A simulation is an approximate imitation of the operation of a process or system;[1] that represents

its operation over time.

Simulation is used in many contexts, such as simulation of technology for performance tuning or
optimizing, safety engineering, testing, training, education, and video games. Often, computer
experiments are used to study simulation models. Simulation is also used with scientific modelling of
natural systems or human systems to gain insight into their functioning,[2] as in economics.
Simulation can be used to show the eventual real effects of alternative conditions and courses of
action. Simulation is also used when the real system cannot be engaged, because it may not be
accessible, or it may be dangerous or unacceptable to engage, or it is being designed but not yet
built, or it may simply not exist.[3]
Key issues in simulation include the acquisition of valid sources of information about the relevant
selection of key characteristics and behaviors, the use of simplifying approximations and
assumptions within the simulation, and fidelity and validity of the simulation outcomes. Procedures
and protocols for model verification and validation are an ongoing field of academic study,
refinement, research and development in simulations technology or practice, particularly in the work
of computer simulation.

Classification and terminology[edit]

Human-in-the-loop simulation of outer space

Visualization of a direct numerical simulation model.

Historically, simulations used in different fields developed largely independently, but 20th-century
studies of systems theory and cybernetics combined with spreading use of computers across all
those fields have led to some unification and a more systematic view of the concept.
Physical simulation refers to simulation in which physical objects are substituted for the real thing
(some circles[4] use the term for computer simulations modelling selected laws of physics, but this
article does not). These physical objects are often chosen because they are smaller or cheaper than
the actual object or system.
Interactive simulation is a special kind of physical simulation, often referred to as a human in the
loop simulation, in which physical simulations include human operators, such as in a flight
simulator, sailing simulator, or driving simulator.
Continuous simulation is a simulation based on continuous time, rather than discrete time steps,
using numerical integration of differential equations.[5]
Discrete-event simulation studies systems whose states change their values only at discrete times.
[6]
 For example, a simulation of an epidemic could change the number of infected people at time
instants when susceptible individuals get infected or when infected individuals recover.
Stochastic simulation is a simulation where some variable or process is subject to random variations
and is projected using Monte Carlo techniques using pseudo-random numbers. Thus replicated runs
with the same boundary conditions will each produce different results within a specific confidence
band.[5]
Deterministic simulation is a simulation which is not stochastic: thus the variables are regulated by
deterministic algorithms. So replicated runs from the same boundary conditions always produce
identical results.
Hybrid Simulation (sometime Combined Simulation) corresponds to a mix between Continuous and
Discrete Event Simulation and results in integrating numerically the differential equations between
two sequential events to reduce the number of discontinuities.[7]
A stand alone simulation is a simulation running on a single workstation by itself.
A distributed simulation is one which uses more than one computer simultaneously, in order to
guarantee access from/to different resources (e.g. multi-users operating different systems, or
distributed data sets); a classical example is Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS).[8]
Parallel Simulation speeds up a simulation's execution by concurrently distributing its workload over
multiple processors, as in High-Performance Computing.[9]
Interoperable Simulation where multiple models, simulators (often defined as Federates)
interoperate locally, distributed over a network; a classical example is High-Level Architecture.[10][11]
Modeling & Simulation as a Service where simulation is accessed as a service over the web.[12]
Modeling, interoperable Simulation and Serious Games where Serious Games Approaches (e.g.
Game Engines and Engagement Methods) are integrated with Interoperable Simulation.[13]
Simulation Fidelity is used to describe the accuracy of a simulation and how closely it imitates the
real-life counterpart. Fidelity is broadly classified as one of three categories: low, medium, and high.
Specific descriptions of fidelity levels are subject to interpretation, but the following generalizations
can be made:

 Low – the minimum simulation required for a system to respond to accept inputs and provide
outputs
 Medium – responds automatically to stimuli, with limited accuracy
 High – nearly indistinguishable or as close as possible to the real system
Human in the loop simulations can include a computer simulation as a so-called synthetic
environment.[16]
Simulation in failure analysis refers to simulation in which we create environment/conditions to
identify the cause of equipment failure. This was the best and fastest method to identify the failure
cause.

Computer simulation[edit]
Main article: Computer simulation
A computer simulation (or "sim") is an attempt to model a real-life or hypothetical situation on a
computer so that it can be studied to see how the system works. By changing variables in the
simulation, predictions may be made about the behaviour of the system. It is a tool to virtually
investigate the behaviour of the system under study.[1]
Computer simulation has become a useful part of modeling many natural systems
in physics, chemistry and biology,[17] and human systems in economics and social
science (e.g., computational sociology) as well as in engineering to gain insight into the operation of
those systems. A good example of the usefulness of using computers to simulate can be found in
the field of network traffic simulation. In such simulations, the model behaviour will change each
simulation according to the set of initial parameters assumed for the environment.
Traditionally, the formal modeling of systems has been via a mathematical model, which attempts to
find analytical solutions enabling the prediction of the behaviour of the system from a set of
parameters and initial conditions. Computer simulation is often used as an adjunct to, or substitution
for, modeling systems for which simple closed form analytic solutions are not possible. There are
many different types of computer simulation, the common feature they all share is the attempt to
generate a sample of representative scenarios for a model in which a complete enumeration of all
possible states would be prohibitive or impossible.
Several software packages exist for running computer-based simulation modeling (e.g. Monte
Carlo simulation, stochastic modeling, multimethod modeling) that makes all the modeling almost
effortless.
Modern usage of the term "computer simulation" may encompass virtually any computer-based
representation.

Computer science[edit]
In computer science, simulation has some specialized meanings: Alan Turing used the term
"simulation" to refer to what happens when a universal machine executes a state transition table (in
modern terminology, a computer runs a program) that describes the state transitions, inputs and
outputs of a subject discrete-state machine.[18] The computer simulates the subject machine.
Accordingly, in theoretical computer science the term simulation is a relation between state transition
systems, useful in the study of operational semantics.
Less theoretically, an interesting application of computer simulation is to simulate computers using
computers. In computer architecture, a type of simulator, typically called an emulator, is often used
to execute a program that has to run on some inconvenient type of computer (for example, a newly
designed computer that has not yet been built or an obsolete computer that is no longer available),
or in a tightly controlled testing environment (see Computer architecture simulator and Platform
virtualization). For example, simulators have been used to debug a microprogram or sometimes
commercial application programs, before the program is downloaded to the target machine. Since
the operation of the computer is simulated, all of the information about the computer's operation is
directly available to the programmer, and the speed and execution of the simulation can be varied at
will.
Simulators may also be used to interpret fault trees, or test VLSI logic designs before they are
constructed. Symbolic simulation uses variables to stand for unknown values.
In the field of optimization, simulations of physical processes are often used in conjunction
with evolutionary computation to optimize control strategies.

Simulation in education and training[edit]

Main article: Adaptive educational hypermedia
Simulation is extensively used for educational purposes. It is used for cases where it is prohibitively
expensive or simply too dangerous to allow trainees to use the real equipment in the real world. In
such situations they will spend time learning valuable lessons in a "safe" virtual environment yet
living a lifelike experience (or at least it is the goal). Often the convenience is to permit mistakes
during training for a safety-critical system.
Simulations in education are somewhat like training simulations. They focus on specific tasks. The
term 'microworld' is used to refer to educational simulations which model some abstract concept
rather than simulating a realistic object or environment, or in some cases model a real-world
environment in a simplistic way so as to help a learner develop an understanding of the key
concepts. Normally, a user can create some sort of construction within the microworld that will
behave in a way consistent with the concepts being modeled. Seymour Papert was one of the first to
advocate the value of microworlds, and the Logo programming environment developed by Papert is
one of the most well-known microworlds.
Project Management Simulation is increasingly used to train students and professionals in the art
and science of project management. Using simulation for project management training improves
learning retention and enhances the learning process.[19][20]
Social simulations may be used in social science classrooms to illustrate social and political
processes in anthropology, economics, history, political science, or sociology courses, typically at
the high school or university level. These may, for example, take the form of civics simulations, in
which participants assume roles in a simulated society, or international relations simulations in which
participants engage in negotiations, alliance formation, trade, diplomacy, and the use of force. Such
simulations might be based on fictitious political systems, or be based on current or historical events.
An example of the latter would be Barnard College's Reacting to the Past series of historical
educational games.[21] The National Science Foundation has also supported the creation of reacting
games that address science and math education.[22] In social media simulations, participants train
communication with critics and other stakeholders in a private environment.
In recent years, there has been increasing use of social simulations for staff training in aid and
development agencies. The Carana simulation, for example, was first developed by the United
Nations Development Programme, and is now used in a very revised form by the World Bank for
training staff to deal with fragile and conflict-affected countries.[23]
Military uses for simulation often involve aircraft or armoured fighting vehicles, but can also target
small arms and other weapon systems training. Specifically, virtual firearms ranges have become
the norm in most military training processes and there is a significant amount of data to suggest this
is a useful tool for armed professionals.[24]

Common user interaction systems for virtual

simulations[edit]
Virtual simulations represent a specific category of simulation that utilizes simulation equipment to
create a simulated world for the user. Virtual simulations allow users to interact with a virtual world.
Virtual worlds operate on platforms of integrated software and hardware components. In this
manner, the system can accept input from the user (e.g., body tracking, voice/sound recognition,
physical controllers) and produce output to the user (e.g., visual display, aural display, haptic
display) .[25] Virtual Simulations use the aforementioned modes of interaction to produce a sense
of immersion for the user.

Virtual simulation input hardware[edit]

Motorcycle simulator of Bienal do Automóvel exhibition, in Belo Horizonte, Brazil.

There is a wide variety of input hardware available to accept user input for virtual simulations. The
following list briefly describes several of them:
Body tracking: The motion capture method is often used to record the user's movements and
translate the captured data into inputs for the virtual simulation. For example, if a user physically
turns their head, the motion would be captured by the simulation hardware in some way and
translated to a corresponding shift in view within the simulation.

 Capture suits and/or gloves may be used to capture movements of users body parts. The
systems may have sensors incorporated inside them to sense movements of different body
parts (e.g., fingers). Alternatively, these systems may have exterior tracking devices or marks
that can be detected by external ultrasound, optical receivers or electromagnetic sensors.
Internal inertial sensors are also available on some systems. The units may transmit data either
wirelessly or through cables.
 Eye trackers can also be used to detect eye movements so that the system can determine
precisely where a user is looking at any given instant.
Physical controllers: Physical controllers provide input to the simulation only through direct
manipulation by the user. In virtual simulations, tactile feedback from physical controllers is highly
desirable in a number of simulation environments.

 Omnidirectional treadmills can be used to capture the users locomotion as they walk or run.
 High fidelity instrumentation such as instrument panels in virtual aircraft cockpits provides
users with actual controls to raise the level of immersion. For example, pilots can use the
actual global positioning system controls from the real device in a simulated cockpit to help them
practice procedures with the actual device in the context of the integrated cockpit system.
Voice/sound recognition: This form of interaction may be used either to interact with agents within
the simulation (e.g., virtual people) or to manipulate objects in the simulation (e.g., information).
Voice interaction presumably increases the level of immersion for the user.
 Users may use headsets with boom microphones, lapel microphones or the room may be
equipped with strategically located microphones.
Current research into user input systems[edit]
Research in future input systems holds a great deal of promise for virtual simulations. Systems such
as brain–computer interfaces (BCIs) offer the ability to further increase the level of immersion for
virtual simulation users. Lee, Keinrath, Scherer, Bischof, Pfurtscheller[26] proved that naïve subjects
could be trained to use a BCI to navigate a virtual apartment with relative ease. Using the BCI, the
authors found that subjects were able to freely navigate the virtual environment with relatively
minimal effort. It is possible that these types of systems will become standard input modalities in
future virtual simulation systems.

Virtual simulation output hardware[edit]

There is a wide variety of output hardware available to deliver a stimulus to users in virtual
simulations. The following list briefly describes several of them:
Visual display: Visual displays provide the visual stimulus to the user.

 Stationary displays can vary from a conventional desktop display to 360-degree wrap-around
screens to stereo three-dimensional screens. Conventional desktop displays can vary in size
from 15 to 60 inches (380 to 1,520 mm). Wrap around screens is typically utilized in what is
known as a cave automatic virtual environment (CAVE). Stereo three-dimensional screens
produce three-dimensional images either with or without special glasses—depending on the
design.
 Head-mounted displays (HMDs) have small displays that are mounted on headgear worn by
the user. These systems are connected directly into the virtual simulation to provide the user
with a more immersive experience. Weight, update rates and field of view are some of the key
variables that differentiate HMDs. Naturally, heavier HMDs are undesirable as they cause
fatigue over time. If the update rate is too slow, the system is unable to update the displays fast
enough to correspond with a quick head turn by the user. Slower update rates tend to cause
simulation sickness and disrupt the sense of immersion. Field of view or the angular extent of
the world that is seen at a given moment field of view can vary from system to system and has
been found to affect the user's sense of immersion.
Aural display: Several different types of audio systems exist to help the user hear and localize
sounds spatially. Special software can be used to produce 3D audio effects 3D audio to create the
illusion that sound sources are placed within a defined three-dimensional space around the user.

 Stationary conventional speaker systems may be used to provide dual or multi-channel

surround sound. However, external speakers are not as effective as headphones in producing
3D audio effects.[25]
 Conventional headphones offer a portable alternative to stationary speakers. They also have
the added advantages of masking real-world noise and facilitate more effective 3D audio sound
effects.[25][dubious  –  discuss]
Haptic display: These displays provide a sense of touch to the user (haptic technology). This type
of output is sometimes referred to as force feedback.

 Tactile tile displays use different types of actuators such as inflatable bladders, vibrators,
low-frequency sub-woofers, pin actuators and/or thermo-actuators to produce sensations for the
user.
 End effector displays can respond to users inputs with resistance and force.[25] These
systems are often used in medical applications for remote surgeries that employ robotic
instruments.[27]
Vestibular display: These displays provide a sense of motion to the user (motion simulator). They
often manifest as motion bases for virtual vehicle simulation such as driving simulators or flight
simulators. Motion bases are fixed in place but use actuators to move the simulator in ways that can
produce the sensations pitching, yawing or rolling. The simulators can also move in such a way as to
produce a sense of acceleration on all axes (e.g., the motion base can produce the sensation of
falling).

Clinical healthcare simulators[edit]

Main article: Medical simulation
Medical simulators are increasingly being developed and deployed to teach therapeutic and
diagnostic procedures as well as medical concepts and decision making to personnel in the health
professions. Simulators have been developed for training procedures ranging from the basics such
as blood draw, to laparoscopic surgery[28] and trauma care. They are also important to help on
prototyping new devices[29] for biomedical engineering problems. Currently, simulators are applied to
research and develop tools for new therapies,[30] treatments[31] and early diagnosis[32] in medicine.
Many medical simulators involve a computer connected to a plastic simulation of the relevant
anatomy.[citation needed] Sophisticated simulators of this type employ a life-size mannequin that responds to
injected drugs and can be programmed to create simulations of life-threatening emergencies. In
other simulations, visual components of the procedure are reproduced by computer
graphics techniques, while touch-based components are reproduced by haptic feedback devices
combined with physical simulation routines computed in response to the user's actions. Medical
simulations of this sort will often use 3D CT or MRI scans of patient data to enhance realism. Some
medical simulations are developed to be widely distributed (such as web-enabled simulations[33] and
procedural simulations[34] that can be viewed via standard web browsers) and can be interacted with
using standard computer interfaces, such as the keyboard and mouse.
Another important medical application of a simulator—although, perhaps, denoting a slightly different
meaning of simulator—is the use of a placebo drug, a formulation that simulates the active drug in
trials of drug efficacy (see Placebo (origins of technical term)).

Improving patient safety[edit]

Patient safety is a concern in the medical industry. Patients have been known to suffer injuries and
even death due to management error, and lack of using best standards of care and training.
According to Building a National Agenda for Simulation-Based Medical Education (Eder-Van Hook,
Jackie, 2004), "a health care provider's ability to react prudently in an unexpected situation is one of
the most critical factors in creating a positive outcome in medical emergency, regardless of whether
it occurs on the battlefield, freeway, or hospital emergency room." Eder-Van Hook (2004) also noted
that medical errors kill up to 98,000 with an estimated cost between $37 and $50 million and $17 to
$29 billion for preventable adverse events dollars per year.
Simulation is being used to study patient safety, as well as train medical professionals.[35] Studying
patient safety and safety interventions in healthcare is challenging, because there is a lack of
experimental control (i.e., patient complexity, system/process variances) to see if an intervention
made a meaningful difference (Groves & Manges, 2017).[36] An example of innovative simulation to
study patient safety is from nursing research. Groves et al. (2016) used a high-fidelity simulation to
examine nursing safety-oriented behaviors during times such as change-of-shift report.[35]
However, the value of simulation interventions to translating to clinical practice are is still debatable.
[37]
 As Nishisaki states, "there is good evidence that simulation training improves provider and team
self-efficacy and competence on manikins. There is also good evidence that procedural simulation
improves actual operational performance in clinical settings."[37] However, there is a need to have
improved evidence to show that crew resource management training through simulation.[37] One of
the largest challenges is showing that team simulation improves team operational performance at
the bedside.[38] Although evidence that simulation-based training actually improves patient outcome
has been slow to accrue, today the ability of simulation to provide hands-on experience that
translates to the operating room is no longer in doubt.[39][40][