Q.1: Define Refractive index, Quantum efficiency, Responsivity, Dispersion and Attenuation.

1. Refractive Index: It is the ratio of speed of light in vacuum to the speed of light in a specific
medium. It is used to calculate the bending of light while going from one medium into
another medium. It is denoted by µ.
2. Quantum Efficiency: Efficiency of a particular device is obtained by ratio of input given to
that of output obtained. Thus, similarly, in photodiode, input i.e. incident photon and output
generated electrons and their ratio is quantum efficiency. It is denoted by ƞ
3. Responsivity: It is ratio of generated photocurrent and incident optical power determined in
the linear region of response. It is calculated in photodetectors and also known as radiant
e
sensitivity. It is denoted by R. ( R=ƞ ¿.
hυ
4. Attenuation: In optical fibers, attenuation refers to the progressive amplitude reduction of
light ray propagating through the fiber. This amplitude reduction or signal attenuation is
expressed in terms of power loss in dB/km. It is denoted by α.

Q.2: Enlists various applications of optical fiber communication system.

Optical fiber communication systems has number of applications. These are those
applications which requires high efficiency, high security, least errors, higher bandwidths,
& low cost.
1. Medical Applications: optical fiber communication can be used in medical industry. It
is used as lasers during surgeries, endoscopy, microscopy and biomedical research.
2. Telecommunication Applications: Telecommunication has major uses of optical fibre
cables for transmitting and receiving purposes. It is used in various networking fields and
even increases the speed and accuracy of the transmitted data. Compared to copper wires,
fibre optics cables are lighter, more flexible and carry more data.
3. Defence Applications: Fibre optics are used for data transmission in high level data security
fields of military and aerospace applications. These are used in wirings in aircrafts,
hydrophones for SONARs and Seismic applications.
4. Broadcasting Applications: They are used to transmit high definition television signals
which has a greater bandwidth and speed. Optical Fibre is cheaper compared to same quantity
of copper wires. Broadcasting companies use optical fibres for wiring HDTV, CATV, video-
on demand and many applications.
5. Industries: optical fiber communication system are used for imaging in hard to reach places
such as they are used for safety measures and lighting purposes in automobiles both in the
interior and exterior. They transmit information in lightning speed and are used in airbags and
traction control. They are also used for research and testing purposes in industries.

Q.3: Explain in brief the performance characteristics in photodiode.

A photo diode is always operated in reverse bias mode. From the photo diode characteristics,
it is seen clearly that the photo current is almost independent of applied reverse bias voltage.
For zero luminance the photo current is almost zero except for small dark current. It is of the
order of nano amperes. As optical power increases the photo current also increases linearly.
The maximum photo current is limited by the power dissipation of the photo diode.
 Fig. 1: V-I characteristics of photodiode

Q.4: Explain in brief about bending losses

When an optical fiber is bend, a portion of optical energy escapes from the core to the
cladding. If optical signal attenuation due to bending is to be avoided, both the wave
travelling through the core and wave travelling through the cladding must form a
common wave front at the output of the fiber. The velocity of the wave travelling through
the cladding must be higher than the velocity of the light in order to cover the
longer distance. Because the core velocity is equal to the velocity of light, the velocity in
the cladding must higher than velocity of light, which is impossible. Hence, the wave
travelling through the cladding will be lost in the form of radiation. This radiation loss is
an optical power bending loss. It is classified in two categories: 1. Macro-bending Losses,
2. Micro-bending losses.

1. Macro-bending losses: These losses are subject to damages to the fiber during the
packaging, transportation, and field installation process. Macro bending losses occur
when the fiber cable is subjected to a significant amount of bending above a critical value of
curvature. Such losses are also called as large radius losses. They expressed in terms of
attenuation coefficient CB = K1e-K2R. Comparing the effect of macro-bending for both
single-mode and multimode fibers has shown multimode fibers are more susceptible
to macro-bending than single-mode.
2. Micro-bending losses: They are defined as a slight deviation of the fiber core center
axis. Microbending can be induced into the fiber during fabrication process,
installation process, or maintenance. The main factor that causes microbending is
temperature. Temperature variation can cause local contractions and expansions of the
core material, thus slightly altering the physical characteristics of the core and
ultimately affecting the optical fiber performance.

Q.5: What is the principle of operation of distributed feedback laser?

In the distributed feedback (DFB) laser, there is a corrugated layer, called the guiding layer,
next to the active layer; radiation spreads from the active layer to the guiding layer. The mode
field diameter of the radiation in the active layer is such that it covers the guiding layer.
(Remember that the thickness d of the active layer is small.) These corrugations in the
refractive index act as optical feedback over the length of the cavity by producing partial
reflections. Thus, optical feedback is distributed over the cavity length.
 However, the operating principle of the DFB laser is totally different. Radiation is fed from
the
active into the guiding layer along the whole cavity length, so that the corrugated medium can
be thought of as possessing an optical gain. Partially reflected waves experience gain. A left
traveling wave in the guiding layer experiences partial reflections, and these reflected waves
are optically amplified by the medium to constitute a right-going wave.

Fig 2: Distributed feedback laser

Q.6: Draw a block diagram of fiber optic communication system and describe the function of
each component. Mention the three advantages of optical fiber as waveguide over
conventional metallic waveguide.

Fig.3: Optical communication system block diagram

Working of components in Optical communication system. The optical fiber consists of three main
elements:
1. Transmitter: An electric signal is applied to the optical transmitter. The optical transmitter
consists of driver circuit, light source and fiber flylead.
 Driver circuit drives the light source.
 Light source converts electrical signal to optical signal.
 Fiber flylead is used to connect optical signal to optical fiber.
2. Transmission channel: It consists of a cable that provides mechanical and environmental
protection to the optical fibers contained inside. Each optical fiber acts as an individual
channel.
 Optical splice is used to permanently join two individuals optical fibers.
 Optical connector is for temporary non-fixed joints between two individuals optical
fibers.
 Optical coupler/splitter provides signal to other devices.
 Repeater converts the optical signal into electrical signal using optical receiver and
passes it to electronic circuit where it is reshaped and amplified as it gets attenuated
and distorted with increasing distance because of scattering, absorption and
dispersion in waveguides, and this signal is then again converted into optical signal
by the optical transmitter.
3. Receiver: Optical signal is applied to the optical receiver. It consists of photo detector,
amplifier and signal restorer.
 Photo detector converts the optical signal back to electrical signal.
 Signal restorers and amplifiers are used to improve signal to noise ratio of the signal
as there are chances of noise to be introduced in the signal due to the use of photo
detectors.
Advantages of Optical fiber waveguide over conventional metallic waveguide
1. Higher bandwidth support.
2. High carrying capacity.
3. Immunity to electromagnetic interference and tapping.
4. Less signal attenuation.
5. Resistance to corrosive materials.
Q.7: Differentiate between Step index fiber and Graded index fiber.
Specification Step-Index Fiber Graded-Index Fiber
Index Profiles Index profiles are in the shape Index profiles is in the shape of
of step.   a parabolic curve (for α=2).  
Light Rays Propagation The light rays propagate The light rays propagate in the
in “zig–zag” manner inside the form of skew rays or helical
core. rays. They will not cross the
fiber axis. 
Signal Distortion Signal distortion is more in Signal distortion is very low
multimode step index fiber but even though the rays travel
in single mode step index fiber, with different speeds inside the
there is no distortion.   fiber. 
 Bandwidth The fiber has lower bandwidth. The fiber has higher
bandwidth.  
Type of Rays Light ray propagation is in Light ray propagation is in
form of meridional rays and it form of skew rays and it will
passes through the fiber axis. not pass through the fiber axis.
Numerical Aperture Multimode step index fiber has Numerical Aperture of graded
more numerical aperture index fibers is less.
whereas in single mode step
index fibers, it is very less.  
Diameter of The Core The diameter of the core is The diameter of the core is
between 50-200µm in the case about 50µm in the case of
of multimode fiber and 10µm multimode fiber. 
in the case of single mode
fiber.  
No. of propagation mode Nstep = V2/2 Ngraded = V2/4

Q.8: Differentiate between single mode and multimode fiber.

Specification Single Mode Fiber Multimode Fiber

Cost of fiber Less Expensive More Expensive

Transmission Equipment More Expensive (laser diode) Basic and Low Cost (LED)
Attenuation Due to single core in single Due to multiple cores in
mode fiber, the light reflections multimode fiber, the light
will be less and hence reflections will be more and
attenuation is lower hence attenuation is higher
1260 nm to 1640 nm 850 nm to 1300 nm
Transmission wavelengths
Ease of use Connections are more complex Larger core, easier to handle
Distance Access/medium/long haul Local networks (< 2 Km)
networks (> 200 Km)
Bandwidth Higher bandwidth (> 1 Tb/s for Limited Bandwidth (10 Gb/s
DWDM) over short distances)
Application Major applications of single It is used for short distance
mode are CATV, Telcos, communication mainly for
universities as well as collages. video/audio/data based
wireless LAN application.  
Advantages/disadvantages Provides higher performance, The fiber is more costly, but
but building the network is the network deployment is
expensive. relatively inexpensive.

Q.9: Define Skew rays, MFD and Meridional rays.

1. Skew Rays: A skew ray is a ray that does not propagate in a plane that contains both the
object point and the optical axis. Such rays do not cross the optical axis anywhere, and are not
parallel to it.
 Fig.4: (a). skew ray path down the fiber (b) cross-sectional view of the fiber
2. Mode Field Diameter (MFD): It is an expression of distribution of the irradiance, i.e., the
optical power per unit area, across the end face of a single-mode fiber. It is also defined as the
maximum area, where the light signal resides. It consists of the core and some part of
the cladding. It is slightly larger than the core as the light travels through the core and few of
the cladding as well
3. Meridional Rays: It is a ray that is confined to the plane containing the system's optical
axis and the object point from which the ray originated. It is also known as Tangential Ray.

Q.10: What is the difference between acceptance angle, critical angle and numerical aperture?
A step index fiber has a core and cladding refractive index of 1.50 and 1.46 respectively.
What is the value of NA and acceptance angle of the fiber?
1. Acceptance Angle: The angle of acceptance is the maximum half conical angle incident upon
the core of the optical fiber which is achieving full internal reflection. It is denoted by θA.
2. Critical Angle: If the angle of incidence Ф1 is increased, a point will eventually be reached
where the light ray in air is parallel to the glass surface. This point is known as the critical
angle. It is denoted by ФC.
3. Numerical Aperture: It is the relationship between the angle of acceptance and the refractive
indices of the three mediums incorporated into the fiber, those of air, cladding and core, are
unified by the Numerical Aperture (NA). NA = n0 sin θA.

Numerical:
Q.11: Discuss the linear scattering losses in optical fibers w.r.t Rayleigh scattering and Mie
scattering.
Scattering losses: They are the losses in optical fiber caused by the interaction of light with
density fluctuations within a fiber. Density changes are produced when optical fibers are
manufactured. During manufacturing, regions of higher and lower molecular density areas,
relative to the average density of the fiber, are created. Light traveling through the fiber
interacts with the density areas as shown in Light is then partially scattered in all direction.

Fig.5: Scattering Process

In commercial fibers operating between 700-nm and 1600-nm wavelength, the main source of
loss is called Rayleigh scattering. As the wavelength increases, the loss caused by Rayleigh
scattering decreases. If the size of the defect is greater than one-tenth of the wavelength of
light, the scattering mechanism is called Mie scattering.
1. Rayleigh Scattering: It occurs because the molecules of silicon dioxide have some
freedom when adjacent to one another. Thus, setup at irregular positions and
distances with respect to one another when the glass is rapidly cooled during the final
stage of the fabrication process. Those structural variations are seen by light as
variations in the refractive index, thus causing the light to reflect – that is, to scatter –
in different directions. It is a scattering of light by particles much smaller than
the wavelength of the light, which may be individual atoms or molecules.
2. Mie Scattering: Non perfect cylindrical structure of the fiber and imperfections like
irregularities in the core-cladding interface, diameter fluctuations, strains and bubbles
may create linear scattering which is termed as Mie scattering. It is a scattering of
light by particles approximately equal to the wavelength of the light, which may be
individual atoms or molecules.

Q.12: Explain the dispersion mechanism in optical fibers.

Dispersion is the phenomenon in which spreading out of a light pulse in time as it propagates
down the fiber happens. It is caused by the delay of some of the optical power in a pulse at
the output end of the fiber. Dispersion refers to the fact that the optical power that enters the
fiber at the same time, exits the fiber at different times. Dispersion causes an optical pulse
width that increases continuously through the fiber.
When dispersion exceeds the maximum amount allowed by the data rate, the output signal is
different from the input signal.

It is classified in 5 categories.
1. Modal Dispersion: Multimode fibers can guide many different light modes since they
have much larger core size. Each mode enters the fiber at a different angle and thus
travels at different paths in the fiber. Since each mode ray travels a different distance
as it propagates, the ray arrives at different times at the fiber output. So, the light
pulse spreads out in time which can cause signal overlapping so seriously that you
 cannot distinguish them anymore. Model dispersion is not a problem in single mode
fibers since there is only one mode that can travel in the fiber.
2. Chromatic Dispersion: Chromatic dispersion results from the spectral width of the
emitter. The spectral width determines the number of different wavelengths that are
emitted from the LED or laser. The smaller the spectral width, the fewer the number
of wavelengths that are emitted. Because longer wavelengths travel faster than shorter
wavelengths (higher frequencies) these longer wavelengths will arrive at the end of
the fiber ahead of the shorter ones, spreading out the signal. One way to decrease
chromatic dispersion is to narrow the spectral width of the transmitter. Lasers, for
example, have a narrower spectral width than LEDs. A monochromatic laser emits
only one wavelength and therefore, does not contribute to chromatic dispersion.

Fig.6: Various Dispersions in Optical Fiber

3. Material dispersion: Material dispersion is caused by the wavelength dependence of

the refractive index on the fiber core material, while the waveguide dispersion occurs
due to dependence of the mode propagation constant on the fiber parameters (core
radius, and difference between refractive indexes in fiber core and fiber cladding) and
signal wavelength. Material dispersion contributes to group delay distortion, along
with waveguide delay distortion, differential mode delay, and multimode group delay
spread.
4. Waveguide dispersion: Waveguide dispersion is only important in single mode fibers.
It is caused by the fact that some light travels in the fiber cladding compared to most
light travels in the fiber core. Since fiber cladding has lower refractive index than
fiber core, light ray that travels in the cladding travels faster than that in the core.
 Waveguide dispersion is also a type of chromatic dispersion. It is a function of fiber
core size, V-number, wavelength and light source linewidth.
5. Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD): When the light is defined as an energy wave or
energy region, it possesses 2 mutually perpendicular axes, the E (also known and
electromotive force) and H, (also known as the magneto motive force). Due to the
fact that these rates and distances exceed much the level of data networks, PMD isn’t
an issue in these types of networks. Still, PMD can be vital for telephone, CATC and
networks of longer distance. PMD’s significance raises in levels that exceed 2.5 Gbps
at long transmission distances.

Q.13: Explain the construction, operation and characteristics of any two structures of both
LED and LASER.

Laser: A Laser Diode is a semiconductor device similar to a light-emitting diode (LED). It uses p-n
junction to emit coherent light in which all the waves are at the same frequency and phase. This
coherent light is produced by the laser diode using a process termed as “Light Amplification by
Stimulated Emission of Radiation”, which is abbreviated as LASER. And since a p-n junction is used
to produce laser light, this device is named as a laser diode.
Laser diodes produce a narrow beam of laser light in which all the light waves have similar
wavelengths and they travel together with their peaks lined up. This is why laser beams are very
bright, and can be focused over a very tiny spot.
Of all the devices that produce laser light, laser diodes or semiconductor lasers are the most efficient
and they come in smaller packages. So, they are widely used in various devices like laser printers,
barcode readers, security systems, Autonomous vehicles (LIDAR), Fiber optic communications etc.

Working of Laser: Working of laser diode takes place in three main steps:

1. Energy Absorption: The laser diode consists of a p-n junction where holes and
electrons exist. (Here, a hole means the absence of an electron). When a certain
voltage is applied at the p-n junction, the electrons absorb energy and they transition
to a higher energy level. Holes are formed at the original position of the excited
electron. The electrons stay in this excited state without recombining with holes for a
very small duration of time, termed as “recombination time” or “upper-state lifetime”.
The recombination time is about a nanosecond for most laser diodes.
2. Spontaneous Emission: After the upper-state lifetime of excited electrons, they
recombine with holes. As the electrons fall from higher energy level to a lower
energy level, the difference in energy is converted into photons or electromagnetic
radiation. This same process is used to produce light in LEDs. The energy of the
emitted photon is given by the difference between the two energy levels.
3. Stimulated Emission: We need more coherent photons from the laser diode than the
ones emitted through the process of spontaneous emission. A partially reflecting
mirror is used on either side of the diode so that the photons released from
spontaneous emission are trapped in the p-n junction until their concentration reaches
a threshold value. These trapped photons stimulate the excited electrons to recombine
with holes even before their recombination time. This results in the release of more
photons that are in exact phase with the initial photons and so the output gets
amplified. Once the photon concentration goes above a threshold, they escape from
the partially reflecting mirrors, resulting in a bright monochromatic coherent light.
 (a) (b)

(c) (d)
Fig.7: (a) Energy Absorption, (b)Spontaneous Emission, (c) & (d) Stimulated Emission

Construction of Laser: A simple semiconductor laser diode is made up of following parts:

 Metal Contact
 P-type Material
 Active/Intrinsic Region (N-type Material)
 N-type Material
 Metal Contact

The input terminals are connected to a metal plates which are sandwiched to the n-type and p-type
layers. This type of laser diode is also called as a “Homojunction Laser Diode”. The intrinsic region
between the p-type and n-type material is used to increase the volume of active region, so that a
greater number of holes and electrons can accumulate at the junction. This allows a greater number of
electrons to recombine with holes at any instant of time, resulting in better output power. The laser
light is emitted from the elliptical region. This beam from the laser diode can be further focused using
an optical lens. This entire PIN diode (P-type, Intrinsic, N-Type) arrangement is enclosed normally in
a metal casing.

Characteristics of Laser: As we increase the current flow to the laser diode, the optical power of
output light gradually increases up to a certain threshold. Until this point, most of the light emitted is
due to spontaneous emission. Above this threshold current, the process of stimulated emission
increases. This causes the power of output light to increase a lot even for smaller increases in input
current. The output optical power also depends on temperature and it reduces with decrease in
temperature.
 Fig.8: V-I Characteristics of Laser

LED: Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) are the most widely used semiconductor diodes among all the
different types of semiconductor diodes available today. Light emitting diodes emit either visible
light or invisible infrared light when forward biased. The LEDs which emit invisible infrared light are
used for remote controls.

A light Emitting Diode (LED) is an optical semiconductor device that emits light when  voltage is
applied. In other words, LED is an optical semiconductor device that converts electrical energy into
light energy. When Light Emitting Diode (LED) is forward biased, free electrons in the conduction
band recombines with the holes in the valence band and releases energy in the form of light. The
process of emitting light in response to the strong electric field or flow of electric current is called
electroluminescence.

Like the normal p-n junction diodes, LEDs also operates only in forward bias condition. To create an
LED, the n-type material should be connected to the negative terminal of the battery and p-type
material should be connected to the positive terminal of the battery. In other words, the n-type
material should be negatively charged and the p-type material should be positively charged.

Working of LED: A light-emitting diode is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n

junction diode that emits light when activated. When a suitable voltage is applied to the leads,
electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of
photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the colour of the light (corresponding to the
energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor.

Fig.9: Structure of LED

Construction of LED: One of the methods used to construct LED is to deposit three semiconductor
layers on the substrate. The three semiconductor layers deposited on the substrate are n-type
semiconductor, p-type semiconductor and active region. Active region is present in between the n-
type and p-type semiconductor layers. When LED is forward biased, free electrons from n-type
semiconductor and holes from p-type semiconductor are pushed towards the active region. When free
electrons from n-side and holes from p-side recombine with the opposite charge carriers (free
electrons with holes or holes with free electrons) in active region, an invisible or visible light is
emitted. In LED, most of the charge carriers recombine at active region. Therefore, most of the light is
emitted by the active region. The active region is also called as depletion region.

Fig.10: Construction of LED

Characteristics of LED: There are different types of light emitting diodes are available in the market
and there are different LED characteristics which include the colour light, or wavelength radiation,
light intensity. The important characteristic of the LED is colour. In the starting use of LED, there is
the only red colour. As the use of LED is increased with the help of the semiconductor process and
doing the research on the new metals for LED, the different colours were formed.

Fig.11: I-V Characteristics of LED

Q.14: Explain the term external quantum efficiency and internal quantum efficiency.

1. External Quantum efficiency: It is defined as the no of photons emitted per radiative electron–
hole pair recombination above threshold.
2. External threshold efficiency: It is the fraction of electron hole pairs that recombine
radiatively if the radiative recombination rate is R and the known radiative recombination
ratio is RnR then the internal quantum efficiency is the ratio of the radiative recombination rate
to the total recombination rate.

Q.15. Explain the characteristics, construction and working of PIN and APD photodiodes.

PIN Diode: The diode in which the intrinsic layer of high resistivity is sandwiched between the P and
N-region of semiconductor material such type of diode is known as the PIN diode. The high resistive
layer of the intrinsic region provides the large electric field between the P and N-region. The electric
field induces because of the movement of the holes and the electrons. The direction of the electric
field is from n-region to p-region. The high electric field generates the large electron holes pairs due
to which the diode process even for the small signals. The PIN diode is a type of photodetector used
for converting the light energy into the electrical energy. The intrinsic layer between the P and N-type
regions increases the distance between them. The width of the region is inversely proportional to their
capacitance. If the separation between the P and N region increases their capacitance decreases. This
characteristic of diode increases their response time and makes the diode suitable for works like a
microwave application.
Structure of PIN Diode: The diode consists the P-region and N-region which is separated by the
intrinsic semiconductor material. In P-region the hole is the majority charge carrier while in n-region
the electron is the majority charge carrier. The intrinsic region has no free charge carrier. It acts as an
insulator between n and the p-type region. The i-region has the high resistance which obstructs the
flow of electrons to pass through it.

Fig.12: PIN Diode

Working of PIN Diode: The working of the PIN diode is similar to the ordinary diode. When the
diode is unbiased, their charge carrier will diffuse. The word diffusion means the charge carriers of
the depletion region try to move to their region. The process of diffusion occurs continue until the
charges become equilibrium in the depletion region.
Let the N and I-layer make the depletion region. The diffusion of the hole and electron across the
region generates the depletion layer across the NI-region. The thin depletion layer induces across n-
region, and thick depletion region of opposite polarity induces across the I-region.

Fig.13. Working of PIN Diode

Avalanche Photodiode (APD): An avalanche diode is a one kind of semiconductor device specially
designed to work in the reverse breakdown region. These diodes are used as relief valves which are
used for controlling the system’s pressure to guard electrical systems from surplus voltages. The
symbol of this diode is same to as Zener diode. The avalanche diode comprises of two terminals
namely anode and cathode.
Avalanche Diode Construction: Generally, avalanche diode is made from silicon or other
semiconductor materials. The construction of this diode is similar to the Zener diode, except doping
level in this diode changes from Zener diode. These diodes are doped heavily. Thus, the depletion
region width in this diode is very slight. Because of this region, reverse breakdown happens at lower
voltages in this diode. On the other hand, avalanche diodes are doped lightly. So, the depletion layer
width of an avalanche diode is very large evaluated to the Zener diode. Because of this large depletion
region, reverse breakdown take place at higher voltages in the diode. The breakdown voltage of this
diode is cautiously located by controlling the doping level in the manufacture.

Fig.14: APD Construction

Working of an Avalanche Diode: The main function of the normal diode is to allow electrical
current in only one direction i.e., forward direction. Whereas, avalanche diode allows the current in
both the directions. But this diode is specially designed to work in reverse biased condition when the
voltage surpasses the breakdown voltage in the reverse biased condition. The voltage at which electric
current enhances unexpectedly is called breakdown voltage.
When the voltage in reverse bias condition applied to this diode then it surpasses the breakdown
voltage, a breakdown of the junction will be occurring. This junction breakdown is named as an
avalanche breakdown. Whenever the forward bias voltage is applied to this diode, then it starts
working like a regular p-n junction diode by permitting an electric current through it.

Q.16: Differentiate between (i) LED and ILD (ii) PIN and APD
Parameters LED ILD
Working Principle Electro-luminance Stimulated Emission
Full Form Light Emitting Diode Injection Laser Diode
Response Slow Response Fast response in comparison to LED
Driving Current It ranges from 50 to 100 It ranges from 5 to 40 mA.
mA.
Nature of Emitted Incoherent and consists Coherent and Monochromatic
Light of various colours.
Junction Area during Wide Junction Area Narrow and small Junction
Manufacturing
Bandwidth Range It lies in the range of 10 It lies in the narrow range i.e. from 1
to 50 THz. MHz to 2 MHZ
Power to light Approx. 20 % Approx. 70 %
Conversion Efficiency
Cost Low cost and thus High cost and thus used in the
economical. specific application
Parameters PIN APD
Gain No internal gain Internal gain
Sensitivity Less sensitive More sensitive
 Biasing Low reverse biasing High reverse biasing
Structure Simple circuit Complex circuit
Cost Effectiveness Low cost More expensive

Q.17: How is RAPD operated? How does it differ from PIN photodiode? What is the
advantage & disadvantage of RAPD photo detector?

RAPD is known as Reach through Avalanche Photodiode. Avalanche photodiodes are required in
fiber optic communication at the receiving end. Photodiode detects the light signal and converts it into
electrical form. There exist many forms of avalanche photodiodes. Reach through avalanche
photodiode (RAPD) is a promising candidate in this category. Consider a positive-intrinsic-negative
semiconductor photodiode operating in reverse biased mode. When the applied reverse voltage
exceeds threshold value, photoelectrons generated as a result of its exposure to light, gets accelerated
through the junction, collides with other atoms to produce secondary electron-hole pairs. Carrier
concentration increases exponentially with the electric field intensity. This phenomenon is known as
impact ionization or avalanche effect. The reach through avalanche photodiode consists of a high
resistivity p-type material deposited on an epitaxial layer with an extremely high order of impurity
concentration. Commonly used doping atoms to achieve this are Boron and Phosphorous. Operation
of RAPD is always in fully depleted mode.
Advantages: Low operating voltage, easy to produce, good for mass production
Disadvantages: High signal from ionizing particles crossing the APD depletion region (“nuclear
counter effect”) and high dark current induced by hadron irradiation (thick depletion region).

Q.18: Discuss classification of optical receiver using an example.

There are two basic types of fiber optic receivers: 1. Digital and 2. Analog.
Digital receivers detect the input optical signal coming through an optical fiber, do the amplification
of digital photo current, then reshape the signal to produce an undistorted output electrical signal.
Whereas, analog optical receivers detect the input optical signal and amplify the generated photo
current.
For many digital transmission applications, the digital fiber optic receivers have almost similar
designs. For low-data-rate applications, PIN diodes and high impedance amplifiers are generally used.
Receiver sensitivities are maximized by using large load resistors in the photo-diode circuit. For
moderate-data-rate applications, PIN diodes and either high impedance amplifiers with smaller load
resistances or transimpedance amplifiers are used. A PIN diode is one with a wide, doped lightly 'near'
intrinsic semiconductor region between a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor region.
The p-type and n-type regions are typically heavily doped because they are used for ohmic contacts.
The wide intrinsic region is in contrast to an ordinary PN diode. This wide region makes the PIN
diode an inferior rectifier, but it makes the PIN diode suitable for attenuators, fast switches, photo-
detectors, and high voltage power electronics applications.
For high-data-rate applications, PINs or Avalanche Photo Diodes are used with trans impedance
amplifiers. Avalanche Photo Diodes are rarely used in low to moderate data rate applications unless
receivers with extremely low sensitivities are required.
The Optical receiver contains a low pass filter for each digital application. The pass band of the filter
depends on the application data rate of the fiber optic network system. The filter is used to smooth the
amplified signal to remove some of the high frequency noise before the signal is further processed.
The digital receiver generally contains a comparator, which reshapes the amplified electrical signal to
remove any distortions introduced in the transmission process. Some receivers come with clock
recovery circuitry, which retimes the output electrical signal also.
With the exception of absence of digital signal restoration circuitry, analog receivers are similar in
design to digital receivers. The pre-amplifiers and post-amplifiers are designed to be more linear than
those used in digital receivers in some cases.
PIN diodes and high impedance amplifiers are used for low-frequency applications. PIN diodes and
either high impedance amplifiers or trans-impedance amplifiers are used for moderate-frequency
applications. PINs or APDs are used with trans-impedance amplifiers for high-frequency applications.
For analog receivers also same as in digital applications, Avalanche Photo Diodes are rarely used in
low or moderate frequency applications unless receivers with extremely low sensitivities are needed.

Q.19: Write a note on nonlinear scattering losses.

This scattering cause disproportionate attenuation, usually at high optical power levels. This
nonlinear scattering causes the optical power from one mode to be transferred in either the
forward or backward direction to the same, or other modes, at a different frequency.
Non-Linear scattering may be categorized as:
1. Stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS): In SBS strong optical signal generates acoustic
waves. These waves produce variations in refractive index.
It causes light waves to scatter in backward direction towards transmitter called as backward
scatter wave which affects the forward signal leading to depletion in signal power.
2. Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS): SRS is transferring of energy from short wavelengths
to neighbouring high wavelength channels.
If two input signals with equal power are transmitted than the former will lose its own energy
and the latter will gain this energy, this limits the performance of the system.
Q.20: Define dispersion. What are its different types? How these affect the working of optical
fibre communication system?

Dispersion is the spreading out of a light pulse in time as it propagates down the fiber.
Dispersion in optical fiber includes model dispersion, material dispersion and waveguide
dispersion. Each type is discussed in detail below.

Fig.15: Various types of dispersion

1. Model dispersion in multimode fibers: Multimode fibers can guide many different light
modes since they have much larger core size. Since each mode ray travels a different
distance as it propagates, the ray arrives at different times at the fiber output. So, the light
pulse spreads out in time which can cause signal overlapping. Model dispersion is not a
problem in single mode fibers. Shown in 1st in Fig.15.
2. Material dispersion: Material dispersion is the result of the finite linewidth of the light
source and the dependence of refractive index of the material on wavelength. Material
dispersion is a type of chromatic dispersion. Chromatic dispersion is the pulse spreading
 that arises because the velocity of light through a fiber depends on its wavelength. Shown
in 2nd in Fig.15.
3. Waveguide dispersion: Waveguide dispersion is only important in single mode fibers.
It is caused by the fact that some light travels in the fiber cladding compared to most light
travels in the fiber core. It is shown as the 3rd illustration Fig.15. Since fiber cladding has
lower refractive index than fiber core, light ray that travels in the cladding travels faster
than that in the core. Waveguide dispersion is also a type of chromatic dispersion.   It is a
function of fiber core size, V-number, wavelength and light source linewidth.

Q.21: List and explain extrinsic absorption loss in detail.

Extrinsic absorption: extrinsic absorption is related to losses caused by impurities within silica.
Extrinsic absorption results from the presence of impurities. Metal impurities such as Fe, Cu, Co, Ni,
Mn, and Cr absorb strongly in the wavelength range 0.6–1.6 µm. Their amount should be reduced to
below 1 part per billion to obtain a loss level below 1dB/km.
The main source of extrinsic absorption is the presence of water vapours in the silica fibers. So, in
order to reduce these kind of losses dry fiber is used. The OH ion concentration is reduced in dry
fibers. Such fibers can be used to transmit WDM signals.
Q.22: Write a short note on Rayleigh and Mie scattering.
1. Rayleigh scattering: The index variation causes a Rayleigh type of scattering of light.
Rayleigh scattering in glass in the same phenomenon that scatters light from sun in the
atmosphere, giving rise to blue sky. The expression for Rayleigh scattering loss is given
by αscat = (8π3/3λ2) (n2 -1)2kBTfβT
ƞ = refractive index kB= boltzman constant βT= isothermal compressibility
Tf =fictive temperature λ =operative wavelength
2. Mie scattering: Imperfections caused due to in-homogenities at the core- cladding
interface which causes scattering of light. The scattering created by such in-homogenities
is mainly in the forward direction and is called Mie scattering. It can be reduced by
removing imperfections of glass at the time of manufacture, increasing the relative
refractive index of the core and the cladding.
Q.23: What are the types of linear scattering loss? Explain any one in detail.

Linear scattering losses: Linear scattering mechanisms cause the transfer of some or all of the optical
power contained within one propagating mode to be transferred linearly (proportionally to the mode
power) into a different mode. This process tends to result in attenuation of the transmitted light as the
transfer may be to a leaky or radiation mode which does not continue to propagate within the fiber
core, but is radiated from the fiber. It must be noted that as with all linear processes, there is no
change of frequency on scattering.
Linear scattering may be categorized into two major types: Rayleigh and Mie scattering. Both result
from the non-ideal physical properties of the manufactured fiber which are difficult and, in certain
cases, impossible to eradicate at present.
Types of Linear Scattering losses: 1. Rayleigh Scattering, 2. Mie Scattering.
Rayleigh scattering: Rayleigh scattering is the dominant intrinsic loss mechanism in the low-
absorption window between the ultraviolet and infrared absorption tails. It results from
inhomogeneities of a random nature occurring on a small scale compared with the wavelength of the
light. These inhomogeneities manifest themselves as refractive index fluctuations and arise from
density and compositional variations which are frozen into the glass lattice on cooling. The
compositional variations may be reduced by improved fabrication, but the index fluctuations caused
by the freezing-in of density inhomogeneities are fundamental and cannot be avoided.
The subsequent scattering due to the density fluctuations, which is in almost all directions, produces
an attenuation proportional to 1/λ4 following the Rayleigh scattering formula. For a single-component
glass this is given by:
3 8 2
8 π n p β c KT f
γr = 3λ
4

where γR is the Rayleigh scattering coefficient, λ is the optical wavelength, n is the refractive index of
the medium, p is the average photo-elastic coefficient, βc is the isothermal compressibility at a fictive
temperature TF, and K is Boltzmann’s constant. The fictive temperature is defined as the temperature
at which the glass can reach a state of thermal equilibrium and is closely related to the anneal
temperature. Furthermore, the Rayleigh scattering coefficient is related to the transmission loss factor
(transmissivity) of the fiber following the relation:
l=exp (−γ R L )

Where L is the length of the fiber. It is apparent from above equation that the fundamental component
of Rayleigh scattering is strongly reduced by operating at the longest possible wavelength.
Q.24 What are the types of non-linear scattering loss? Explain any one in detail.

Nonlinear scattering losses: Optical waveguides do not always behave as completely linear channels
whose increase in output optical power is directly proportional to the input optical power. Several
nonlinear effects occur, which in the case of scattering cause disproportionate attenuation, usually at
high optical power levels.
This nonlinear scattering causes the optical power from one mode to be transferred in either the
forward or backward direction to the same, or other modes, at a different frequency. It depends
critically upon the optical power density within the fiber and hence only becomes significant above
threshold power levels.
 The most important types of nonlinear scattering within optical fibers are stimulated Brillouin and
Raman scattering, both of which are usually only observed at high optical power densities in long
single-mode fibers. These scattering mechanisms in fact give optical gain but with a shift in
frequency, thus contributing to attenuation for light transmission at a specific wavelength. However, it
may be noted that such nonlinear phenomena can also be used to give optical amplification in the
context of integrated optical techniques
Types of Non-Linear Scattering losses: 1. Stimulated Brillouin Scattering, 2. Stimulated Raman
Scattering.
Stimulated Brillouin scattering: Stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) may be regarded as the
modulation of light through thermal molecular vibrations within the fiber. The scattered light appears
as upper and lower side bands which are separated from the incident light by the modulation
frequency. The incident photon in this scattering process produces a phonon of acoustic frequency as
well as a scattered photon. This produces an optical frequency shift which varies with the scattering
angle because the frequency of the sound wave varies with acoustic wavelength.
  The frequency shift is a maximum in the backward direction, reducing to zero in the forward
direction, making SBS a mainly backward process. As indicated previously, Brillouin scattering is
only significant above a threshold power density. Assuming that the polarization state of the
transmitted light is not maintained, it may be shown that the threshold power PB is given by:
−3 2 2
PB =4 . 4×10 d λ α dB v Watts
where d and λ are the fiber core diameter and the operating wavelength, respectively, both measured
in micrometres, αdB is the fiber attenuation in decibels per kilometre and ν is the source bandwidth
(i.e. injection laser) in gigahertz. The expression given above allows the determination of the
threshold optical power which must be launched into a single-mode optical fiber before SBS occurs.
Q.25 Write a short note on DLED, SLED, LED transceiver, LASER transceiver and ELED.

Edge emitting LED structure and working: It is widely used in optical fiber communication system. Here
collimated light from LED is required to be fed into the fiber with high coupling efficiency.

Fig.16: Multilayer Structure of InP based edge emitting LED

Construction and operation: They are used for long wavelength optical communication approx.
between 1.33 to 1.55 µm. Modern epitaxial growth techniques such as MBE, MOCVD etc. are used in
order to design such complex LED structures. Central active layer is made using InGaAs having
narrow bandgap. It is bounded by wide bandgap layers such as p+ InGaAsP and n+ InP cladding
layers. These two cladding layers help in confining injected electrons and holes into the middle layer.
It also helps emitted photons to travel along LED axis as per optical properties. Due to above, light is
emitted from the edge of the LED. Hence it is known by the name edge emitting LED.

Advantages of Edge Emitting LED:

1. It has superior beam collimation property which offers greater coupling efficiency with fiber
optic cable compare to surface emitting LED.
2. It offers higher efficiency with low to high radiance. It fulfils high brightness LED
requirements of the lighting industry.
3. It radiates less power to the air compare to surface emitting LED due to reabsorption and
interfacial recombination.
4. It offers better modulation bandwidth and more directional emission pattern.
5. It offers 5-6 times more coupled power into NA (Numerical Aperture) of step/graded index
fibers. This is due to small beam divergence.
6. It offers high data rates (> 20 Mbps) than surface emitting LED

Disadvantages of Edge Emitting LED:

1. Its structure is complex.
2. It is difficult to design heat sink.
3. It is expensive compare to other LED types.
4. There are many issues to be handled during mechanical mounting and installation.

Surface Emitter LED (SLED):

 Fig.17: Surface Emitting LED
Working: Surface emitter LED (SLED) operates at 850nm wavelength. SLED is a five layered
double heterojunction on device consisting of a GaAs and GaAlAs layers. The design of SLED was
based on massive electron injection into a thin active layer for recombination of electron and holes
and enhanced focus of emitted light into the optical fiber. The plane of the active light emitting region
is oriented perpendicularly to the axis of the fiber. From the substrate of the device, a well is etched.
Fibers are connected in the well to accept the emitted light. The circular active area in practical
surface emitters in normally 50μm in diameter and up to 2.5μm thick SLED has a low thermal
impedance in the active region which allows high current densities and give high radiance emission
into the optical fiber. The isotropic pattern from a SLED is Lambertian pattern. In this pattern source
is equally bright when viewed from any direction, but the power diminishes as cosθ.
i.e. P=P0cosθ Where θ is the angle between viewing direction and normal of the surface
and P0P0 is the value of power P at θ=0°
Serial No. SLED ELED
1. Easy to fabricate Difficult to fabricate
2. Easy to mount and handle Difficult to mount and handle
3. Require, less critical tolerances Need critical tolerance on fabrication
4. Less Reliable Highly reliable
5. Low system performance High system performance
6. Less modulation Bandwidth Better Modulation, Bandwidth of the
order of hundreds of MHz
7. Couple less optical power into low NA fiber Couple more optical power into low NA
fiber
8. Light is emitted from the surface of active Light is emitted from edge of active
Layer Layer
9. Wider spectral width Narrow spectral width
10. Maximum, quantum efficiency is up to 60% Internal quantum efficiency is in the
range of 60% to 80%

Q.26: Discuss dispersion shifted, dispersion managed and dispersion flattened fibers.

Dispersion shifted Fiber: Standard telecom fibers exhibited zero chromatic dispersion in the 1.3-μm
wavelength region. This was convenient for early optical fiber communications systems, which
operated around 1310 nm. However, the 1.5-μm region later became more important, because the
fiber losses are lower there, and erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs) are available for this region
(whereas 1.3-μm amplifiers do not reach comparable performance). In this wavelength region,
however, standard single-mode fibers (now sometimes called dispersion-unshifted fibers) exhibit
significant anomalous dispersion. For linear transmission, this can be a problem, because it leads to
significant dispersive pulse broadening, limiting the achievable transmission rates or distances.
Therefore, so-called dispersion-shifted fibers were developed, which have modified waveguide
dispersion so as to shift the zero-dispersion wavelength into the 1.5-μm region. This is achieved by
modifying the refractive index profile of the core. Common index profiles of dispersion-shifted fibers
have a triangular, trapezoidal or Gaussian shape. Below figure shows approximate chromatic
dispersion for different types of telecom fibers.

Fig.18: Dispersion vs Wavelength plot

Zero chromatic dispersion is not necessarily ideal for data transmission. Particularly for the
transmission of multiple channels (wavelength division multiplexing), four-wave mixing effects can
be phase-matched and thus introduce significant distortions, if the dispersion is too weak. Therefore, it
can be advantageous to use non-zero dispersion-shifted fibers, which are designed to have a small
dispersion in the wavelength range of the data transmission, with the zero-dispersion wavelength
lying just outside this region. An alternative is to use dispersion-unshifted (i.e., standard) fiber with
larger dispersion at 1.5 μm, combined with some kind of dispersion compensation.
There are also dispersion-flattened fibers with relatively constant group delay dispersion over some
wavelength range, i.e., low higher-order dispersion. They, exhibit near zero dispersion in the telecom
C band. Such fibers are important for data transmission with wavelength division multiplexing and for
adiabatic soliton compression. They often have a W-shaped profile of the refractive index, although
profiles with a graded index and multiple steps have also been developed.
Dispersion managed Fiber: Dispersion management is a somewhat wider term than dispersion
compensation, even though both are often used in the same way. Strictly, dispersion compensation
should be understood as a method for cancelling the chromatic dispersion of some optical element(s),
whereas dispersion management is more generally the use of tailored dispersion properties in order to
enhance some function.

Examples of dispersion management in different situations are:

1. In a mode-locked laser operating at a wavelength around 1 μm or shorter, the intracavity
optical elements often contribute normal chromatic dispersion. For optimum pulse generation,
it is often beneficial to overcompensate the normal chromatic dispersion in order to utilize the
regime of anomalous dispersion, where soliton effects can help to obtain shorter pulses
(soliton mode locking), which may also have a higher pulse quality e.g. in terms of weak
pedestals and high stability. If the wanted pulse duration is in the regime of tens of
femtoseconds or less, it is usually also necessary to compensate carefully the higher-order
dispersion, i.e., to control the group delay dispersion over a significant optical bandwidth.
 2. In a mode-locked fiber laser, dispersive and nonlinear effects can become so strong that the
pulse parameters (including the pulse duration and chirp) vary significantly during each
resonator round trip. With a suitable combination of fibers exhibiting normal and anomalous
dispersion, a stretched-pulse fiber laser can be realized, which can generate pulses
(dispersion-managed solitons) with significantly higher pulse energy than with, e.g., soliton
mode locking.
3. Similar effects can be used in optical fiber communications: a fiber-optic link consisting of a
periodic arrangement of fibers with normal and anomalous dispersion can help to suppress
nonlinear effects such as channel cross-talk via four-wave mixing. It is possible to suppress
the Gordon–Haus timing jitter at the same time, if the average chromatic dispersion is zero.

Dispersion flattened fibers: In previous time, single mode optical fiber was designed with the
minimum Chromatic dispersion point at the operating wavelength. So most early fiber was developed
with a lambda sub-zero (zero dispersion wavelength) near 1310nm. The physics of optical fiber are
such that not every wavelength can be low dispersion. Later, when transmission moved to 1550nm,
dispersion “shifted” fibers were developed for very low dispersion at that wavelength. It worked well
for single wavelength transmission near 1550nm, but turned out to be an exceedingly bad idea for
DWDM (as it aggravated for wave mixing).
For a brief period, WDM systems use both 1310 and 1550 nm wavelengths to increase effective
bandwidth, so there was a desire to create fibers with very low, but non zero values for dispersion at
those two points. You can get zero cd at either point but not both. This was termed “dispersion
flattened” fiber. Today, transmission wavelengths are all over the single mode spectrum (1270–1640
nm) and there are a number of dispersion profiles optimized for various CWDM and DWDM
transmission schemes. But also, more recently, the use of various multi wavelength schemes in
Multimode transmission are creating specs for fibers with good bandwidth over a wavelength range,
e.g.,850–930 nm.
Q.27 Explain the construction, operation, merits, demerits and application of SOA, EDFA
and Raman Amplifier.

Semiconductor Optical Amplifier (SOA): SOA optical amplifiers use the semiconductor as the gain
medium, which is designed to be used in general applications to increase optical launch power to
compensate for the loss of other optical devices. Semiconductor optical amplifiers are often adopted
in telecommunication systems in the form of fiber-pigtailed components, operating at signal
wavelengths between 0.85 µm and 1.6 µm and generating gains of up to 30 dB. Semiconductor
optical amplifier, available in 1310nm, 1400nm, 1500nm, 1600nm wavelength, can be used with
single mode or polarization maintaining fiber input/output.

Key Points of SOA Amplifier:

 1310 nm, 1400 nm, 1550 nm and 1610 nm wavelength selectable

 A high fiber-to-fiber gain of 20 dB
 Up to 16 dBm output
 1 MHz with 10 ns pulse width (optional)
 PM Panda fiber input/output (optional)
 Similar to lasers, but with non-reflecting ends and broad wavelength emission
 Incoming optical signal stimulates emission of light at its own wavelength
 The process continues through the cavity to amplify the signal

Working of SOA amplifier: The basic working principle of an SOA is the same as a semiconductor
laser but without feedback. SOAs amplify incident light through stimulated emission. When the light
traveling through the active region, it causes these electrons to lose energy in the form of photons and
get back to the ground state. Those stimulated photons have the same wavelength as the optical signal,
thus amplifying the optical signal.
 Fig.19: Working of SOA
The key parameters used to characterize an SOA amplifier are gain, gain bandwidth, saturation output
power, and noise:
Gain: Gain is the factor by which the input signal is amplified and is measured as the ratio of output
power to input power (in dB). A higher gain results in higher output optical signal.
Gain bandwidth: GB defines the range of bandwidth where the amplification functions. A wide gain
bandwidth is desirable to amplify a wide range of signal wavelengths.
Saturation: Saturation output power is the maximum output power attainable after amplification
beyond which no amplification is reached. It is important that the SOA has a high-power saturation
level to remain in the linear working region and to have higher dynamic range.
Noise: Noise defines the undesired signal within the signal bandwidth which arises due to physical
processing in the amplifier. A parameter called noise figure is used to measure the impact of noise
which is typically around 5dB.

Erbium-Doped fiber Amplifier (EDFA): Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifier (EDFA) is an optical

amplifier used in the C-band and L-band, where loss of telecom optical fibers becomes lowest in the
entire optical telecommunication wavelength bands. Invented in 1987, EDFA is now most commonly
used to compensate the loss of an optical fiber in long-distance optical communication. Another
important characteristic is that EDFA can amplify multiple optical signals simultaneously, and thus
can be easily combined with WDM technology.

Fig.20: Optical telecommunication optical bands (EDFA operates in the C- and L-band)
EDFAs are used as a booster, inline, and pre-amplifier in an optical transmission line, as
schematically shown in above Figure. The booster amplifier is placed just after the transmitter to
increase the optical power launched to the transmission line. The inline amplifiers are placed in the
transmission line, compensating the attenuation induced by the optical fiber. The pre-amplifier is
placed just before the receiver, such that sufficient optical power is launched to the receiver. A typical
distance between each of the EDFAs is several tens of kilometres.
 Figure.21: Booster, inline, and pre-amplifier EDFAs used in optical transmission line

Before the invention of EDFA, a long optical fiber transmission line required a complicated optical-
to-electrical (O-E) and E-O converter for signal regeneration. The use of EDFA has eliminated the
need for such O-E and E-O conversion, significantly simplifying the system. This is especially of use
in a submarine optical transmission, where more than a hundred EDFA repeaters may be needed to
construct one link. The TPC-5CN (Trans-Pacific Cable 5 Cable Network), started its operation in
1996, is the first submarine optical fiber network which employed EDFA.

Working of EDFA: The given below figure illustrates a simplified energy diagram of Er, showing
how amplification takes place at 1550 nm. Two typical wavelengths to pump an EDFA are 980 or
1480 nm.

Fig.22: Energy diagram of Er

When an EDFA is pumped at 1480 nm, Er ion doped in the fiber absorbs the pump light and is excited
to an excited state (Excited state 1 in above figure). When sufficient pump power is launched to the
fiber and population inversion is created between the ground state and Excited state 1, amplification
by stimulated emission takes place at around 1550 nm. When an EDFA is pumped at 980 nm, Er ion
absorbs the pump light and is excited to another excited state (Excited state 2 in above Figure). The
lifetime of the Excited state 2 is relatively short, and as a result, the Er ion is immediately relaxed to
the Excited state 1 by radiating heat (i.e. no photon emission). This relaxation process creates
a population inversion between the ground level and Excited state 1, and amplification takes place at
around 1550 nm.
Since the first demonstration of a diode-pumped EDFA in 1989, intensive effort was made to make
the pump LD highly reliable. Now high-power pump laser diodes at 980 nm or 1480 nm are both
commercially available, and most EDFAs are pumped by laser diodes due to the compactness and
robustness.
Internal Configuration: The input signal is combined with the pump light by a WDM coupler and
launched to the EDF. In the given below figure (showing one common configuration of EDFA) the
pump light launched to the EDF creates population inversion and the input signal is amplified by
stimulated emission. Isolators are placed both at the input and output, in order to stabilize signal
amplification by eliminating unwanted back reflection from the output port, as well as to prevent the
amplifier from operating as a laser. In this, the wavelength of the pump LD is locked close to the peak
absorption wavelength of erbium (by an external fiber Bragg grating); the wavelength range is
normally between 974 nm to 980 nm.

Fig.23: Common configuration of EDFA

Key optical characteristics:
This section explains important optical characteristics of EDFA.
1. Saturated output power (or simply maximum output power): Saturated output power is
the maximum output power from an amplifier when sufficient signal input power (typically
around 0 dBm or higher) is launched to the amplifier. A booster amplifier typically operates
under this condition, and thus saturated output power is an important characteristic for a
booster amplifier.
2. Small-signal gain: Small-signal gain is the gain in an amplifier when the signal power
launched to the amplifier is very small (typically around -30 dBm). A pre-amplifier typically
operates under this condition, and thus small-signal gain is an important characteristic for a
pre-amplifier.
3. Noise figure Amplification by an EDFA adds some noise to the original signal: Due to
amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) from the EDF – and thus decreases the signal-to-noise
ratio (S/N ratio). Noise figure (NF) of an optical amplifier is a measure of degradation in the
S/N ratio, expressed in dB, and lower NF indicates lower noise characteristic (theoretical
minimum 3 dB). In general, ASE grows fast when the signal input power is low, thus NF is an
important characteristic for a pre-amplifier (i.e. small input power). On the other hand, ASE is
well suppressed when the signal input power is high, and the NF value measured at a higher
input power has little importance. A typical NF value of commercial EDFA at a small signal
input power is within the range of 5 to 7dB.
4. Gain flatness: When an EDFA is used for wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)
transmission, it would be ideal that all the WDM channels have equal gain. In reality, each of
the channels has a different gain value and the variation is referred to as the gain flatness.
Gain flatness is particularly important when many EDFAs are concatenated in an optical
transmission line (e.g. submarine optical transmission), as the gain variation is accumulated in
the EDFA chains and results in large signal power differences between the WDM channels.
Gain flatness can be improved by, for example, modification of glass composition of the EDF
(higher aluminium concentration) or the incorporation of an external gain-flattening optical
filter.

Er/Yb co-doped fiber amplifier for high-power operation: Cladding-pumping configuration is a

popular choice for high-power operation, and so-called “erbium/ytterbium co-doped” fiber amplifier.
In this scheme, ytterbium (Yb) is co-doped as a sensitizer to increase the absorption, as the absorption
becomes much smaller in cladding-pumping configuration due to poor overlap between the core and
pump light.
Working principle:
The operation principle of an Er/Yb co-doped fiber is shown in below figure. The Er ions are excited
by the following two steps: (1) pump photons excite the Yb ions first, and (2) the excited Yb ions
transfer the energy to the Er ions, raising them to the Excited state 2.

Fig.24: Energy diagram of Er/Yb co-doped fiber

Of course, it would be more straightforward to achieve higher absorption by increasing the doping
level of erbium. It is, however, well known that a higher erbium doping level (≥5,000ppm) leads to
poor amplifier efficiency, as interactions between two neighbouring Er ions (ion pair) increase. Such
interactions are much less significant for Yb ion pairs, and thus a higher doping level (≥10,000ppm) is
allowed without sacrificing the amplifier efficiency. Most high-power EDFAs (typically ≥500 mW)
use this configuration, and they are known as EYDFAs.
Another benefit of ytterbium sensitization lies in its wider absorption wavelength range. Absorption
wavelength of ytterbium extends down to 900 nm, thus wavelength locking of the pump LD is not
necessary.

Optical amplifiers are the critical technology for the optical communication networks, enabling the
transmission of many terabits of data over distances from a few hundred kilometres to thousands of
kilometres by overcoming the fiber loss limitation. As the first optical amplifier commonly used in
optical communications systems, EDFA has resulted in a dramatic growth in transmission capacity
with the deployment of WDM systems. Be equipped with the features of high output power, high
gain, wide bandwidth, polarization independence and low noise figure, EDFAs have become one of
the key components used in the new-generation optical communication system.

About EDFA: Erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) is an optical repeater device that is utilized to
boost the intensity of optical signals being carried through a fiber optic communications system.
An optical fiber is doped with the rare earth element erbium so that the glass fiber can absorb light at
one frequency and emit light at another frequency.

EDFA Working Principle: The erbium-doped fiber (EDF) is at the core of EDFA technology, which
is a conventional silica fiber doped with Erbium. When the Erbium is illuminated with light energy at
a suitable wavelength (either 980 nm or 1480 nm), it is motivated to a long-lifetime intermediate state,
then it decays back to the ground state by emitting light within the 1525-1565 nm band. The Erbium
can be either pumped by 980 nm light, in which case it passes through an unstable short lifetime state
before rapidly decaying to a quasi-stable state, or by 1480 nm light in which case it is directly excited
to the quasi-stable state. Once in the quasi-stable state, it decays to the ground state by emitting light
in the 1525-1565 nm band. This decay process can be stimulated by pre-existing light, thus resulting
in amplification. EDFA working principle is shown in the below figure.
 Fig.25: EDFA working principle.
Basic configuration of EDFA: EDFA configuration is mainly composed of an EDF, a pump laser,
and a component (often referred to as a WDM) for combining the signal and pump wavelength so that
they can propagate simultaneously through the EDF. In principle, EDFAs can be designed such that
pump energy propagates in the same direction as the signal (forward pumping), the opposite direction
to the signal (backward pumping), or both directions together. The pump energy may either be 980
nm pump energy, 1480 nm pump energy, or a combination of both. Practically, the most common
EDFA configuration is the forward pumping configuration using 980 nm pump energy, as shown in
the below figure.

Fig.26: The EDFA configuration with 980 nm pump energy

Application of EDFA:
1. Booster Amplifier: When used as the booster amplifier, EDFA is deployed in the output of
an optical transmitter to improve the output power of the multi-wavelength signal having been
multiplexed, as shown in below figure. In this way, distances of optical communication
transmission can be extended. This application form places a demand of higher output power
on EDFA.

Fig.27: The booster amplifier

2. Preamplifier: When used as the preamplifier, EDFA needs the features of low noise and high
gain. Being equipped with these features, EDFA can significantly improve the sensitivity of
an optical receiver when deployed in the input of an optical receiver, as shown in below
figure.
 Fig.28: Pre-amplifier
3. Line Amplifier: When used as the line amplifier, EDFA is able to periodically compensate
for the transmission loss of lines. As a substitute for OEO repeater, EDFA can directly
amplify the optical signals transmitted in lines. In this way, we solve the bottleneck problems
of photoelectric interchange to lay a foundation for all-optical network (AON). Below figure
shows this application of EDFA.

Fig.29: Line Amplifier

Fields of application:
EDFA has the following fields of application:
1. EDFA can be employed in the high-capacity and high-speed optical communication
system. The application of EDFA is very constructive to deal with the problems of low
sensitivity of receivers and short transmission distances owing to a lack of OEO repeater.
2. EDFA can be utilized in long-haul optical communication system. By utilizing EDFA, we
can dramatically lower construction cost by increasing the repeater spacing to reduce the
quantity of regenerative repeaters. The long-haul optical communication system mainly
includes the land trunk optical transmission system and the submarine optical fiber cable
transmission system.
3. EDFA can be used in the optical fiber subscriber access network system. If the
transmission distances are too long, EDFA will function as the line amplifier to
compensate for the transmission losses of lines, thus greatly increasing the number of
subscribers.
4. EDFA can be employed in wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) system, especially
dense wavelength-division multiplexing (DWDM) system. Utilization of EDFA in WDM
system is able to solve the problems of insertion loss and reduce the influences of
chromatic dispersion.
5. EDFA can be utilized in community antenna television (CATV) system. In CATV
system, EDFA functions as the booster amplifier to greatly improve the input power of an
optical transmitter. Utilizing EDFA to compensate for the insertion loss of optical power
splitters can significantly enlarge the scale of the distribution network and increase the
number of subscribers.

So, EDFA technology is by far the most advanced. Nowadays EDFA is extensively in the optical fiber
communication networks. As communication technologies continue to be developed, EDFA will
become the preferred choice for the future optical amplifiers. Being equipped with the features of flat
gain over a large dynamic gain range, low noise, high saturation output power and stable operation
with excellent transient suppression, EDFA will play a more and more important role in optical
communication system to better serve subscribers.
Q.28 Compare WDM, DWDM and CWDM.
Parameters CWDM WDM DWDM
Channel spacing Large, from1.6nm 1310 nm lasers used in
(200GHz) to 25nm conjunction with 1550nm Small, 200GHz and
lasers less
No of bands used O, E, S, C and L O and C C and L
Cost per channel Low Low High
No of channel 17 -18 at most 2 100s of channel
delivered possible
Applications Short-haul, Metro PON Long-haul

Q.29 Explain the working, merit, demerit and application of OADM/AWG MUX-DEMUX.

Optical Add-Drop multiplexer: OADM is a device used in wavelength-division multiplexing

systems for multiplexing and routing different channels of light into or out of a single mode fiber
(SMF). This is a type of optical node, which is generally used for the formation and the construction
of optical telecommunications networks. "Add" and "drop" here refer to the capability of the device to
add one or more new wavelength channels to an existing multi-wavelength WDM signal, and/or to
drop (remove) one or more channels, passing those signals to another network path. An OADM may
be considered to be a specific type of optical cross-connect. OADM is based on low-loss, low-cost
passive devices and does not need any power supply, a reliable, cost-effective and scalable network
can be achieved with its help

Fig.30: Optical add-drop multiplexer, using a fiber Bragg grating and two circulators.

OADM architecture: It consists of three stages:

1. Optical de-multiplexer
2. Optical multiplexer
3. Set of ports for adding and dropping signals

The de-multiplexer separates wavelengths in an input fiber onto ports. The reconfiguration can be
achieved by a fiber patch panel or by optical switches which direct the wavelengths to the multiplexer
or to drop ports. The multiplexer multiplexes the wavelength channels that are to continue on from
de-multiplexer ports with those from the add ports, onto a single output fiber.
OADMs classification: It is classified into the following-
1. FOADM (Fixed Optical Add-Drop Multiplexer): Fixed Optical Add-Drop Multiplexers:
FOADMs were originally developed to improve the delivery of "express" traffic through networks,
without requiring expensive OEO regeneration. FOADMs use fixed filters that add/drop a selected
wavelength "band" and pass the rest of the wavelengths through the node. Static wavelength-filtering
technology eliminates the cost and attenuation to demultiplex all DWDM signals in a signal path. The
solution is called FOADM because the wavelength(s) added and dropped are fixed at the time of
add/drop filter installation on the optical path through a node. No additional filters can be added
without interrupting express wavelengths traveling through the node.
2. Reconfigurable Optical Add-Drop Multiplexers: ROADMs were developed to provide
flexibility in rerouting optical streams, bypassing faulty connections, allowing minimal service
disruption and the ability to adapt or upgrade the optical network to different WDM technologies. It
uses a Wavelength Selective Switch (WSS). The WSS has an 8-dimensional cross-connect and
provides quick service start-up, remote cross-connect and WDM mesh networking. The ROADM
scheme also allows inputting or outputting a single wavelength or wavelength group via the fixed
port. In ROADM systems, we don’t need to convert the optical signals to electrical signals and route
those signals by using conventional electronic switches then convert back again to optical signals just
like FOADM does. ROADM can configure as required without affecting traffic.
Advantages:
1. OADM increases network capacity
2. OADM reduces complexity of connection in between Tx and Rx
3. It reduces the transmission loss of the light signal which can be transmitted relatively far distance.
4. It is transparent to digital signal format and data rate.
5. Its gain saturation recovery time is long, and has a very small crosstalk between the respective
channels.
6. Narrow channel spacing or wavelength selection give rise to denser channels in the same
wavelength range.
7. Repeater or amplification sites are reduced, which results in large savings of funding.

AWG-MUXs/DEMUXs for DWDM systems: An arrayed waveguide grating is a (typically fiber-

coupled) device which can separate or combine signals with different wavelengths. It is usually built as
a planar light wave circuit, where the light coming from an input fiber first enters a multimode
waveguide section, then propagates through several single-mode waveguides to a second multimode
section, and finally into the output fibers. Wavelength filtering is based on an interference effect and the
different optical path lengths in the single-mode waveguides.

Fig.31: Structure of an arrayed waveguide grating

In recent years, the arrayed waveguide grating (AWG), also known as the optical phased array
(PHASAR), phased-array waveguide grating (PAWG), or waveguide grating router (WGR), has become
increasingly popular as a wavelength multiplexer and demultiplexer (MUX/DMUX) for dense
wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) and very high density wavelength division multiplexing
(VHDWDM) applications. This popularity is largely due to the fact that AWG-based devices have been
proven capable of precisely demultiplexing a high number of optical signals (carrying information at
various wavelengths) with relative low loss. A further advantage of AWGs is that they can be included in
a more complex management system, such as OADMs (Optical Add Drop Multiplexers), or with VOAs.
With the recent development and growth of the Fibre to the X (home, office, etc) – FTTX market, the
AWGs are also been used for CWDM applications where a much lower number of transmitting optical
signals is required. In the next generation access networks (NGAN) the AWGs have been found to be
very suited as optical coders/encoders that can generate and process optical codes directly in the optical
domain.
AWG FABRICATION:
The AWG is a planar waveguide structure usually obtained on silicon wafer substrate with a SiO 2 lower
cladding oxide obtained using thermal oxidation of Si substrate. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
process creates GeSiO2 active layer with refractive index higher than the refractive index of the cladding
layer. Optical lithography and dry etching define then AWG waveguide structure. The growth of the
upper cladding (CVD process) with refractive index matching with lower cladding is the last
technological step. Because the fabrication of the AWG is based on standardizes techniques, the
integration of the AWG offers many advantages such as compactness, reliability, fabrication stability,
and significantly reduced fabrication and packaging costs. The inherent advantages of the AWG also
include precisely-controlled channel spacing (easily matched to the ITU grid) simple and accurate
wavelength stabilization, low and uniform insertion loss, narrow and accurate channel spacing, and large
channel numbers

Operation of AWGs devices:

The incoming light (1), traverses a free space (2). and enters a bundle of optical fibers or channel
waveguides (3). the fibers have different length and thus apply a different phase shift at the exit of the
fibers. The Light then traverses another free space (4) and interferes at the entries of the output
waveguides 95) in such a way that each output channel receives only light of a certain wavelengths. The
orange lines indicate the light path. The light path from (1) to (5) is a demultiplexer from (5) to (1) a
multiplexer.

Fig.32: Different types of AWGs

Various AWGs are available on the market. They can be divided into two main groups according to
the material used
1. Low-index AWGs
2. High-index AWGs
Low-index AWGs with a typical refractive index contrast of 0.75% have the advantage of their
compatibility with optical fibres, and hence very low coupling losses between output waveguides and
optical fibres. The disadvantage of such AWGs is their size, which corresponds with the waveguide
curvature that may not lie below a critical value. As a result, increasing the channel counts and
narrowing the channel spacing leads to a rapid increase in the AWG size and this, in turn; causes the
deterioration in optical performance like higher insertion loss and, in particular, higher channel
crosstalk. In contrast to this, high-index AWGs feature a much smaller size but also much higher
coupling losses.
The typical performance characteristics of an AWG DWDM module consists of
1. No of channels: 8, 16, 32, 40
2. Operating wavelength: 1310 or 1550nm
3. Insertion loss: 5db or 7db
4. Temperature stability: <± 0.5db
5. Temperature sensitivity: <±0.01nm

AWG temperature control:

The temperature control module is composed of two components-
1. The temperature stabilization substrate (TSS)
2. The Resistance temperature detection (RTD)
The temperature stabilization substrate (TSS): It is used as a temperature source that provides the
required internal temperature for the AWG device. Thus, it is used to maintain AWG internal
temperature control and incorporate two leads that are American gauze no 26.

The Resistance temperature detection (RTD): It is used to provide the required feedback mechanism.
RTD incorporates two resistance temperature detectors-RTD1 and RTD2. RTD1 is used to monitor the
internal temperature of the AWG device and RTD2 provides the required negative feedback mechanism
for maintaining the constant temperature. The RTD1 and RTD2 complement each other in case of
failure. The RTD characteristics are as follows-
 No of leads =3
 Thermal resistance coefficient = 3.85x10-5 Ω/0C

40 channel AWG-MUXs /DEMUs: It was designed and fabricated by Lucent technology. It is used in
high density DWDM operating system. It exhibits very stable characteristics overall operating
wavelengths. The device complies with ITCS-T channel spacing requirements, while exhibiting
excellent operating characteristics.

Characteristics:
The device consists of following characteristics-
 High channel capacity
 Precision inter-channel spacing
 Low insertion loss
 Low cross talk
 High stability
 High reliability

Specific Applications:
1. As the demand for higher data rate is increasing there is a need to upgrade the opt fiber system,
thus future upgrade network upgrading is possible through AWG/MUXs/DEMUXs.
2. Arrayed waveguide gratings are mainly applied in optical fiber communication systems, in
particular in those based on multi-channel transmission with wavelength division multiplexing
(WDM), where individual wavelength channels must be combined or separated.
3. They can be part of more complex photonic integrated circuits, functioning e.g. as WDM data
transmitters.
4. An arrayed waveguide grating may also be used for separating the lines in the optical spectrum
of a super continuum source, or in a pulse shaper for ultrashort pulses.
5. AWGs are one of the key components for constructing flexible and large-capacity DWDM
networks.
6. The AWG is superior to filters consisting of thin film filters and micro-optics, in that it offers
low loss and high port count, and can be mass produced.

7. This wide variety of AWG-based MUX/DMUX is further used in point-to-point WDMs,

optical add/drop multiplexing systems, and optical cross-connect systems.

Q.30: Discuss in detail working, merits, demerits and applications of MZI.

The Mach Zehnder Interferometer (MZI)

Introduction: Optical communications systems have been operating with direct modulation. That is, the
input binary data directly modulates the laser diode biasing current in order to produce time a time
varying output optical power. This method of modulation has proven satisfactory for low transmission
rates. However high-speed digital (Gb/s) and CATV optical systems, direct modulation imposes limits to
system performance because of laser diode non-linearities and broader spectral line width. These two
factors are very critical to high speed optical systems because they contribute to undesirable pulse
dispersion and the generation of relevant distortion products. More specifically, direct modulation
broadens the spectral line width of the laser diode by increasing the refractive index of the cavity. The
refractive index increase induces large variation of the central wavelength, resulting in an enlargement
of the generated spectral line width. However, a large spectral line width, couple with fiber dispersion,
increases pulse broadening (chirping) and ultimately imposes limit on the speed and length of the optical
link. Chirping which causes ISI and crosstalk can be dramatically reduced and all together eliminated by
a very narrow laser diode spectral line width. A narrow line width can be produced by the laser diode
operating in the carrier wave mode of operation. The external modulator, inducing practically zero pulse
dispersion, can modulate the generated Narrow line width CW optical power. Two types of external
modulators exist: the Mach Zehnder LiNbO3 modulator and electro absorptive modulator.
Working of MZI: The basic MZI is composed of four mirrors and four plates that incorporate Spacers
for optical path comparison, where M1, M2, M3 and M4 are mirrors and P1, P2, P3 and P4 are plates that
incorporates spacers for optical path comparisons. Mirror M 1 is used to divide the light beam into two
equal paths they are recombined at mirror M 4 with constructive interference. If one of the two paths are
face shifted, a destructive interference will be encountered at the beam selection mirror M 4. This
consideration is used in the design of a LiNbO 3 modulator. In a Mach Zehnder LiNbO3 optical
modulator, 3dB Y Optical splitter and combiner are used, while the required phase shift is induced in
one of the paths by changing the wave guide(path) refractive index through a change of an applied
electric field.

Fig.33: MZI
Merits:
1. High optical output power coupled into the optical fibre
2. The very small pulse –broadening(chirping)
3. Long link distance
4. Higher transmission rates
5. Fewer EDFAs required
6. No jitter
7. Electronic noise rejection
8. >20 dB dynamic range
9. Immunity to environmental changes
10. Supports wide band transmission
11. Cost efficiency

Applications:
1. Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)
2. SONET/SDH optical add/drop multiplexers (OADM)
3. Soliton systems
4. Testing and measuring systems
5. Long distance communication systems
6. Under C systems
 7. Terrestrial communications link <100 Km
8. CATV
9. RF down link from satellite

Device characteristics:
1. Hight extinction ratio
2. Excellent stability
3. Extremely low chirp
4. EDFA compatibility

Q.31 Differentiate between Direct and External optical modulators.

S. No Direct Optical Modulator External Optical Modulator

1 Laser diode’s bias current is modulated with The laser diode’s bias current is stable.
signal input to produce modulated optical
output.
2 Approach is straightforward and low cost, Approach yields low chirp and better
but is susceptible to chirp (spectral dispersion performance but it is more
broadening) thus exposing signal to higher expensive approach.
dispersion
3 It is simple High frequency RF modulation circuit is
required for operation which usually will
be complex.
4 This method is slower It is much faster in processing.
5 Low cost More expensive
6 It can be employed in low speed application It can be employed in high frequency
application e.g. long-haul telecom or cable
TV heal ends

Q.32 Define photonic switching. Explain working, merits, demerits, characteristics and
applications of OCS, OBS and OPS.
Photonic Switching: Lambda switching (sometimes called photonic switching, or wavelength
switching) is the technology used in optical networking to switch individual wavelengths of light onto
separate paths for specific routing of information.
Optical switching techniques:
As net traffic volume rises from the desire to have high BW multimedia services, the no of wavelengths
per fibre increases that changes are needed for the earlier switching methods in which optical signals are
converted to electrical signals, switched electronically, then converted back to an optical format. The
main reason is that the performance of the electronic equipment used in this optical to electrical to
optical(O/E/O) conversion process strongly dependent on the data rate and protocol. To overcome these
limitations, the concept of all switching was explored, it consists of following techniques.
1. OCS-Optical Circuit Switching
2. OBS-Optical Burst Switching
3. OPS-Optical Packet Switching
1.OCS-Optical Circuit Switching: Optical Circuit Switching (OCS) is an optical networking
technology. In OCS, the network is configured to establish a circuit, from an entry to an exit node, by
adjusting the optical across connect circuits in the core routers in a manner that the data signal, in an
optical form, can travel in an all-optical manner from the entry to the exit node as shown below in
diagram. 
 Fig.34: OCS Block Diagram

Working principle:
It is based on the principle of wavelength routing which is based on dedicated wavelength which is to
be assigned for each path from source to the destination. Once the connection is established, data
remains in optical domain (i.e. in light form) till it reaches to the destination.
In this type circuit connection is established first between the devices before the communication
begins. The connection can be fixed or created dynamically as needed. There may be many paths
between source and destination but only one path as established is used for the communication
Advantages:
1. Supports natural QOS (quality of service).
2. Commercially available for use.

Disadvantages:
1. High wavelength consumption
2. Low flexibility
3. Lower network utilization
4. Large node size

2.Optical Burst Switching: Optical burst switching offers us the dynamic subwavelength switching of
data which removes the through put limitation and provides us more efficient bandwidth utilization.

At the edge node of the OBS network, various types of user’s data are combined and then this data is
transmitted as bursts. Each burst has its control packet which contains its information. This packet gets
transmitted on a separate allocated control channel. This control packet can contain the information of
hundreds of data channel due to its smaller size.

Optical burst switching techniques: Architectural detail of the OBS network gives us insight on
how these techniques can be different from each other. By using a different burst assembler algorithm
or a different contention resolution or signaling technique can result into a different type of technique
for OBS implementation.
1. Optical burst switching for self-similar traffic
2. Just in time signaling for WDM optical burst switching networks
3. Deflection routing in optical burst switched networks
4. Optical burst switching in IP –over WDM networks.
 Fig.35: OBS Block Diagram
In this technique, client data will go through burst assembly and burst disassembly at each edge of the
network. Here multiplexing occurs at burst level where in IP packets are fragmented into smaller size
bursts. This is done at core of OBS network. Here data and control signals are transmitted on different
wavelengths or channels. Hence O/E/O conversions are carried out on few control channels which
saves cost to great extent.

Advantages:
1. High flexibility
2. Efficient utilization of network
Disadvantages:

1. Effort for traffic aggregation is complex

2. Resilience more complex
3. Control is complex

3. Optical Packet Switching: In optical packet switching technique, packet header is being processed
either optically or electronically at each intermediate node. The Optical/Electronic (O/E) conversion
and vice-versa is done as required. The data payload waits in delay lines of the fiber before being
forwarded to the next node. The figure-4 depicts optical packet format/structure. As shown, it consists
of packet train where in each individual packet consists of OGB (Optical Guard Band), header and
synch data.

Fig.36: OPS Block Diagram

Fig.37: Optical Packet Structure

Advantages:
1. Reduced size of node.
2. Very much flexible utilization of network.
3. Very efficient network utilization.
Disadvantages:
 1. Higher control complexity.
2. Requires more effort for the packet recording.

Q.33 Discuss in detail types, working, merits, demerits and applications of SONET and PON.

Synchronous Optical Network (SONET): SONET stands for synchronous optical network; it is a
communication protocol which was developed by Bellcore and is used to transmit a large amount of
data over relatively large distances using optical fibre. Moreover, SONET was standardized by the
American National Standards Institute (ANSI). This is equivalent to Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
(SDH) standardized by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). A SONET system used
1310 nanometre lasers to deliver 155 Mb/s data streams over very long distances and allows
simultaneous transmission of voice, data, and video at speeds as high as 1Gbps through a single fiber.

SONET Network: It consists of four elements:

Fig.38: SONET Architecture

1. STS Multiplexer:
 Performs multiplexing of
signals
 Converts electrical signal to
optical signal
2. STS Demultiplexer:
 Performs demultiplexing of
signals
 Converts optical signal to
electrical signal
3. Regenerator: It is a repeater, that takes
an optical signal and regenerates (increases the strength)
4. Add/Drop Multiplexer: It allows,
adding signals coming from different sources into a given path or removing a signal.
Uses of SONET:
1. Convert electrical signal into optical signal so that it can travel longer distances.
2. In telephone networks, it is used for transmission of a huge amount of telephone calls and
data streams through fiber.
3. It is applicable in multiple digital data streams, which can be transferred at the same time over
the optical fibre.

Characteristics of SONET:
 1. It Provides a standard for line rates
2. Being the basis for BISDN or broadband integrated services digital network
3. It holds a base rate of 51.84 megabits per second
4. It is useful for different protocols such as Ethernet and TCP/IP traffic too.
SONET architecture:
SONET uses the following network architecture:
 Bidirectional line-switched ring which could be either 2-fiber or 5-fiber variants
 Unidirectional path-switched ring and
 Linear automatic protection switching

Fig.39: Simplified block diagram of the SONET two-way time-transfer system

SONET layers:

Fig.40: Layers of SONET

The SONET standard includes four functional layers: the photonic, the section, the line, and the path
layer. They correspond to both the physical and the data link layers.
Path Layer
The path layer is responsible for the movement of a signal from its optical source to its optical
destination. At the optical source, the signal is changed from an electronic form into an optical form,
multiplexed with other signals, and encapsulated in a frame. At the optical destination, the received
frame is demultiplexed, and the individual optical signals are changed back into their electronic
forms. Path layer overhead is added at this layer. STS multiplexers provide path layer functions.
Line Layer
The line layer is responsible for the movement of a signal across a physical line. Line layer overhead
is added to the frame at this layer. STS multiplexers and add/drop multiplexers provide line layer
functions.
Section Layer
The section layer is responsible for the movement of a signal across a physical section. It handles
framing, scrambling, and error control. Section layer overhead is added to the frame at this layer.
Photonic Layer
The photonic layer corresponds to the physical layer of the OSI model. It includes physical
specifications for the optical fiber channel, the sensitivity of the receiver, multiplexing functions, and
so on. SONET uses NRZ encoding with the presence of light representing 1 and the absence of light
representing 0.
SONET Frames:
The basic SONET frame comprises of a block of 810 bytes. The frames are transmitted at the rate of
8000 frames/bytes, which is the sampling rate of the telephone networks. A SONET frame is
represented as a rectangular block of bytes with 9 rows and 90 columns as shown below. The first
three columns of the SONET frame contains the system information and is generally termed as system
overhead, while the rest (marked in blue) contains the payload, i.e. the data to be transmitted. In this
frame, the first three rows of the system overhead (marked in yellow) contain section overhead, and
the nest six rows (marked in orange) contain line overhead.

Fig.41: SONET Frames

SONET connections: Connection rates are the lowest or most basic rate is STS-1 where STS stands
for synchronous transport signal. There are two ways to look at connection rates. On one hand, we
have the STS and on the other the OC or optical carrier. STS-96 OC-96 has a rate of 4976.64
megabits per second.

Working of SONET :
SONET is built from multiplexed DS0, DS1, or DS3 digital signal channels using optical time-
division multiplexing (TDM) to form a single Synchronous Transport Signal (STS) link for
communication. The basic SONET transmission rate is 810 bytes transmitted every 125
microseconds, and frames are transmitted whether or not a payload (data) is present. A standard STS-
1 SONET data path thus consists of 810 DS0 channels, of which 783 are used for data transmission
and 27 are used for framing, error correction, format identification, and other forms of overhead.
SONET is usually implemented as a dual-ring topology to provide redundancy and fault tolerance.
These rings are usually self-healing within 50 milliseconds of a break. SONET speeds are classified
by one of the following:

 Electrical signal speeds called Synchronous Transport Signal

(STS)
 Optical carrier line speeds called optical carrier (OC)
Advantages:
 1. Lower equipment investment
2. Transmits data to large distances
3. Low electromagnetic interference
4. High data rates
5. Large Bandwidth
6. Lower rates of data loss
7. Better network reliability
8. Better connectivity between different telecom carriers
9. Highly flexible architecture which means that it can carry many applications created in the
future too.
10. De-multiplexing is easy

Disadvantages:
1. No interoperable standard
2. Tributary services require SONET mux services
3. Low cost effective for low channel numbers.
4. SONET/SDH network management system not well equipped to handle the DWDM method
and management
5. Bandwidth efficiency is a problem at higher capacity
6. More overhead is required

Applications:
1. SONET can be used as carrier for ISDN and BISDN
2. SONET can be used as carrier for ATM cells
3. SONET can be used for bandwidth on demand
4. SONET can be used for cable TV networks
5. SONE can be used forT1 and T3 carrier lines

Passive Optical Network:

Passive Optical Network (PON) is a FTTH (Fiber to the Home) technology deployed in both domestic
and commercial consumers. It is called a passive network since it does not require a power equipment
to amplify or process signals. A PON implements point – to – multipoint architecture, where a single
optical line is divided into many optical splitters to serve multiple customers. It is used in the last mile
of the network connection between an ISP and a user.
PON Architecture:
The passive optical network has three parts −
 Optical Line Terminator (OLT) − This is the end office of the service provider.
 Optical Distribution Network (ODN) − This contains the fibers and splitters, enabling
point–to–multipoint connection.
 Optical Network Unit (ONU) − This terminates the PON and provides services for interface
with the customer.
 Fig.42: PON Network
Data Transmission:
Data transmission in a PON is a two-way traffic
 Upstream data transmission − This transmission is from the customer to the ISP. Here,
optical combiners combine customer data is into a single signal, through time division
multiplexing (TDM).
 Downstream data transmission − This transmission is from the ISP to the customer. Optical
splitters divide the signals and broadcast them to all the premises. Encryption and
authentication measures at the customer end determine who can access the data in the
transmitted signal.
Types of PONs
The common kinds of PONs are −
 GPONs (Gigabit-capable PONs)
 EPONs (Ethernet PONs)
 BPONs (Broadband PONs)
 APON (Asynchronous Transfer Mode PONs)

Passive Optical Network: A passive optical network (PON) is a fiber-optic network utilizing a point-
to-multipoint topology and optical splitters to deliver data from a single transmission point to multiple
user endpoints? Passive, in this context, refers to the unpowered condition of the fiber and
splitting/combining components.
In contrast to an active optical network, electrical power is only required at the send and receive
points, making a PON inherently efficient from an operation cost standpoint. Passive optical networks
are used to simultaneously transmit signals in both the upstream and downstream directions to and
from the user endpoints.

Passive Optical Network Components and Devices:

The optical fiber and splitters are the truly “passive” building blocks of the PON, with no electrical
powering required. Optical splitters are not wavelength selective and simply divide any optical
wavelengths in the downstream direction, of course splitting of an optical signal does incur a power
loss which depends on the number of ways a signal is split. Splitters require none of the cooling or
other ongoing maintenance inherent to active network components (such as optical amplifiers) and
can last for decades if left undisturbed. In addition to the passive components, active end devices are
required to fully create the PON network.

The optical line terminal (OLT) is the starting point for the passive optical network. It is connected to
a core switch through Ethernet pluggable. The primary function of the OLT is to convert, frame and
transmit signals for the PON network and to coordinate the optical network terminal (ONT)
multiplexing for the shared upstream transmission. You may also see the end-user devices referred to
as optical network unit (ONU), this is simply a difference in terminology between the two main
standards bodies, the ITU-T who use ONT and the IEEE who use ONU, the two terms are effectively
interchangeable but depend on the PON service and standard being utilized (see below).

The ONT is the powered device of the passive optical network system at the opposite (user) end of the
network and includes Ethernet ports for in home device or network connectivity.

Passive Optical Network Architecture:

PON networks adopt a Point-to-multipoint (P2MP) architecture which utilizes optical splitters to
divide the downstream signal from a single OLT into multiple downstream paths to the end users, the
same splitters combine the multiple upstream paths from the end users back to the OLT.

Point-to-multipoint was selected as the most viable PON architecture for optical access networks with
the inherent efficiencies of fiber sharing and low-power consumption. This architecture was
standardized in 1998 via the ATM-PON G.983.1 specification.

Today, the ITU-T G.984 standard for G-PON has supplanted the ATM standard, since Asynchronous
Transfer Mode (ATM) is no longer utilized. A PON network starts with the optical line terminal
(OLT) at the service provider source location typically known as a Local or Central Office, or
sometimes referred to as an exchange or headend. From there, the fiber-optic feeder cable (or feeder
fiber) is routed to a passive splitter, along with a backup fiber if one is used. Distribution fibers then
connect from the splitter to a drop terminal, which can be located in a street cabinet or in a ruggedized
housing mounted in a pit, on a telegraph pole or even on the side of buildings. Drop fibers then
provide the final one-to-one connection from drop terminal port to an end user ONT/ONU. In some
cases, more than one splitter is used in series, this is referred to as a cascaded splitter architecture.

Fig.43: PON Architecture

The signals carried on the feeder fiber can be split to provide service to as many as 128 users with
an ONU or ONT converting the signals and providing users with internet access. The number of ways
the downstream OLT signal is divided or split before reaching the end user is known as the splitter or
split ratio (e.g. 1:32 or 1:64). 

In more complex configurations where RF video is being broadcast in parallel to the PON data service
or additional PON services are co-existing on the same PON network, passive (MUX) combiners are
used at the central/local office to merge the video overlay wavelength and additional PON service
wavelengths onto the outbound OLT feeder fiber.

Passive Optical Network Operation:

An innovation that is integral to PON operation is wave division multiplexing (WDM), used to
separate data streams based on the wavelength (colour) of the laser light. One wavelength can be used
to transmit downstream data while another is used to carry upstream data. These dedicated
wavelengths vary depending on the PON standard in use and can be present simultaneously on the
same fiber. 

Time division multiple access (TDMA) is another technology used to allocate the upstream bandwidth
to each end user for a specific time period, which is managed by the OLT, preventing wavelength/data
collisions at the PON splitters or OLT due to multiple ONT/ONU transmitting data upstream at the
same time. This is also referred to as burst-mode transmission for the PON upstream. 

Types of PON Service:

Since its introduction in the 1990s, PON technology has continued to evolve and multiple iterations of
the PON network topology have taken shape. The original passive optical network standards, APON
and BPON, have gradually given way to the bandwidth and overall performance benefits of the newer
versions. 

Fig.44: Versions of PON

 G-PON
 E-PON
 10G-E-E-PON
 XG(S)PON
 NG-PON2
 RF Video Overlay

PON Applications:

A PON is sometimes referred to as the “last mile” between the provider and user, or the Fiber to the X
(FTTX) with “X” signifying the home (FTTH), building (FTTB), premises (FTTP) or other location,
depending on where the optical fiber is terminated. Thus far, fiber-to-the home (FTTH) has been the
main application for PON. 

The reduced cabling infrastructure (no active elements) and flexible media transmission attributes of
passive optical networks have made it an ideal fit for home internet, voice and video applications. As
PON technology has continued to improve, the potential applications have expanded as well.

The rollout of 5G continues, and PON networks have found a new application with 5G fronthaul. The
fronthaul is the connection between the baseband controller and the remote radio head at the cell site.  
Due to the bandwidth and latency demands imposed by 5G, utilizing PON networks to complete the
fronthaul connections can reduce fiber count and improve efficiency without compromising
performance. In much the same way the source signal is split between users for FTTH, signal from the
baseband units can be distributed to an array of remote radio heads.
Additional applications that are well suited to passive optical networks include college campuses and
business environments. For campus applications, PON networks produce discernible advantages with
respect to speed, energy consumption, reliability and access distances but mostly cost of
build/deployment and on-going operation. 

PON enables integration of campus functions such as building management, security and parking with
reduced dedicated equipment, cabling and management systems. Similarly, medium to large sized
business complexes can reap immediate benefits from PON implementation, with the reduced
installation and maintenance costs directly impacting the bottom line.

Benefits of Passive Optical Networks

1. Efficient Use of Power

2. Simplified Infrastructure and Ease of Upgrade
3. Efficient use of Infrastructure
4. Ease of Maintenance

Limitations of Passive Optical Networks

 Distance
 Test Access
 High Vulnerability to Breakdown in the Feeder Line or the OLT

Fig.45: PON Feeder System

Overall, the inherent benefits of passive optical networks substantially outweigh these limitations. As
PON technology continues to improve, the strategic and economic advantages of PON deployment
become more compelling. The challenges being addressed by designers of future generations include
improved range capability and higher splitter ratios to reduce cable outlay even further. These
improvements, combined with speeds now reaching 10 Gbps and beyond, will help to continue the
expansion of passive optical networks into the smart cities, universities, hospitals and corporations
that make up the connected world of tomorrow.

Q.34 Explain the operation of FTTX and GPON.

FTTX stands for Fiber to the X (where X is a particular name/object). It is a type of broadband
network architecture which uses telecom provider’s network to deliver broadband connections to
homes, businesses and other establishments.
FTTP: fiber to the premises
FTTC: fiber to the curb
FTTN: Fiber to the node
FTTX: referred to all varieties!
Fiber to the home or fibers to the premises are the same thing, although “premises” was probably
chosen to indicate the user could be a business as well as a household. Anyway, the idea is to bring
fiber to the end user and offer high bandwidth services not available otherwise.
FTTH is mostly a telco issue. Telcos have many aging cable plants that cannot support DSL but it is
too expensive to replace old copper with new copper just for POTS (plain old telephone service.)
However, the aging copper is expensive to maintain. Some analysts also claim that FTTH
maintenance costs are so much lower than keeping the current copper network going provides up to
2/3 of the financial benefits of FTTH – much greater than the revenue enhancements. CATV
companies have HFC networks in place and have the ability to bring gigabit signals to the home,
although some are looking at replacing the coax drop to the home with fiber. Competitive carriers
now install their own fiber since FCC rules have changed and they cannot be assured of access to
competitive carriers’ cable plants.
1. Homeowners: for high speed Internet access and video downloads
2. Home Builders
 FTTX adds value to their homes
 FTTX provides a reason to provide structured cabling inside the home
 These two reasons can add Rs 5L to Rs 10L to the value of a home!
3. Hardware Providers who want to sell equipment to build the networks and install in the
homes as well as structured cabling companies who participate in a market that is about
$2500 per home.
4. Service Providers: IPTV, HDTV, video on demand, etc. Those who want to offer video
services are most happy with FTTX as nothing provides the same bandwidth.

Municipalities: Some of the first FTTH systems were installed by cities – progressive ones like Palo
Alto did it at the request of their high-tech citizens, some did it to entice businesses to move there,
like Anaheim, some did it (or are trying to) because they were not pleased with the service of Telcos
or CATV companies. Most municipal FTTX projects use rights of way available to the city through
city-owned utilities.

Utilities: Owning rights of way to the home convinced some utilities to try FTTH or FTTC. Ethernet
over power lines is becoming an option for power companies who can use power lines for the final
connection to the home. FTTX is even becoming real for rural customers through rural electrical
cooperatives.

CLECs (Competitive Local Exchange Carriers) install their own networks and can then sell
connections to anyone they pass, but mostly focus on businesses which spend much more money on
communications than households.

Private companies: There are private companies that will build municipal FTTH networks under an
agreement with the city, similar to CATV agreements. In addition, some contractors building large
subdivisions or apartments are installing FTTH with the assumption that they can connect with
telecommunications companies for services to resell.

FTTH is a considered a battleground by Telcos and CATV companies: Whenever a city or private
company proposes to install FTTH, they can expect to have to deal with the legal, advertising and
technical staff of the current telco or CATV company. Cities have found themselves in court or in
battles where they are outspent by 100 to 1 in advertising in an attempt by the local Telcos and CATV
companies to defeat competitive systems.
We recognize five changes in the current telco environment that are affecting attitudes toward FTTH:
1. Telcos are losing broadband customers to CATV
2. Telcos are losing landline customers to cell phones and VoIP
3. New services are becoming available
4. Fiber optic components are getting less expensive
 5. Regulations changed sharing issues
New Technology makes FTTX cheaper, comparable in cost to copper solutions, lower in cost per
bandwidth and with lower operating expenses. Many Telcos are realizing that the alternatives to
FTTH are inadequate for future bandwidth needs:
1. DSL won’t have the bandwidth over most installed copper
2. Wireless won’t have the bandwidth, and the spectrum may not be affordable
3. BPL (broadband over power lines) won’t have the bandwidth

FTTX Growth in India:

FTTH Architectures:
Home run: Home run fiber from CO to every home, offers the most flexibility but at the highest cost
as no electronics are shared. A good solution for small developments or rural connections.
Active star: local switch then fiber to every home, highly flexible, but simply moves the electronics
closer to the home, saving only a small amount in cabling costs. Think of it as fiber to the curb with
the curb to home on fiber too.
Passive optical network (PON): use splitter near customer share fiber to CO. Not only does it share
fiber, it shares electronics, using one transmitter at the CO for up to 32 homes, greatly reducing
connection costs. Basic PON architectures are widely used because they are usually the least
expensive way of implementing FTTH.
WDM PON: PON but with each customer or location having a specified wavelength. Again, highly
flexible, but more expensive and harder to manage. All FTTH networks are based on standard SM
fiber (ITU G.652), also called dispersion unshifted or non-dispersion shifted fiber. The only fiber
option normally considered is to use low-water vapor fiber that removes the water peak at 1400 nm.
FTTX Architecture Home Run: A home run architecture uses a direct fiber run from the CO to the
customer. Each is a full duplex optical link, making this generally more expensive from the standpoint
of fiber and electronics requirements. It is used in some small systems, like gated communities,
sometimes with 2 fibers, one digital for Internet and VoIP, the other for analog CATV. Some people
refer to this as a P2P or point-to-point network.

Fig.46: FTTX Distribution

Benefits of using GIS for FTTX
 Consistent
 Scalable
 Speed
 Quality easy to integrate and collaborate
 Multiple iteration possible in less time frame
 Productivity increases to a very high extent when compared to CAD

GPON fundamentals: GPON stands for Gigabit Passive Optical Networks. GPON is defined by
ITU-T recommendation series G.984.1 through G.984.6. GPON can transport not only Ethernet, but
also ATM and TDM (PSTN, ISDN, E1 and E3) traffic. GPON network consists of mainly two active
transmission equipment, namely- Optical Line Termination (OLT) and Optical Network Unit (ONU)
or Optical Network Termination (ONT). GPON supports triple-play services, high-bandwidth, long
reach (upto 20km), etc.
 Fig.47: FTTX Network Architectures

A single fibre from the OLT runs to a passive Optical Splitter (passive means, it does not require any
power to operate) which is located near the users' locations. The Optical Splitter merely divides the
optical power into N separate paths to the users. The optical paths can vary between 2 to 128. From
the Optical Splitter, a single mode (SM) fibre strand run to each user. This is shown in below figure.
GPON adopts two multiplexing mechanisms- a) in downstream direction (i.e. from OLT to users),
data packets are transmitted in a broadcast manner, but encryption (AES) is used to prevent
eavesdropping, b) in upstream direction (i.e. from users to OLT), data packets are transmitted in a
TDMA manner.

Fig.48: GPON Architecture

GPON technologies consist of following:

ONU Identifier (ONU-ID): ONU-ID is an 8-bit identifier that an OLT assigns to an ONU during
ONU activation via PLOAM messages. The ONU-ID is unique across the PON and remains until the
ONU is powered off or deactivated by the OLT.

Allocation Identifier (ALLOC_ID): ALLOC_ID is a 12-bit number that the OLT assigns to an ONU
to identify a traffic-bearing entity that is a recipient of upstream bandwidth allocations within that
ONU. This traffic-bearing entity is also called T-CONT. Each ONU is assigned a default ALLOC_ID
which is equal to that ONU's ONU-ID, and may be assigned additional ALLOC_IDs as per OLT's
discretion.

Transmission Containers (T-CONT): A Transmission Container (T-CONT) is an ONU object

representing a group of logical connections that appear as a single entity for the purpose of upstream
bandwidth assignment on the PON. For a given ONU, the number of supported T-CONTs is fixed.
The ONU autonomously creates all the supported T-CONT instances during ONU activation. The
OLT discovers the number of T-CONT instances supported by a given ONU. To activate a T-CONT
instance to carry upstream user traffic, the OLT has to establish a mapping between T-CONT instance
and an ALLOC_ID, which has been previously assigned to the ONU via PLOAM messages. Any
ALLOC_ID assigned to the ONU, including the default ALLOC_ID, can be associated with single
user traffic T-CONT.

There are 5 types of T-CONTs which can be allocated to the user:

 1. Type 1: This T-CONT is of fixed bandwidth type and mainly used for services sensitive to
delay and high priority like VOIP.
2. Type 2 and Type 3: Both T-CONT are of guaranteed bandwidth types and mainly used for
video services and data services of higher priorities.
3. Type 4: This T-CONT is of best-effort type and mainly used for data services such as Internet
and services of low priority which do not require high bandwidth.
4. Type 5: This T-CONT is of mixed type, involving all bandwidth types and bearing all
services.

Dynamic Bandwidth Allocation (DBA): The OLT is responsible for allocating upstream bandwidth
to the ONUs. Because the access network is shared, ONU upstream transmissions could collide if they
were transmitted at random times. ONUs can be located at varying distances from the OLT, and hence
the transmission delay from each ONU is unique. The OLT measures delay and sets a register in each
ONU via PLOAM (Physical Layer Operations, Administration and Maintenance) messages to
equalize its delay with respect to all other ONUs on the access network. This is called Ranging.

Once the delay of all ONUs has been set, the OLT transmits grants to individual ONUs. A grant is
permission to use a defined interval of time for upstream transmission. The grant map is dynamically
re-calculated every few milliseconds. The map allocates bandwidth to all ONUs such that each ONU
receives timely bandwidth for its needs. DBA is a methodology that allows quick adoption of users'
bandwidth allocation based on current traffic requirements and it is especially good for dealing with
bursty upstream traffic. GPON uses TDMA for managing upstream access by ONUs, and at any one
point in time, TDMA provides unshared timeslots (upstream bandwidth over time) to each ONU for
upstream transmission. DBA allows upstream timeslots to shrink and grow based on the distribution
of upstream traffic loads. DBA functions on T-CONTs, which are upstream timeslots, and each is
identified by a particular ALLOC_ID. An ONU must have at least one T-CONT, but most have
several T-CONTs, each with its own priority or traffic class, and each corresponds to a particular
upstream timeslot on the PON. Without DBA support on the OLT, upstream bandwidth is statically
assigned to T-CONTs, which cannot be shared, and can be changed only through a management
system.

There are two forms of DBA - Status Reporting DBA (SR-DBA) and Non-Status Reporting
DBA(NSR-DBA).

NSR-DBA: In NSR-DBA an OLT constantly allocates a small amount of extra bandwidth to each
ONU. If the ONU has no traffic to send, it transmits idle frames. If the OLT observes that an ONU is
not sending idle frames, it increases the bandwidth allocation to that ONU. Once that ONU starts
sending idle frames, the OLT reduces its allocation accordingly. NSR-DBA has the advantage that the
ONUs need not be aware of DBA, however, its disadvantage is that there is no way for the OLT to
know how to allocate bandwidth to several ONUs in the most efficient way.

SR-DBA: SR-DBA involves explicit T-CONT buffer status provided by the ONUs when OLT polls
them. In this method, the OLT solicits T-CONT buffer status, and the ONUs respond with a separate
report for each assigned T-CONT. The report contains the data currently waiting in T-CONTs in the
specified time slots. OLT receives the status (DBA) report, re-calculates bandwidth allocation (BW
Map) through DBA algorithm and sends new BW Map to the ONUs in-band with downstream traffic.
The ONU receives the BW Map from OLT and sends the data in the specified time slots. When an
ONU has no information to send, upon receiving a grant from the OLT, it sends an idle cell upstream
to indicate that its buffer is empty. This informs the OLT that the grants for that T-CONT can be
assigned to other T-CONTs. If an ONU has a long queue waiting in its buffer, the OLT can assign
multiple T-CONTs to that ONT.

GPON Transmission Convergence (TC) Layer: ITU-T recommendation G.984.3 describes GPON
TC layer which is equivalent to Data Link layer of OSI model. It specifies GPON frame format, the
media access control protocol, OAM processes and information encryption method. The downstream
GTC frame consists of the physical control block downstream (PCBd) and the GTC payload section.
The upstream GTS frame contains multiple transmission bursts. Each upstream burst consists of the
upstream physical layer overhead (PLOu) section and one or more bandwidth allocation intervals
associated with a specific ALLOC_ID. The downstream GTC frame provides the common time
reference for the PON and common control signalling for the upstream.

Fig.49: GTC Layer Framing

Downstream GPON Frame Format: A downstream GTC frame has duration of 125us and is 38880
bytes long, which corresponds to downstream data rate of 2.48832 Gbps.

Fig.50: GTC Downstream Frame Format

The OLT sends the PCBd in the broadcast manner, and every ONU receives the entire PCBd. The
ONUs then acts upon the relevant information contained therein. The Psync field indicates beginning
of the frame to the ONUs. The Ident field contains an 8-KHz Superframe Counter field which is
employed by the encryption system, and may also be used to provide low rate synchronous reference
signals. The PLOAMd field handles functions such as OAM-related alarms or threshold-crossing
alerts. BIP field is Bit Interleaved Parity used to estimate bit error rate. The downstream Payload
Length indicator (Plend) gives the length of the upstream bandwidth (US BW) map. The Plend is sent
twice for redundancy. Each entry in the Upstream Bandwidth (US BW) map field represents a single
bandwidth allocation to a particular T-CONT. The number of entries is given in the Plend field.

The Allocation ID (ALLOC_ID) field indicates the recipient of the bandwidth allocation i.e. a
particular T-CONT. The lowest 254 allocation ID values are used to address the ONU directly.
During the ranging process, the first ALLOC_ID given to the ONU must be in this range. This
ALLOC-ID is known as the default Allocation ID. This ALLOC_ID is same as ONU-ID number used
in PLOAM messages. If further ALLOC_ID values are required for that ONU, they should be taken
from those above 255. ALLOC_ID 254 is the ONU Activation ALLOC_ID- used to discover
unknown ONUs. The Flag field allows the upstream transmission of physical layer overhead blocks
for a designated ONU. The Slot Start and Stop field indicates the beginning and ending of upstream
transmission window. The CRC field provides error detection and correction on bandwidth allocation
field.

The GTC payload field contains a series of GEM (GPON Encapsulation Method) frames. The
downstream GEM frame stream is filtered at the ONU based upon the 12-bit Port ID field contained
in the header of each GEM frame. Each ONU is configured to recognize which Port-IDs belong to it.
The Port-ID uniquely identifies a GEM Frame.

Upstream GPON Frame Format: The Upstream GTS frame duration is also 125us and is 19440
Bytes long, which gives an upstream data rate of 1.24416 Gbps. Each upstream frame contains a
number of transmission bursts coming from one or more ONUs.  Each upstream transmission burst
contains an upstream physical layer overhead (PLOu) section and one or more bandwidth allocation
intervals associated with individual ALLOC-IDs. The BW map dictates the arrangement of the bursts
within the frame and the allocation intervals within each burst. Each allocation interval is controlled
by a specific allocation structure of the BW map. The below figure shows upstream GTC frame
format.

Fig.51: GTC Upstream Frame Format

The physical layer overhead (PLOu) at the start of the ONU upstream burst contains the preamble
which ensures proper physical layer operation of the burst-mode upstream link. The PLOu field
contains the ONU-ID field which indicates the unique ONU-ID of the ONU that is sending this
transmission. The upstream physical layer OAM (PLOAMu) field is responsible for management
functions like ranging, activation of an ONT, and alarm notifications. The upstream power levelling
sequence (PLSu) field contains information about the laser power levels at the ONUs as seen by the
OLT. The dynamic bandwidth report (DBRu) field informs the queue length of each T-CONT at the
ONT.

Mapping of GEM Frames into GTC Payload: GEM traffic is carried over the GTC protocol in
transparent fashion. In the downstream direction, GEM frames are transmitted from the OLT to the
ONUs using the GTC frame payload section. The OLT may allocate as much duration as it needs in
the downstream, upto and including all of the downstream frame. The ONU filters the incoming
frames based on Port-ID. In the upstream direction, frames are transmitted from ONU to OLT using
the configured GEM allocation time. The ONU buffers GEM frames as they arrive, and then sends
them in bursts when allocated time to do so by the OLT. The OLT receives the frames and
multiplexes them with the frames from another ONUs.

Ethernet over GEM: The Ethernet frames are carried directly in the GEM frame payload. The
preamble and SFD bytes are discarded prior to GEM encapsulation. Each Ethernet is mapped to a
single or multiple (by fragmenting) GEM frames as shown below.
 Fig.52: Ethernet in GEN Frame Mapping

Q.35 Solved numericals of Horald Kolimbris on topics: dispersion, attenuation, optical sources,
detectors, WDM, optical amplifiers and optical receivers.

(A) The optical power launched at the input of a 15 km fiber is 50mW. If the optical power
measured at the output of the fiber is 8 mW. Compute the fiber attenuation.
Solution: (i) Compute total fiber attenuation
P0 8×10−3
L = -10 log P i = -10 log 50×10
−3
= -10 log ( -0.796 ) = 7.96 dB
Theorefore L= 7.96 dB/ 15 km
(ii) Compute fiber attenuation in dB/km.
Because the total fiber attenuation is almost 8dB/15 km, therefore α=0 .53 dB/km
(B) Compute the maximum length of an optical fiber that exhibits 0.8dB/km attenuation if
The output optical power is 10 mW and power launched at the input is 150 mW.
Solution: (i) Compute total fiber attenuation.
P0 10×10−3
L = 10 log P i
−3
= 10 log 150×10 = 10 log ( 0.067) = 11.74 dB
Therefore L= 11.74 dB
(ii) Compute the maximum length of the fiber,
Because fiber exhibits 0.8 dB/km attenuation for a total attenuation of 11.74 dB,
The fiber length is as follows
11.74 dB
L= 0. 8dB /km = 14.67 km
Therefore, maximum optical fiber length (L) = 14.67 km.
(c) Compute the rayleigh attenuation of an optical fiber fabricated with a silicon core. Use
the available data.(Operating wavelengths: 630nm, 1330 nm and 1550 nm)
β c = 92 ¿ 10−12 m 2 /N T f =1550 K n= 1.46 p= 0.29 K = 1.38
−23
¿ 10 J /K
l = 1 km
Solution: Compute the Rayleigh scattering Coefficient (
γr )
 3 8 2
8 π n p β c KT f
γr = 3λ
4
=
−12 3 −23 )
(248)(20 . 65)(0 . 0841)(92×10 )(1. 55×10 )(1 . 38×10
3 λ4

−28
2 . 825×10
= λ4

For λ=630 nm ,

−28
2 . 825×10
−9 4
=1 . 79×10−3
= (630×10 )

Therefore
γ r = 1.79 ¿ 10−3

For λ=1330 nm

2 . 825×10−28
=0. 9×10−4
γ r = (1330×10 )
−9 4

For λ=1550 nm

2 .825×10−28
=1 . 82×10−5
γr = −9 4
(1550×10 )

(ii) Compute the Rayleigh scattering attenuation factor ( F R )

At 630 nm
γ r = 1.79 ¿ 10−3
−γ R l −(1. 79×10
−3 )
(1×10 3 )
F R=e =e =0. 17

At 1330 nm
γ r = 0.9 ¿10−4
−γ R l −(0 .9×10
−4 )
(1×103 )
F R =e =e =0. 91
−5
For λ=1550 nm , γ r =1 .82×10
−5
)(1×103 )
F R=e−(1 . 82×10 =0 . 98

(iii) Compute the Rayleigh scattering attenuation ( α R )

For FR=0.17

α R =10 log(F−1
R ) = 7.7 dB/km

For FR= 0.91

α R=10 log( F−1

R )=0 . 45 dB /km
For FR=0.98
−1
α R =10 log(F R )=0 . 087 dB /km
(D) Compute the SBS threshold optical power for a long single mode optical fiber with

5 μm core diameter, fiber attenuation of 0.5 dB/km, laser diode bandwidth of 1GHz,
And operating wavelength of 850 nm.

−3 2 2
Solution: P(th)= 4.4 ¿ 10 ( λ )(d )( α)( Bw )
−3 2 2
= 4.4 ¿ 10 (0.85) (5) (0.5)(1)
= 0.034 W
Or P(th)= 40mW
(E) Compute the stimulated Ramam scattering threshold power in a long single mode fiber

with core diameter of 5 μm , attenuation 0.4 dB/km and operating wavelength of 850

nm.

Solution: P(th)= 5 .9×10−2 ( λ)( α)( d 2 )

= 5.9 ¿10−2 (0.85)(0. 4)(5)2

P(th) = 501mW
(F) Compute the maximum operating bandwidth (fBW), the pulse dispersion of a step
index single mode fiber that exhibits a pulse chirping(dispersion) of 0.25 μs and has
a total fiber length of 50 km and the bandwidth length product (fBW ¿ L).
Solution: (i) To compute the maximum operating wavelength (fBW)
0. 529 0. 529
= =2. 116 Mb/s
Fb=
τ p 0 .25×10 −6

Assuming a zero ISI and an RZ input data signal, the operating bandwidthis equal to the system
bit rate.
fBW = fb = 2.116 MHz
(ii) Compute the pulse chirping(dispersion). Because the total pulse dispersion for this

application is 0.25 μ /50 km

0. 25×10−6 s
=5×10−9 s/km
Dispersion = 50 km
Dispersion = 5 ns/km

(iii) Compute the bandwidth length product ( fBW ¿ L )

6 3
= fWB ¿ L=2 .116×10 ×50×10 =105 . 8 MHz /km
(G) The data capacity of a single is in a DWDM optical system is 2.5 Gb/s propagating
through fiber with a 20 ps/nm-km dispersion based only on XPM impairment.
Compute the channelcapacity for a dispersion of 5 ps/nm-km, assuming that
Channel spacing and walk of length remain constant.
Solution:
1
(i)
f DΔ
L1 = b 1 1 v fb1=2.5 Gb/s, D1= 20ps/nm-km
1
L2 =
f b 2 D2 Δ v

Where fb2= ? and D2 = 5 ps/nm-km

D2 20 ps /nm−km
( f b 1 )= =2. 5 Gb/s
(ii) fb2= D1 5 ps /nm−km

= 10 Gb/s (OC-192)
Therefore fb2= 10 Gb/s (OC-192)
(H) Determine whether or not a heat sink is required for the device just described given
the following data.
TJ=1250C, Tamp= 600C, PT= 1.8W
Assume RthJ- α = 34 K/W
Solution: Compute Rth
T J −T amp 125−60
= =36 K /W
Rth= P T 1. 8

Therefore Rth=36 K/W, not Required

If Rth>RthJ- α than heat sink is not required.
If Rth<RthJ- α than heat sink is required.