11

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDY

This chapter is a presentation of related literature and related studies. This also

includes the theoretical and conceptual framework, the synthesis of the state-of-the-art,

and the gap that the study bridges. The gathered ideas and information from different

sources such as books, journals, blogs, studies, desertions and the internet were used to

provide insights, theories, principles and philosophies that intend to provide an ample

dimension of knowledge that supported the conduct of this study.

Related Literature

According to the government, they will encourage the k-12 program to enhance

the skills of the students to help them prepare for employment. Most parents are against

it because they cannot afford to pay for their tuition fees. According to the K to12

program the graduates will gain job-specific skills even without a college degree. It will

afford fully sufficient time in learning for students to master and focus on their interests.

Hence, it will be enough for Kto12 students to prepare for work. In addition, for two

years in high school, they will be a full-time employment when they graduate on their

legal age. According to DepEd they make move to aims an offer more chances to talk

with business groups, local and foreign chambers of commerce, and industries. These

groups agreed to change their job requirements to hire K-12 graduates and make sure that

firms will be open and kind to K-12 graduates and working students. The government

will produce young entrepreneurs. It will offer tracks that will train and let students

venture into business and other fields further than employment.1

 12

According to Ray Gamboa, for their initial offering they chose Contact Center

Service Course for their 52 enrollees who graduated in Junior High School from the said

school. This development opened doors of opportunities for two students, who at first had

their doubts on the SHS program. Janse Richnella Padilla said that back then he viewed

the SHS as an additional expense to His parents and to himself.

  Also sharing the same outlook is Ma. Andrea Minasalvas, she thought of it as an

additional burden to both the students and their parents. Students would waste more time

in school and parents shoulder additional expenses to send their children to school.

However, things begun to change when Padilla and Minasalvas saw the fruits of the SHS

Program.

Three months before they graduated from SHS, they already started working as an

agent in one of the Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) companies in Bacolod. Because

of the knowledge & skills they developed, & became more confident about themselves.

Now they see the whole things differently. After finishing the program, many of NOHS

Senior High School graduates are now employed in different BPO companies in Bacolod

City.2

The first batch of K to12 are expected to graduate this 2018. But is it possible that

they can find a job after graduating? And will companies hire these high school

graduates? Before senior high school existed, there was only four years of high school. It

got extended for two years when the Enhanced Basic Education was signed by the

President Benigno “Noynoy” Aquino into law on 2013. Those who choose not to pursue

college or cannot afford money for college tuitions can find a job after graduating senior
 13

high since it is the purpose for the additional two years added to make sure that students

are prepared for the job market.3

Based on the tracks such as Academic, Sports, Arts and Design, and Tech. Voc.;

These will be the track subjects that senior high students will have to develop their skills

for immediate employment or entrepreneurship and core subjects for college readiness.

This will help the Filipino youth to be more competitive and it will enable to improve the

country’s education system with global standards and decrease the unemployment rate in

the country. It will also help the senior high school students to decide what direction they

want to take after graduating. The government is focusing on improving the country’s

form of education and is paying attention to the students of senior high to immediately

find employment after graduating. With problems involved in the new adoption the

program, the Philippines were able to progress thanks to the help of Australia. The

Philippines is shaping up to be an attractive recruitment destination. And with a booming

economy and education more and more foreigners are coming to the Philippines to study

which demonstrates that the country is improving. Many Filipino parents welcome the

basic education reforms and are hoping that the government will definitely prepare their

children for a better and brighter future.4

According to Quintas and Miasco, the Philippines is the last country in Asia to

implement the 12-year basic education program. It was one of the three countries in the

world with a 10-year pre-university cycle namely; Angola and Djibouti are the other two.
 14

The K-to-12 program was implemented through the Enhanced Basic Education

Act of 2013; it is a good thing for Filipino graduates to be able to compete globally and to

adopt education standards that are recognized worldwide.5

According to Gazette (2012) and Viloria (2016), Senior High School (SHS) is the

last phase in the implementation of the K-to-12 program meaning it covers the last two

years of specialized upper secondary education which is Grades 11 and 12. Viloria (2016)

explains all Grade 10 completers, as well as those who are outside the formal school

system who have completed Grade 6, will be accepted in SHS. Students will go through a

core curriculum and subjects under a track of their choice which covers a total of 31

subjects, at least 15 of which comprise the core subjects that stemmed from eight learning

areas: Language, Humanities, Communication, Mathematics, Philosophy, Science, Social

6
Sciences, and P.E. and Health. The students may choose a specialization based on

aptitude, interests, and school capacity. It may be the Academic Track that prepares

students in planning to pursue college education while the Tech-Vocational, Sports, and

Arts and Design tracks that will equip students with the skills needed to secure jobs in the

field they want.7

According to Hyslop (2008) work readiness is possessing work-ready skills

required by employers. 8 American College Testing (2006) supported this claim that these

skills include soft skills (people skills needed for everyday life) and hard skills (technical

or administrative procedures related to an organization’s core business) that are

transferable across industries and are considered valuable for any occupation at any level

of education.9
 15

There are a lot of factors which affect the work readiness of Senior High School

(SHS) students. According to Tehama County Department of Social Services (2012) the

freshly graduated students must be aware of their behavioral health, life skills, and job

skills, including preparing a resume or job application and learning and practicing

interview skills.10 According to American College Testing (2006) context is it has been a

common belief that students going directly into college require a different academic

preparation than those going directly into the workforce; however, employers are

convinced that this is no longer the case.11 Casner-Lotto, J., Barrington, L. & Wright, M.

(2006) supports that this is in part due to the expanding global economy. Not only must

graduates now be able to transition successfully into a postsecondary option, they must

also be able to thrive and survive in a rapidly changing work environment once they get

there. Whether entering the workforce directly upon graduation or later after the

completion of college or other postsecondary training, all students should be graduating

high school with basic knowledge and applied skills critical for success in the 21st

century.12

Related Studies

A study of Bandaranaike “Understanding Emotional Work Readiness in the

Workplace” is a qualitative research; that unlocks the potential of the cognitive skills for

a deeper understanding of the student’s affective skills, and introduces the concept of

Emotional Work-readiness (EW) as a pathway for building work-readiness capacity. It

suggests that a critical element to work integrated learning is the pursuit for affective

learning outcomes, values, beliefs, attitudes and behaviours. It also defines the theoretical
 16

foundations of emotive and social behaviours and interprets emotional work-readiness

(EW) within this context.13

This study of Bandaranaike focuses on the Emotional aspect of work readiness.

However, the present study will be assessing the overall employment readiness of a

student.

The study of McQuiad and Colin Lindsay, “The Concept of Employability” tells

that employability plays a crucial role in informing labour market policy in the United

Kingdom, European Union and beyond. Also, it recognizes three interrelated components

that influence employability; Individual factors, Personal circumstances and External

factors.

The Individual factors include the persons’ skills and attributes, demographic

characteristics, health and well- being, job seeking, and adaptability and mobility. The

Personal circumstances consist of the household circumstances, work culture and access

to resources. While the External factors speaks about the demand factors (labour market

factors, vacancy characteristic) and enabling support factors (accessibility of public

services and job matching technology).14

Meanwhile, Mashigo studied about the Factors Influencing Work Readiness of

Graduates. This study used a descriptive, non-experimental research design to explore the

relationships between the variables and work readiness. Findings are Comprehensibility,

Efficacy & Optimism, Emotional reasoning, Emotional self-management and Emotional

expression were found to be predictors of the subscales of Work Readiness; Emotional

 17

intelligence, Psychological capital, Sense of coherence. These findings will make

significant contributions to the work readiness levels of graduates.15

The above studies focused on the factors affecting the employment readiness of a

person. Thus, it will help the researchers when it comes in determining how ready are the

Senior High School student to face the challenges of being employed.

According to Tanner’s study, the researchers used follow up studies that can be

effectively evaluate the college programs and the graduate perceptions of degree value

and employment readiness. The assessment used for the perceptions in employment

readiness from 2011 to 2013. The researcher mission is to educate students and

communities in ways that enable their future success in the regional and global

economies. Environment, energy and natural resources, plant, insect, and microbe

systems, health and food safety, families and communities, animal systems and

commerce that the researchers work in six distinct besides, interconnected and

independent they have focused on that areas. Proper preparations for employment will in-

turn improve the perceived values of educational degrees and employment readiness. In

order to properly prepare and equip students, the school must develop and implement

innovative curricula, encourage industry and the community to participate in student

learning, explore and develop structures for students to participate in global learning and

create a structure to support leadership, communication and education to prepare students

for career placement. The researchers’ mission statement lays the ideal that each graduate

is both prepared and ready to enter the workforce.16

 18

A research conducted by Raymond Doe believes that the goal of a quality

education in higher education is to sharpen the skills of students to unleash them to a

whole new knowledge and prepare them for a better employment. Education itself does

not only have a single purpose but it also prepares students to be good citizens and to

compete in the global marketplace. It is better to provide senior high students the needs

and skills required for employment as early as possible to be able to expose them in

entering the workforce. It is important to have career development among the students

because there is global competition among organizations that demands recruitment of

well-aligned and well-prepared employees that meets their organizational goals.

Providing a quality education for students will help develop the students over time. For

the two years of senior high, students will mature and grow. Although it is not easy to

persuade companies to hire senior high graduates, the government makes sure that the

education in the country is in Germany’s educational standard that will give a further

boost to the past educational standards. The future of the nation is in the hands of the

students who will be graduating after senior high. They will be the first batch to prove

that senior high school is worthy and gave them a benefit to be in the workforce.17

American College Testing (2006) provided empirical evidence that all high school

students need a comparable education regardless of whether they are deemed college

bound or work bounds. This education must provide students a certain level of readiness

if they are to be successful. American College Testing reached this conclusion by

looking at levels of skills required for employment success, comparing these results on

tests that measure work readiness and college readiness, and then determining if the

performance levels needed for college and workforce readiness were the same or
 19

different. Their results showed that the landscape has rapidly changed from just a few

years ago, making it critical that high school students possess the ability to adapt to and

sustain meaningful employment. 18

The Conference Board et al. (2006) reveals that High school graduates are

deficient in the basic skills desired by employers: written communication, math, reading

comprehension, professionalism, leadership, and basic work ethic skills.19 According to

National Commission on Excellence in Education (1983) this statement echoes those

found in the landmark report, A Nation at Risk. A Nation at Risk revealed that high

school students did not possess these very same basic skills required for success. The

findings reported in A Nation at Risk provided the impetus for educational programs for

many years. In light of the findings of A Nation at Risk, an increased focus of academic

skill development began for schools across the country. However, other programs,

particularly career and technical education programs were viewed as an unnecessary part

of public education.20 Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (1991)

asserts that initiatives focused heavily on the need for increased academic standards and

changes to work-related education, which carved the path for an increased emphasis on

basic education to emerge.21

However, the William T. Grant Foundation (1988) released their report, The

Forgotten Half; this supported the notion that high school students lacked both academic

and work ethic skills required for life. Acknowledging that not all students would go on

to college, the report urged educators to consider working harder for the population of

students who may not be college bounds.22

 20

According to Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (1991)

subsequent pieces of reform were introduced, including the release of a report titled What

Work Requires of Schools: A SCANS Report for America 2000.The report

acknowledged that most high school graduates do not have the foundational skills

necessary to be successful in the workplace. Not only did this report address academic

skills, but for the first time also addressed such things as critical thinking, using

information and technology, and being able to demonstrate teamwork and problem-

solving skills. This report was perhaps also the first of its kind to address the importance

of education and employers working together to overcome these skill gaps.23

Legislation followed that addressed the important findings from the SCANS

Report, particularly in the form of the School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994.24

According to Gordon (2008) passed to address noted skill shortages and to advocate for

an increase in work-based learning opportunities, this legislation created a model for

partnership between educators and employers to lead to an increased connection between

education and employment. By identifying the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other

important characteristics of occupations, smoother transitions could occur from school to

work.25 Scott and Sarkees-Wircenski (2008) claims that significant factors of the Act

included collaborative partnerships, integrated curriculum, technological advances,

adaptable workers, comprehensive career guidance, work-based learning, and a

systematic approach to implementation.26

Synthesis of the State-of-the-Art

 21

Gamboa, DepEd, and other articles gave the purposes and benefits of Kto12 by

implementing it. Since the Philippines is the only country who did not implement the 12-

year basic education program, Benigno “Noynoy”Aquino signed this law by 2013. It may

be a burden for the parents because of the tuition fee. Yet, it has the purpose of enhancing

their skills and for them to be open for good opportunities and employment after high

school graduation. Raymond Doe also conducted a study related to this. In other terms,

they are preparing the student’s employment readiness. By this, Hyslop and another

article mentioned skills that a student must possess to be work ready.

The study of Tanner used assessment for the perception of employment readiness.

McQuiad, Lindsay and Mashigo studied about the factors influencing the employment

readiness of students and graduates; while, the study of Bandaranaike explained the

Emotional work readiness of an employee. However, the present study focuses on the

Employment Readiness of the Senior High School students.

Gaps Bridged by the Study

The following related studies and literature stated above is parallel to the present

study in terms of factors influencing work readiness. There have been studies to further

enhance the employment readiness of Senior High School students as well. However, this

study attempts to have thorough observation and description of what scale or level of

work readiness does Senior High School(SHS) students of Mary’s Child Science

Oriented School for the academic year 2017-2018 possess. Since the curriculum has been

only implemented few years ago and the students today are the pioneers, obviously, there

still no conclusive data or information about the work readiness of SHS students of
 22

Mary’s Child Science Oriented School. This study will obtain answers from the

combination of diagnostic or assessment test and survey questionnaires.

Theoretical Framework

This study is associated with the following ideas of the 21 st Century Skill

Initiative27 28, Social Cognitive Theory29 by Albert Bandura and the Emotional Learning30.

21st Century Skills initiative’s major focus is to identify the relation between the

required skills for a job and the skills being taught in school. In this, it includes skills

both cognitive (mathematic proficiency) and non-cognitive factors (personality, attitudes,

values, beliefs). Also, it is all-important that the educational system of the K-12 and also

for the higher level for the job market and its demand.

By the term “21st century skills”, it includes Life/career skills from attaining

adaptability & flexibility, initiative & self-direction, leadership & responsibility,

productivity & accountability, social & cross-cultural skills; Core subjects indicating

English, Language, Mathematics, Arts, Science, History, Geography and others; 21 st

century themes on civic literacy, environmental literacy, financial  literacy (including

economic, business, and entrepreneurial skills), global awareness, health literacy,

information/media/technology skills: media literacy, information literacy;

Learning/innovation skills which refers to one’s creativity, critical thinking,

collaboration, communication, problem solving.

 23

Next implication is the Social Cognitive theory. It started off as Social Learning

Theory in the 1960s by Albert Bandura, which emphasizes on social influence and on

external/ internal social reinforcement. The theory takes into account on a person's past

experiences, which factor into whether its behavioral action will occur. These past

experiences influence reinforcements, expectations, and expectancies, all of which shape

whether a person will engage in a specific behavior and the reasons why a person

engages in that behavior. Another thing is this theory has six (6) concepts; Reciprocal

Determinism, Behavioral Capability, Observational Learning, Reinforcement,

Expectations and Self-Efficacy.

Reciprocal Determinism is the central concept of SCT. This refer to the dynamic

and reciprocal interaction of person (individual with a set of learned experiences),

environment (external social context), and behavior (responses to stimuli to achieve

goals).

Behavioral Capability pertains to the ability of a person to perform such behavior

through his essential knowledge and skill. This also means that in order to perform a task

successfully; he must know what to do and how to do it.

Observational Learning state that a person can reproduce actions by witnessing

and observing a behavior conducted by others. So, as they completed the behavior

successfully, this means that they have a proper demonstration by other’s behavior.

Reinforcements assert from the internal or external responses to a person's

behavior that affect the likelihood of continuing or discontinuing the behavior.

 24

Expectations refer to the possible consequences of a person’s behavior. It can be

either health-related or not health-related. People anticipate the consequences of their

actions before engaging in the behavior, and these anticipated consequences can

influence successful completion of the behavior. Also, expectations derive largely from

previous experience.

Self-Efficacy denotes to the level of confidence of a person has in his ability to

perform a task effectively. It was added when the theory evolved into SCT. This is

influenced by specific capabilities and other individual factors of a person, as well as by

environmental factors (barriers and facilitators).

On the other hand, Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) involves processes in

which students and adults acquire and effectively apply the knowledge, attitudes, and

skills necessary to understand and manage emotions, set and achieve positive goals, feel

and show empathy for others, establish and maintain positive relationships, and make

responsible decisions. Mainly, SEL includes five core competencies; Self-awareness,

Self-management, Social awareness, Relationship skills and Responsible decision

making.

Self-Awareness means the ability of a person to identify, describe and understand

emotions and the causes of these. It pertains to the ability of a person to make accurate

self-judgements, have a sense of inner motivation and the satisfaction in attaining goals.

Self-Management dictates on the capability of a person to sustain him when it

comes to handle stress, overcome obstacles perseveringly. This aspect is generally

 25

important as students to experience more challenging coursework in high school and

college settings and have to handle emotions such as test anxiety.

Social Awareness describes in taking other’s perspective and accepting other’s

similarities and differences. This skill includes direct implications both for the

development of healthy interpersonal relationships and for moral and pro-social

behaviour. Another core of this is the ability to identify situations in which social support

can serve as a resource for managing problems.

Relationship Skills involves establishing and maintaining healthy and rewarding

relationships based on cooperation; resisting inappropriate social pressure; preventing,

managing, and resolving interpersonal conflict; and seeking help when needed. These

skills help the students and others to work well in groups and to coordinate with people

having different cultures and backgrounds.

Responsible Decision Making refers on making decisions considering ethical

standards, safety concerns, appropriate social norms, respect for others, and likely

consequences of various actions. Also, it considers applying decision-making skills to

academic and social situations; and contributing to the well-being of one’s school and

community.

This study reflected these ideas on assessing one’s person employment readiness.

The 21st Century skills initiative focuses on a person’s skill must have in order to be work

ready. By these, they observe and learned things by the behavior of others or through

their own experience and achieve self-efficacy through the influence of other factors such

as environmental factors; based from Social Cognitive Theory. Also, it relates to the
 26

Social and Emotional learning where it includes processes in which students and adults

acquire and effectively apply the knowledge, attitudes, and skills necessary to understand

and manage emotions, set and achieve positive goals, feel and show empathy for others,

establish and maintain positive relationships, and make responsible decisions.

Figure 1. Theoretical Framework

Conceptual Framework

This study will focus on determining the employment readiness scale of Senior

High School students in Mary’s Child Science Oriented School, particularly both in
 27

ABM and STEM track. The researchers will conduct a questionnaire in a survey form,

evaluate their skulls based from their knowledge, and behavior.

Throughout the result, they may identify on what scale does the Senior High

School students have depending on their personal skills.

Figure 2. Conceptual Framework

 28

NOTES

1
Anonymous (2015) “Ways the K-12 Program Can Ensure Employment After
Graduation” Retrieved from http://k12philippines.com/ways-the-k-12-program-can-
ensure-employment-after-graduation/ Last accessed 11/25/17 4:06pm
2
DepED (2016) “Calling all Senior High School graduates” Retrieved from
http://www.deped.gov.ph/press-releases/calling-all-senior-high-school-graduates Last
accessed 11/23/17 7:06
3
Gamboa, R. (2016) “K-12 and skills mismatch” Retrieved from
http://www.philstar.com/business/2016/03/29/1566992/k-12-and-skills-mismatch Last
accessed 12/20/17 7:23 pm
4
Anonymous (2013) “Philippines creates opportunities in overhaul of K-12
education system” Retrieved from http://monitor.icef.com/2013/08/philippines-creates-
opportunities-in-overhaul-of-k-12-education-system/ Last accessed 12/19/17 9:46 pm
5
Gov.ph. Republic Act No. 10533, May 15, 2013; Implementing rules and
regulations. Retrieved from http://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2013/05/15/republic-act-
no-10533/ Last accessed 12/5/17 4:57 pm
6
Dr. Viloria, E. (2016). “Understanding the Senior High School” Retrieved from
https://blog.edukasyon.ph/senior-high/understanding-senior-high-school/ Last accessed
11/21/17 10:44 am
7
Department of Education. “Senior High School in the Philippines: An
Overview” Retrieved from http://www.courses.com.ph/senior-high-school-in-the-
philippines-an-overview/ Last accessed 11/23/2017 7:16 pm
8
Hyslop, A. (2008). CTE’s role in workforce readiness credentialing. Retrieved
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_Media/files/files-techniques2008/sept08_workforce_readiness.pdf
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American College Testing. (2006a). Ready for college and ready for work:
Same or different? Iowa City, IA: Author.
 29

10
February 25, 2012.Tehama County Department of Social Services. Retrieved
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Hall, V. (2010). “Work Readiness of Career and Technical Education High
School Students” pp. 13
12
Casner-Lotto, J., Barrington, L. & Wright, M. (2006). Are they really ready to
work? Employers' perspectives on the basic knowledge and applied skills of new entrants
to the 21st century U.S. workforce. (Research Report BED-06-Workforce). Washington
DC, USA: The Conference Board, Inc., the Partnership for 21st Century Skills, Corporate
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13
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14
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article=2007&context=gradschool_dissertations Last accessed 12/23/17 8:43pm
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American College Testing. (2006a). Ready for college and ready for work:
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The Conference Board, Corporate Voices for Working Families, Partnership for
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ready to work? Employers’ perspectives on the basic knowledge and applied skills of new
entrants to the 21st century workforce. Retrieved from
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20
National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A nation at risk.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education
21
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22
William T. Grant Foundation Commission on Work, Family, and Citizenship.
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23
Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills. (1991). What work
requires of schools: A SCANS report for America. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
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24
Stern, D., Wu, C., Dayton, C., & Maul, A. (2007). Learning by doing career
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25
Gordon, H. R. D. (2008). The history and growth of career and technical
education in America. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.
26
Scott, J. L., & Sarkees-Wircenski, M. (2008). Overview of career and technical
education. Orland Park, IL: American Technical Publishers.
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krist2366 (2014), "21st Century Skills (P21 and others)," Retrieved from
https://www.learning-theories.com/21st-century-skills-p21-and-others.html Last accessed
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