General Chemistry 1

Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600

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MODULE 1 – Gen Chem 1 Subject Teacher:

MATTER AND ITS PROPERTIES

I. Objectives:
 Learners should be able to demonstrate understanding of the use of properties of matter to
identify substances and how to separate them (STEM_GC11MPIa-b-5)
 Recognize the formula of common chemical substances (STEM_GC11MPIa-b-9)

II. Discussion
 Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. It is composed of tiny particles called
atoms
 All matter has physical and chemical properties. Physical properties are characteristics that
scientists can measure without changing the composition of the sample under study, such as
mass, color, and volume (the amount of space occupied by a sample). Chemical
properties describe the characteristic ability of a substance to react to form new substances;
they include its flammability and susceptibility to corrosion. All samples of a pure substance
have the same chemical and physical properties. For example, pure copper (Cu) is always a
reddish-brown solid (a physical property) and always dissolves in dilute nitric acid (HNO₃) to
produce a blue solution and a brown gas (a chemical property).
 Physical properties can be extensive or intensive. Extensive properties vary with the amount of
the substance and include mass, weight, and volume. Intensive properties, in contrast, do not
depend on the amount of the substance; they include color, melting point, boiling point,
electrical conductivity, and physical state at a given temperature. For example, elemental
sulfur (S) is a yellow crystalline solid that does not conduct electricity and has a melting point
of 115.2 °C, no matter what amount is examined). Scientists commonly measure intensive
properties to determine a substance’s identity, whereas extensive properties convey
information about the amount of the substance in a sample

 Although mass and volume are both extensive properties, their ratio is an important intensive
property called density (ρ). Density is defined as mass per unit volume and is usually expressed
in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm 3). As mass increases in a given volume, density also
increases. For example, lead (Pb), with its greater mass, has a far greater density than the
same volume of air, just as a brick has a greater density than the same volume of Styrofoam.
At a given temperature and pressure, the density of a pure substance is at a constant.
 Pure water, for example, has a density of 0.998 g/cm 3 at 25 °C. The average densities of some
common substances are in the Table below. Notice that corn oil has a lower mass to volume
ratio than water. This means that when added to water, corn oil will “float”
 General Chemistry 1
Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600
Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786;
442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Grade Level/Section: GRADE 11 - STEM
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Physical property and change:

 Physical changes are changes in which no chemical bonds are broken or formed. This means
that the same types of compounds or elements that were there at the beginning of the
change are there at the end of the change. Because the ending materials are the same as
the beginning materials, the properties (such as color, boiling point, etc) will also be the same.
Physical changes involve moving molecules around, but not changing them. Some types of
physical changes include:

o Changes of state (changes from a solid to a liquid or a gas and vice versa)
o Separation of a mixture
o Physical deformation (cutting, denting, stretching)
o Making solutions (special kinds of mixtures).

 As an ice cube melts, its shape changes as it acquires the ability to flow. However, its
composition does not change. Melting is an example of a physical change, since some
properties of the material change, but the identity of the matter does not. Physical changes
can further be classified as reversible or irreversible. The melted ice cube may be refrozen, so
melting is a reversible physical change. Physical changes that involve a change of state are
all reversible. Other changes of state include vaporization (liquid to gas), freezing (liquid to
solid), and condensation (gas to liquid). Dissolving is also a reversible physical change. When
salt is dissolved into water, the salt is said to have entered the aqueous state. The salt may be
regained by boiling off the water, leaving the salt behind.

Chemical Properties and Change

 Chemical changes occur when bonds are broken and/or formed between molecules or
atoms. This means that one substance with a certain set of properties (such as melting point,
color, taste, etc) is turned into a different substance with different properties. Chemical
changes are frequently harder to reverse than physical changes.
 One good example of a chemical change is burning paper. In contrast to the act of ripping
paper, the act of burning paper actually results in the formation of new chemicals (carbon
dioxide and water, to be exact). Another example of chemical change occurs when water is
formed. Each molecule contains two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen chemically
bonded.
 Another example of a chemical change is what occurs when natural gas is burned in your
furnace. This time, before the reaction we have a molecule of methane, CH4, and two
molecules of oxygen, O2, while after the reaction we have two molecules of water, H2O, and
one molecule of carbon dioxide, CO2.
 In this case, not only has the appearance changed, but the structure of the molecules has
also changed. The new substances do not have the same chemical properties as the original
ones. Therefore, this is a chemical change.
 The combustion of magnesium metal is also chemical change
 General Chemistry 1
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(Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium Oxide):

2Mg + O2→2MgO2

as is the rusting of iron (Iron + Oxygen → Iron Oxide/ Rust):

4Fe+3O2→2Fe2O3

MATTER: Physical state and chemical composition.

 There are two principal ways of classifying matter: by its

physical state as a solid, liquid, or gas, and by its chemical
composition as an element, compound, or mixture.

Solids, Liquids, and Gases

 Commonly, a given kind of matter exists in different

physical forms under different conditions. Water, for example,
exists as ice (solid water), as liquid water, and as steam (gaseous
water). The main identifying characteristic of solids is their rigidity:
they tend to maintain their shapes when subjected to outside
forces.
 Liquids and gases, however, are fluids; that is, they flow
easily and change their shapes in response to slight outside forces.
What distinguishes a gas from a liquid is the characteristic of
compressibility (and its opposite, expansibility).
 A gas is easily compressible, whereas a liquid is not. You can put more and more air into a tire,
which increases only slightly in volume. In fact, a given quantity of gas can fill a container of
almost any size. A small quantity would expand to fill the container; a larger quantity could be
compressed to fill the same space. By contrast, if you were to try to force more liquid water
into a closed glass bottle that was already full of water, it would burst.
 These two characteristics, rigidity (or fluidity) and compressibility (or expansibility), can be used
to frame definitions of the three common states of matter:
 Solid the form of matter characterized by rigidity; a solid is relatively incompressible and
has fixed shape and volume.
 Liquid the form of matter that is a relatively incompressible fluid; a liquid has a fixed
volume but no fixed shape.
 Gas the form of matter that is an easily compressible fluid; a given quantity of gas will fit
into a container of almost any size and shape.

 The term vapor is often used to refer to the gaseous state of any kind of matter that
normally exists as a liquid or a solid. These three forms of matter—solid, liquid, gas—
comprise the common states of matter.

Property Solid Liquid Gas

Shape Fixed Not fixed Not fixed

Volume Fixed Fixed Not fixed
Compressibility Cannot be Cannot be Can be
compressed compressed compressed
 General Chemistry 1
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Arrangement of Rigid and Randomly Apart from

particles tightly arranged each other
packed

Movement of Vibrate Move Move

particles about around each quickly
a fixed other in all
position directions

 Plasma is a gas with charged particles. It is a very good conductor of electricity. They
are like gases having an indefinite shape and indefinite volume.
 Bose-Einstein Condensate which would occur at very very low temperatures. The
atoms can no longer bounce around as individual particles. Instead, they must all act in
exactly the same way, and you can’t tell them apart.

Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures

 To understand how matter is classified by its chemical composition, we must first distinguish
between physical and chemical changes and between physical and chemical properties. A
physical change is a change in the form of matter but not in its chemical identity. Changes of
physical state are examples of physical changes. The process of dissolving one material in
another is a further example of a physical change. For instance, you can dissolve sodium
chloride (table salt) in water. The result is a clear liquid, like pure water, though many of its
other characteristics are different from those of pure water. The water and sodium chloride in
this liquid retain their chemical identities and can be separated by some method that
depends on physical changes.

 Distillation is one way to separate the sodium chloride and water components of this liquid.
You place the liquid in a flask to which a device called a condenser is attached. The liquid in
the flask is heated to bring it to a boil. (Boiling entails the formation of bubbles of the vapor in
the body of the liquid.) Water vapor forms and passes from the flask into the cooled
condenser, where the vapor changes back to liquid water. The liquid water is collected in
another flask, called a receiver. The original flask now contains the solid sodium chloride. Thus,
by means of physical changes (the change of liquid water to vapor and back to liquid), you
have separated the sodium chloride and water that you had earlier mixed together.
 General Chemistry 1
Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600
Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786;
442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Grade Level/Section: GRADE 11 - STEM
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 A chemical change, or chemical reaction, is a change in which

one or more kinds of matter are transformed into a new kind of
matter or several new kinds of matter. The rusting of iron, during
which iron combines with oxygen in the air to form a new material
called rust, is a chemical change. The original materials (iron and
oxygen) combine chemically and cannot be separated by any
physical means. To recover the iron and oxygen from rust requires a
chemical change or a series of chemical changes. We
characterize or identify a material by its various properties, which
may be either physical or chemical. A physical property is a characteristic that can be
observed for a material without changing its chemical identity. Examples are physical state
(solid, liquid, or gas), melting point, and color. A chemical property is a characteristic of a
material involving its chemical change. A chemical property of iron is its ability to react with
oxygen to produce rust.
 Substances: The various materials we see around us are either substances or mixtures of
substances. A substance is a kind of matter that cannot be separated into other kinds of
matter by any physical process. Earlier you saw that when sodium chloride is dissolved in
water, it is possible to separate the sodium chloride from the water by the physical process of
distillation. However, sodium chloride is itself a substance and cannot be separated by
physical processes into new materials. Similarly, pure water is a substance

 No matter what its source, a substance always has the same characteristic properties. Sodium
is a solid metal having a melting point of 988 deg C. The metal also reacts vigorously with
water. No matter how sodium is prepared, it always has these properties. Similarly, whether
sodium chloride is obtained by burning sodium in chlorine or from seawater, it is a white solid
melting at 801 deg C.

Elements:
 Millions of substances have been characterized by chemists. Of these, a very small number are
known as elements, from which all other substances are made. Lavoisier was the first to
establish an experimentally useful definition of an element. He defined an element as a
substance that cannot be decomposed by any chemical reaction into simpler substances. In
1789 Lavoisier listed 33 substances as elements, of which more than 20 are still so regarded.
Today 118 elements are known.

Compounds:
 Most substances are compounds. A compound is a substance composed of two or more
elements chemically combined. By the end of the eighteenth century, Lavoisier and others
had examined many compounds and showed that all of them were composed of the
elements in definite proportions by mass. Joseph Louis Proust (1754–1826), by his painstaking
work, convinced the majority of chemists of the general validity of the law of definite
proportions (also known as the law of constant composition): a pure compound, whatever its
source, always contains definite or constant proportions of the elements by mass. For example,
1.0000 gram of sodium chloride always contains 0.3934 gram of sodium and 0.6066 gram of
chlorine, chemically combined. Sodium chloride has definite proportions of sodium and
chlorine; that is, it has constant or definite composition.
 General Chemistry 1
Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600
Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786;
442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Grade Level/Section: GRADE 11 - STEM
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Mixtures
 Most of the materials around us are mixtures. A mixture is a material that can be separated by
physical means into two or more substances. Unlike a pure compound, a mixture has variable
composition. When you dissolve sodium chloride in water, you obtain a mixture; its
composition depends on the relative amount of sodium chloride dissolved. You can separate
the mixture by the physical process of distillation.
 Mixtures are classified into two types. A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture that consists of
physically distinct parts, each with different properties. The photo below shows a
heterogeneous mixture of potassium dichromate and iron filings.

 Another example is salt and sugar that have been stirred together. If you were to look closely,
you would see the separate crystals of sugar and salt. A homogeneous mixture (also known as
a solution) is a mixture that is uniform in its properties throughout given samples. When sodium
chloride is dissolved in water, you obtain a homogeneous mixture, or solution. Air is a gaseous
solution, principally of two elementary substances, nitrogen and oxygen, which are physically
mixed but not chemically combined. A phase is one of several different homogeneous
materials present in the portion of matter under study. A heterogeneous mixture of salt and
sugar is said to be composed of two different phases: one of the phases is salt; the other is
sugar.
 Similarly, ice cubes in water are said to be composed of two phases: one phase is ice; the
other is liquid water. Ice floating in a solution of sodium chloride in water also consists of two
phases, ice and the liquid solution. Note that a phase may be either a pure substance in a
particular state or a solution in a particular state (solid, liquid, or gaseous). Also, the portion of
matter under consideration may consist of several phases of the same substance or several
phases of different substances.

Separation of Components of Mixtures

Most materials found in nature are in the form of mixtures. In engineering, a separation process is
used to transform a mixture into two or more distinct products. This is done by considering that
different components of the mixture may have different properties such as:
 size
 density
 solubility
 electrical charge
 boiling point
 Depending on the raw mixture, various processes can be employed to separate the mixtures.
Often, two or more of these processes must be used in combination to obtain the desired
separation. In addition to chemical processes, mechanical processes are sometimes applied.
In the example of crude oil, one upstream distillation operation feeds its two or more product
 General Chemistry 1
Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600
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streams into multiple downstream distillation operations to further separate the raw crude, and
so on, until final products are purified.

Example separation techniques for mixtures:

 Filtration is used for the separation of solids from fluids (liquids or gases) by interposing a
medium through which only the fluid can pass.
 Distillation for mixtures of liquids with different boiling points.
 Chromatography separates dissolved substances by different interaction with (that is, travel
through) a material.
 Centrifugation and cyclonic separation, separates based on density differences.
 Drying, removes liquid from a solid by vaporization.
 Magnet separation technique uses magnet to separate iron particles from a mixture.

 Chemical engineers use these separation techniques to purify naturally found substances or
isolate them from other substances. For example, crude oil, also called petroleum, is a
complex mixture of carbon and hydrogen (hydrocarbons) that exists as a liquid in the Earth's
crust. Chemical engineers apply various distillation methods to purify various hydrocarbons
such as natural gases, gasoline, diesel, jet fuel, lubricating oils, asphalt, etc., from the raw
crude oil. Water purification is another good example of application of separation techniques.

To summarize the relationship among elements, compounds, and mixtures, refer to the diagram
below:

 Materials are either substances or mixtures. Substances can be mixed by physical processes,
and other physical processes can be used to separate the mixtures into substances.
Substances are either elements or compounds. Elements may react chemically to yield
compounds, and compounds may be decomposed by chemical reactions into elements.
 General Chemistry 1
Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600
Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786;
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Summary of the Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

 A compound is defined as a substance that results from the combination of two or more
elements in a constant ratio. In a compound such as water, we show the ratio of the elements
(hydrogen and oxygen) by using subscripts on the chemical symbols for each element. Thus,
water (two hydrogens and one oxygen) is written using the chemical formula H O.
 In a molecule, the atoms are not only bonded together in a constant ratio, but they are also
bonded in a specific geometric arrangement.
 A pure substance contains only one kind of matter; it can be a single element or a single
chemical compound.
 Two or more pure substances mixed together constitute a mixture; you can always separate a
mixture by simple physical means.
 A heterogeneous mixture is not uniform and different samples of the mixture will have a
different compositions.
 A homogeneous mixture, is uniform and any sample that you examine will have exactly the
same composition as any other sample.
 Within chemistry, the most common type of homogeneous mixture is a solution.
 Any pure substance, under appropriate conditions, can exist in three different states: solids,
liquids and gases.
 States of matter are examples of physical properties of a substance.
 Other physical properties include appearance (shiny, dull, smooth, rough), odor, electrical
conductivity, thermal conductivity, hardness and density, etc.
 Solids have both a definite shape and volume. Liquids have a definite volume, but take on the
shape of their container. Gasses have neither a definite shape nor volume, and both of these
are defined by the shape and volume of their container.
 The kinetic molecular theory (KMT) is generally used to explain physical states of matter. The
KMT suggests that atoms and molecules are always in motion and are loosely bound to each
other by attractive called intermolecular forces. In a solid, the kinetic energy (energy of
motion) associated with the atoms or molecules is insufficient to break these forces and the
particles are essentially fixed in place, adjacent to each other. In a liquid, there is enough
kinetic energy to break some of the attractive forces, allowing the particles to “slip and slide”
next to each other, but there is not enough energy to allow them to escape. In a gas, there is
sufficient kinetic energy to totally overcome the forces and the particles have no interactions
with each other.
 A change of state from a solid to a liquid occurs at a defined temperature (which) called the
melting point (or freezing point);this temperature is a unique physical property of the
substance. The transition from a liquid to a gas, likewise, occurs at the boiling point. A direct
transition from a solid to a gas is called sublimation.
 An intensive property is defined as a property that is inherent to the substance and is not
dependent on the sample size.
 Density, the ratio of mass-to-volume for a substance, is a classic example of an intensive
property. Density is calculated by taking the mass of a sample of a substance, and dividing
that by the volume of that sample. Density for solids is typically expressed using units of grams
per cubic centimeter (g/cm );liquids as grams per milliliter (g/mL ) and gasses as grams per liter
(g/L ), although any mixture of mass and volume units may be used. Remember, a mL has the
same volume as a cm , and a L is simply 1000 mL.
 Physical changes are changes in outward appearances that do not alter the chemical nature
of the substance and produce no new substance. When a chemical change occurs, a new
substance is produced. Just like physical properties describe the appearance or intensive
properties of a substance, chemical properties describe the set of chemical changes that are
possible for that substance.
 The law of mass conservation (conservation of mass) simply states, that there is no detectable
change in the total mass of materials when they react chemically (undergo a chemical
change) to form new substances.
 General Chemistry 1
Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600
Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786;
442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Grade Level/Section: GRADE 11 - STEM
Email: email@uc-bcf.edu.ph; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph

MODULE 1 – Gen Chem 1 Subject Teacher:

III. REFERENCES
 Petrucci, Bissonnette, Herring, Madura. General Chemistry: Principles and Modern
Applications. Tenth ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458: Pearson Education Inc., 2011.
 Cracolice, Peters. Basics of introductory Chemistry An active Learning Approach. Second ed.
Belmont, CA 94001:Brooks/Cole, 2007.
 Humphrey, J. L. and G. E. Keller II. Separation Process Technology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill,
1997.
 Rodriguez, M. S and M. F. Navera-Male. (2018). General Chemistry 1: Oxford University Press.
 Chang, R. (2010). Chemistry 10 Edition. USA: McGraw Hill
 Silberberg, M. (2013). Principles of General Chemistry Third Edition. Philippines: McGraw Hill
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