995). Hence, while the rapid magma ascent hy- hazard assessment and volcano monitoring.
pothesis works with the 1893 and 2015 eruptions, this scenario conflicts
with the visual description of the 1961 eruption, which was initially ef- 6. Conclusions
fusive and then progressed into a sub-Plinian phase, thus favoring the
deep magma intrusion hypothesis. Moreover, Horst (2007) has pro- We describe and characterize at least 11 tephra units on the north-
posed that Calbuco eruptions should result from either large injections ern flanks of Vn. Calbuco that provides important information of the
of parental basalt into a shallower andesitic reservoir or the over- explosivity, scale and type of eruptive events that have taken place in re-
pressurization from temperature and dissolved H2O fluctuations. Ac- cent historic times. Our assessment of this tephra record complements
cordingly, secondary boiling followed by an over-pressurization of the the eye-witness descriptions of eruptive activity over last 200 years, of-
system or localized heating by a small magma intrusion in the reservoir fering a better characterization from the physical volcanology point of
have been proposed as potential triggers for the last 2015 eruption view. The three largest (sub-Plinian) historical eruptions of Calbuco in
(Arzilli et al., 2019; Morgado et al., 2019a, b). A third model for the 1893–95, 1961 and 2015 have occurred with repose time intervals of
2015 eruption considers a crystal mush with dacitic composition, around 60 ± 10 years, showing similar physical parameters; however
which was then disaggregated perhaps by magmatic under-plating, different mass budget partitioning have led to different styles of erup-
and its residual melt reached a shallower storage zone to over- tions with varying intensities. Between these eruptions, several much
pressurize and erupt (Namur et al., 2020). Given this ongoing discus- smaller eruptions occurred, many of them of Vulcanian style, producing
sion, the elucidation of pre-eruptive magmatic processes associated quite restricted tephra fallouts. Pyroclastic density currents are not a
with historical eruptions requires a detailed petrologic study of the ubiquitous product, but they have occurred in both small- and large-
eruptive products and to consider each of these models, however our scale eruptions, and their hazards have to be more properly assessed,
data shows that larger eruptions were fed by more mafic compositions, especially after evidence of some PDC's overtopping elevated areas
thus favoring the hypothesis of a renewed cycle of magmatic activity (>50 m) directly adjacent flanking ravines. Despite textural variations
triggered by magma intrusions sourced from deeper storage regions related to vesicle/crystal fractions leading to brown and gray scoria
subject to fractional crystallization. Such mechanisms have been uti- (both high and low vesicle fraction), the products of major (i.e. sub-
lized to explain eruptive style transitions (e.g. Saalfeld et al., 2019) or Plinian) historical eruptions are homogeneous basaltic-andesites
even catastrophic eruptions at other andesitic arc volcanoes (e.g. (c. 55–57 wt% SiO2), with andesitic compositions (c. 60 wt% SiO2) repre-
Eichelberger and Izbekov, 2000; Sosa-Ceballos et al., 2014) however sented by smaller eruptions between these major events. The composi-
other long-lived andesitic volcanoes as Mt. Taranaki/Egmont (New tional and textural characteristics of these products may suggest
Zealand), larger eruptions are fed by more evolved magmas due to frac- dominant fractional crystallization mechanism in the “stable” reservoir
tional crystallization (e.g. Turner et al., 2011). between major eruptions, while these major eruptions would be
Fig. 9. Normalized (H2O and LOI free basis) geochemistry of selected eruptive products of Vn. Calbuco historic eruptions. Only those samples ending with –LV correspond to lavas, in this
case reported by Sellés and Moreno (2011). Squares correspond to Bulk rock data, asterisks to EMPA data of the groundmass (GM) and circles to EDS data of GMs.
17
triggered by processes relating to rejuvenated magmatic input from Castruccio, A., Clavero, J., Rivera, A., 2010. Comparative study of lahars generated by the
1961 and 1971 eruptions of Calbuco and Villarrica volcanoes, Southern Andes of
depth. This interplay may explain the eruptive heterogeneity observed Chile. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 190, 297–311.
at Vn. Calbuco over a centennial time scale. Castruccio, A., Clavero, J., Segura, A., Samaniego, P., Roche, O., Le Pennec, J.L., Droguett, B.,
2016. Eruptive parameters and dynamics of the April 2015 sub-Plinian eruptions of
Calbuco volcano (southern Chile). Bull. Volcanol. 78 (9), 62.
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Declaration of Competing Interest Based on Detrending and Autoregressive Time Series Modeling, with Interactive
Graphics. Columbia University, New York, USA.
Daga, R., Ribeiro Guevara, S., Sánchez, M.L., Arribére, M., 2006. Geochemical characteriza-
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial tion of volcanic ashes from recent events in Northern Patagonia Andean Range by
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ- INAA. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. 270, 677–694.
ence the work reported in this paper. Daga, R., Ribeiro, Guevara S., Sánchez, M.L., Arribére, M., 2008. Source identification of vol-
canic ashes by geochemical analysis of well-preserved lacustrine tephras in Nahuel
Huapi National Park. Appl. Radiat. Isot. 66, 1325–1336.
Acknowledgements Daga, R., Ribeiro Guevara, S., Sánchez, M.L., Arribére, M., 2010. Tephrochronology of re-
cent events in the Andean Range (northern Patagonia): spatial distribution and prov-
This work has been improved with the thoughtful reviews of two enance of lacustrine ash layers in the Nahuel Huapi National Park. J. Quat. Sci. 25,
1113–1123.
anonymous referees. JER extends a special note of gratitude to Drs. Fred Daga, R., Ribeiro Guevara, S., Poire, D.G., Arribére, M., 2014. Characterization of tephras
Swanson and Julia Jones for their friendship, support, and scientific dis- dispersed by the recent eruptions of volcanoes Calbuco (1961), Chaitén (2008) and
cussion during fieldwork campaigns between 2016 and 2019. We ex- Cordón Caulle complex (1960 and 2011), in Northern Patagonia. J. S. Am. Earth Sci.
49, 1–14.
tend our sincere appreciation to Pablo Saumman and Bárbara Corrales Del Gaudio, P., Ventura, G., 2008. Mechanical erosion of xenoliths by magmatic shear flow.
of Parque Valle Los Ulmos for their continuing hospitality and friendship Geophys. Res. Lett. 35 (9).
while engaging in field-work. We also thank Mr. Alex Ziller for provid- Douillet, G.A., Tsang-Hin-Sun, È., Kueppers, U., Letort, J., Pacheco, D.A., Goldstein, F.,
Aulock, F.V., Lavallée, Y., Hanson, J.B., Bustillos, J., Robin, C., Ramón, P., Hall, M.,
ing access through his property enabling us to describe sections along
Dingwell, D.B., 2013. Sedimentology and geomorphology of the deposits from the Au-
the Río Blanco-Este. Finally, we extend our gratitude to the residents gust 2006 pyroclastic density currents at Tungurahua volcano, Ecuador. Bull.
and landowners of Ensenada and surrounding area, for their curiosity Volcanol. 75 (11), 765.
and support of this research. Partial results of semi-quantitative geo- Eichelberger, J.C., 1980. Vesiculation of mafic magma during replenishment of silicic
magma reservoir. Nature 288, 446–450.
chemistry carried out at the University of Chile were financed with Eichelberger, J.C., Izbekov, P.E., 2000. Eruption of andesite triggered by dyke injection:
the FONDECYT 1170195 and FONDAP 15090013 grant. BVA wishes to contrasting cases at Karymsky Volcano, Kamchatka and Mt Katmai, Alaska. Philo-
acknowledge partial funding through the ANID Millennium Science Ini- sophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series A: Mathematical, Physical
and Engineering Sciences 358 (1770), 1465–1485.
tiative/Millennium Nucleus Paleoclimate NCN17_079, Fondecyt Fierstein, J., Nathenson, M., 1992. Another look at the calculation of fallout tephra vol-
1191435. MG thanks the Center for Climate and Resilience Research umes. Bull. Volcanol. 54, 156–167.
(CR2, ANID/FONDAP/15110009). Fisher, O., 1893. Erupción del volcán Calbuco. Anales de la Universidad de Chile LXXXV.
Imprenta Nacional, Santiago, Chile, pp. 197–204.
Forte, P., Dominguez, L., Bonadonna, C., Gregg, C.E., Bran, D., Bird, D., Castro, J.M., 2018. Ash
Appendix A. Supplementary data resuspension related to the 2011–2012 Cordón Caulle eruption, Chile, in a rural com-
munity of Patagonia, Argentina. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 350, 18–32.
Global Volcanism Program, 2013a. In: Venzke, E. (Ed.), Calbuco (358020) in Volcanoes of
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the World, v. 4.9.0 (04 Jun 2020). Smithsonian Institution Downloaded 12 Aug 2020.
org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2021.107281. https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=358020.
Global Volcanism Program, 2013b. In: Venzke, E. (Ed.), Calbuco (358020) in Volcanoes of
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VOLGEO-107281; No of Pages 19

Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research xxx (xxxx) xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jvolgeores

Centennial-scale eruptive diversity at Volcán Calbuco (41.3°S; Northwest

1. Introduction Moreno, 1997; Moreno, 1999; Petit-Breuilh, 1999a; Sellés and

Year Description VEI Source Unit

1792 • Seismic activity and lava emission, according to indigenous accounts 2 3 –

Stratigraphic Parental T Unit description

CHF12 2015 15 Exponential 0.255 0.137

an initial Vulcanian vent-clearing event seems likely. In terms of vol-

2015 eruptions), coupled with a deposit density of ~1000 kg/m3 for

the 2015 eruption (Romero et al., 2016), we assume a higher deposit

portion of LV gray scoria and lithic fragments (respectively; See

phase. The 2015 recalculated volume is larger than the estimate of

Romero et al. (2016) and more similar to that of Castruccio et al.

The total (non-DRE) volume of the 1961 eruption may be estimated

average), roughly equivalent to 1.3·105 m3. Thus, the total minimum

volume is ~0.17 km3 and the subsequent erupted mass is about

2.96·1011 kg (lava density estimated to 2475 kg/m3; measured from

partitioning due to their different products. Time repose intervals be-

much larger intervals than the frequency of small-scale eruptions

scribed above. In fact, none of the eruptions correlated to CHF-5 to

study area. It is possible that during these eruptions, the quantity of

not enough to generate structural damage to tree foliage and thereby

cause reduced (post-eruption) growth (Montiel et al., 2016). On the

contrary, it has been observed that with a smaller quantity of tephra

deposited in an eruption, radial growth tended to increase due to an

water availability for plants (Mahler and Fosberg, 1983; González

of N. dombeyi at the northern ﬂank of Calbuco Volcano can be attrib-

uted to the occurrence of volcanic eruptions that generated volumi-

nous ash-fall that subsequently inundated the ﬂanking forest, such

as in the 1893, 1961 and 2015 eruptions. However, growth suppres-

sion coinciding with the 1929 eruption also is indicative of a larger

scale volcanic event than suggested via eye-witness accounts and is

widely dispersed and associated with PDC emplacement affecting

5.3. Triggering processes

Fractional crystallization from a parental basaltic melt is the domi-

nant differentiation process in the magmatic system of Calbuco, produc-

Oxide (wt%) Content (wt%)

CHF2-P6 CHF3-P6-A CHF3-P6-B CHF11-P6 LV11 CHF11-P8 CHF11-P4 CHF12-P18-C

SiO2 58.59 53.86 53.36 55.47 55.39 56.03 54.48 55.33

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