Marine Operations Guide - Vol I (TheNavalArch) PDF

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TheNavalArch’s
Marine Operations Guide
Volume I
Maritime operations are highly sensitive and controlled operations which depend heavily
on the right engineering. Right from the selection of the smallest items like the pad-eye to
intricate analyses like a dynamic lifting, these operations demand great detail in their
engineering execution, while also being compliant with stringent industry standards.
We’re pleased to present to our customers and subscribers the Vol I of the marine
operations guide, which consists of TheNavalArch’s choicest articles providing in-depth
knowledge of the following marine operations:
TOWING
MOORING AND ANCHORING
SEAFASTENING
LIFTING AND LOADOUT
We hope that this guide will serve you as a source of knowledge in times of need, and
contribute to success in your marine operations. At the same time, a huge word of thanks
goes to you for having supported TheNavalArch through the years.
Please feel free to visit www.thenavalarch.com for more, and to provide us your valuable
feedback by writing to info@thenavalarch.com
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Towing Operations Guide Vol I
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Table of Contents
SECTION 1 – TOWING.............................................................................................................................. 6
Bollard Pull Calculations – an Introduction (Part I) ............................................................................... 7
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 7
Basic concepts ................................................................................................................................. 8
Calculation Steps ........................................................................................................................... 11
Calculation methods in detail......................................................................................................... 12
The role of Marine Warranty Surveyor (MWS) ............................................................................... 17
References..................................................................................................................................... 18
Bollard Pull Calculations – an Introduction (Part II) –maximum feasible towing speed........................ 19
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 19
Concept – Available pull of the tug at non zero-speed .................................................................... 20
Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 21
References..................................................................................................................................... 24
Are you chartering a tug bigger than necessary for your Barge?......................................................... 25
The effect of Environment on tug size ............................................................................................ 27
DNV-ST-N001 Environmental Criteria for Bollard Pull Calculation – Standard vs Benign Criteria ..... 28
Why the bollard pull calculation method for a barge won’t work for a ship ........................................ 31
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 31
Differences between barge and ship vis-à-vis bollard pull .............................................................. 31
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 34
TheNavalArch’s Apps for Towing Operations ..................................................................................... 35
Selecting the right gear for towing operations – Part 1 ...................................................................... 36
Towing Line ................................................................................................................................... 37
Towing Gear aboard the towed vessel ........................................................................................... 38
Selecting the towing equipment .................................................................................................... 42
References..................................................................................................................................... 43
Selecting the right equipment for towing operations – Part 2 (Emergency Towing) ............................ 45
Emergency Towing Procedure........................................................................................................ 47
TheNavalArch’s Apps for Towing Operations ..................................................................................... 50
SECTION 2 – MOORING AND BERTHING ............................................................................................... 51
Mooring System Design and Analysis ................................................................................................. 52
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Mooring System Fundamentals...................................................................................................... 53

Mooring System Classification ....................................................................................................... 53
Mooring System Design and Analysis ............................................................................................. 56
OCIMF MEG-4 and Mooring Design of your vessels – Part I ................................................................ 70
Mooring Forces and Mooring Design ............................................................................................. 71
Step 1 – Environmental data .......................................................................................................... 72
Step 2 – Environmental forces ....................................................................................................... 74
OCIMF MEG-4 and Mooring Design of your vessels – Part II (Ship’s Design MBL)................................ 79
Mooring Pattern ............................................................................................................................ 79
Static Equilibrium........................................................................................................................... 81
Ship design MBL calculation ........................................................................................................... 81
A simple method of selecting the right anchor for mooring a tanker/gas carrier ................................ 85
Applicability and Assumptions ....................................................................................................... 86
Step 1: Calculating the environmental loads .................................................................................. 87
Step 2: Calculating the anchor holding power and selecting the right anchor ................................. 91
Equipment Numeral Calculation for a Ship – a Guide ......................................................................... 94
First Principles ............................................................................................................................... 95
Analysis ......................................................................................................................................... 95
Getting equipment sizes ................................................................................................................ 98
Exceptions and deviations.............................................................................................................. 99
References................................................................................................................................... 100
Vessel with Stern on Quay: A simplified method for mooring design................................................ 101
Concept ....................................................................................................................................... 103
Calculation Steps ......................................................................................................................... 103
Environmental Forces .................................................................................................................. 104
Line Force Calculation .................................................................................................................. 105
Fendering – an Introduction ............................................................................................................ 108
Berthing Energy ........................................................................................................................... 108
Section B: Fendering methods – Side Berthing or End Berthing .................................................... 111
Standards and guidelines ............................................................................................................. 119
TheNavalArch’s apps on Mooring/Anchoring ................................................................................... 120
SECTION 3 - SEAFASTENING ................................................................................................................ 123
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Transportation Analysis for deck cargo – complete breakdown........................................................ 124

Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 125
Steps of Transportation ............................................................................................................... 125
Digging deeper ............................................................................................................................ 126
Breaking it down.......................................................................................................................... 127
Transportation analysis: typical table of contents ........................................................................ 133
TheNavalArch’s Apps for Seafastening Design .............................................................................. 134
Designing a simple 4-point lashing system for a Deck Cargo ............................................................. 135
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 135
Four-point lashing design for a rectangular shaped cargo ............................................................ 136
Tipping check ............................................................................................................................... 138
References................................................................................................................................... 139
Cargo Stoppers – why they are critical and how to design them....................................................... 141
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 141
Types of Stoppers ........................................................................................................................ 142
Structural Design of a Stopper ..................................................................................................... 144
Weld Strength Check ................................................................................................................... 147
Steel coils loading – its challenges and ways to overcome................................................................ 150
TheNavalArch’s Apps for Seafastening Design .............................................................................. 155
SECTION 4 – LIFTING AND LOADOUT .................................................................................................. 156
Marine Lifting – Engineering and Planning ....................................................................................... 157
Operational Constraints ............................................................................................................... 161
Resonance (Pendulum Instability) ................................................................................................ 161
Dynamic Amplification Factor ...................................................................................................... 163
Crane Cross Angles ...................................................................................................................... 165
Marine Lifting Case Study ............................................................................................................ 166
Lift Configuration and Setup ........................................................................................................ 166
Numerical Modeling In Moses ..................................................................................................... 169
Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................. 170
TheNavalArch’s Apps for Lifting Operations ................................................................................. 175
Preliminary Rigging Arrangement Design OF 4-point, Single Hook Lifts for Non-Specialists............... 176
Overview ..................................................................................................................................... 176
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Preliminary Rigging Design Summary ........................................................................................... 178

Notes on the above Rigging Design Process ................................................................................. 178
Loadouts – An introduction ............................................................................................................. 186
Types of Loadouts ........................................................................................................................ 186
Challenges ................................................................................................................................... 189
Engineering for loadouts .............................................................................................................. 190
Loadout Ramps – design and analysis of the simplest flat plate ramp .............................................. 192
The simplest ramp – the flat plate ................................................................................................ 194
Example calculations.................................................................................................................... 194
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SECTION 1 – TOWING
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Bollard Pull Calculations – an Introduction (Part I)
Bollard Pull Calculations for Towing Operations – an Introduction
Part I – Calculating the required Bollard Pull (BP)

(Click here for Part II)
Introduction
Bollard Pull calculation is one of the most frequent calculations performed in marine towing
operations.
Towing operations involve the pulling of a vessel (it can be a barge, ship or an offshore
structure) using another vessel (usually a tug).
From a very basic point of view, we can draw the following conclusions regarding towing
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• A bigger vessel will require higher force for towing

• The harsher the environment, the more will be the towing force required
• The efficiency of the tug deployed for towing will also affect the towing operation
When selecting and deploying tugs for towing operations, we would like to know a few things
before we make a final decision:
• How big a tug should I select for safely towing the vessel?
• How much maximum speed will I be able to make with the tug(s) I selected?
Each of the above questions merits a detailed explanation, and we will cover each of them
separately. In this Article, we will cover the first question – how big a tug is required for safe
towing of a vessel?
First, let’s clear some basic concepts. Please note that this article covers only the scenario of
head sea towing.
Basic concepts
Concept – Bollard Pull of a Tug
Bollard Pull Test
Source: weir-jones.com
The capacity of tugs is measured by their rated Bollard Pull. The Bollard Pull of a tug is the force
it exerts at zero forward speed, in calm water conditions, with the engine working at its full
power (100% MCR). Continuous Bollard Pull (CBP) is measured by a test as the average bollard
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pull measured at a length of time (say 10 minutes), while Maximum Bollard Pull is the highest
bollard pull measured during the test.
Concept – Towing Efficiency and available pulling force at zero speed
Source: pixabay
The tug has an efficiency of its own when towing the vessel in sea. It depends on the
environment of the tow, and on size of the vessel towed.
If the bollard pull of a tug is denoted by BP, and its towing efficiency is denoted by ƞ, then the
total available pulling force from the tug will be
Available pulling force of the tug = Bollard Pull of the tug x Towing efficiency
Available Pulling force of the tug = BP x ƞ
Concept – Required Towing Force
How do we relate the Bollard Pull of the tug to the vessel being towed?
Basically, the vessel being towed will experience environmental forces of wind, wave and
current in the sea. Together, these forces constitute the ‘Towing force’. Let’s denote it by FTOT
For the tug to be able to pull the vessel, the available pulling force of the Tug must be greater
than the total force on the vessel.
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• BP x ƞ > FTOT
• BP > FTOT/ ƞ
Thus the Bollard Pull of the tug should be more than FTOT/ ƞ. This is called the Required Bollard
Pull, and this is what we seek to calculate. Next we will see how the towing force can be
calculated.
Concept – Environmental forces
The required Towing force is defined as the force which is required to HOLD the vessel in sea
under certain environmental conditions of wind, wave and current.
Total Towing Force, FTOT = Wind Force + Wave force + Current force
Please note that the towing force is the required force for HOLDING the vessel (also called
STALL condition), and not for towing it.
Now, what are these environmental conditions and where do we get them from?
When towed in the sea, a vessel will experience forces of wind, wave and current. To HOLD the
vessel in the given environment, we need to overcome these forces.
• Wind force acts on the part of the vessel above waterline and exposed to wind
• Current force acts on the underwater portion of the vessel
• Wave forces – the waves coming on to the vessel add to the resistance force on the vessel
Wind forces depend on the wind speed, current forces depend on the current speed and Wave
forces depend on the (significant) height of waves.
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Industry standards like DNVGL Guidelines for Marine Transportation (earlier ND-0030, now
superseded by DNVGL-ST-N001) prescribe the standard wind, wave and current parameters to
be used for bollard pull calculations, depending on condition under which the towing is being
performed.
ND-0030 requires that the bollard pull of the tug should be sufficient to HOLD the towed vessel
in the environment stated below:
Standard Criteria – For Open Ocean tows, following environmental parameters are prescribed as
per ND-0030
• Wind Speed – 20 m/s (roughly 40 knots)

• Current speed – 0.5 m/s (roughly 1 knot)
• Significant Wave Height – 5 meters
For benign weather areas, the following criteria are prescribed as per ND0030
• Wind Speed – 15 m/s (roughly 30 knots)

• Current speed – 0.5 m/s (roughly 1 knot)
• Significant Wave Height – 2 meters
A question naturally arises – how do we know if the tow is an open ocean tow or a benign tow?
For this we need to study the environment of the route of the tow, and get the historical
environment data of the route. We can get it from environment data provider like Metocean. In
some cases, data from Nautical charts is also acceptable (depends on the discretion of Marine
Warranty Surveyor). The wind speed, wave height and current speed should be obtained for the
specific time of the year when the tow is expected to take place. For example, if the towing
operation is expected in May +/- 2 months, then the environment data from March till July
should be referenced. The most extreme values for the period should be utilized.
From the environment data, we can decide whether it is an open ocean tow or a benign tow.
Basically, if anywhere along the route a wave of (significant) height more than 2 meters is
expected, then the Open Ocean criteria is to be used. If everywhere along the route, waves of
significant wave height less than 2 meters are expected, then the environment data must be
submitted to the Warranty Surveyor and exemption obtained for using the ‘benign’ sea state case
before proceeding with Bollard Pull calculations.
Calculation Steps
Now we can delineate the steps for performing Required Bollard Pull calculations for towing a
vessel as follows:
• Step 1 – Determine the environmental parameters (Open Ocean or Benign)

• Step 2 – Calculate the Wind, Wave and Current forces on the vessel
• Step 3 – Add up the wind, wave and current forces to find the total force on the vessel, FTOT
• Step 4 – Get the towing efficiency of the tug, ƞ
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• Step 5 – Calculate the minimum required Bollard Pull (BP) using the formula
Minimum Required BP > FTOT/ ƞ
Now we will discuss the calculation methods in detail.
Calculation methods in detail
Wind forces
Wind forces are the forces on the part of the vessel above the waterline which is exposed to
winds.
For calculating wind force, besides the wind speed and air density, we need the Transverse wind-
exposed sectional area of the vessel (also called windage area)
Calculating the transverse windage area
When the vessel is being towed forward, then the transverse section of the vessel faces the winds
head on.
Some points to keep in mind when calculating this transverse windage area are:
• There are two parts of the windage area – the area contributed by the part of the vessel’s hull
above water, and the area contributed by items on the deck, i.e., Cargo, Deck structures and
Accommodation
• The area contributed by the hull can be obtained from the midship section dimensions/drawing
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• The area contributed by above-deck items can be calculated as the area of the silhouette of the
above deck items.
• Cargo height coefficient – The speed of wind varies with the height above the water surface. For
zones of the cargo which are higher, a cargo height coefficient needs to be additionally applied to
take into account the higher wind speeds experienced by higher zones of the cargo. Cargo height
coefficients are provided in ABS MODU Rules (see below)
• Cargo shape coefficient – The wind force experienced by the cargo also depends on the shape of
the cargo. For example, a box shaped cargo will experience higher forces than cargo which is
cylindrical in shape (with the cylindrical face exposed to wind). To take into account the effect of
cargo shape on wind force, a cargo shape coefficient needs to be incorporated in the windage area
calculations. Cargo shape coefficients for typical cargo shapes are provided in ABS MODU Rules
(see below)
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• The final windage area should incorporate the height and shape coefficients
Sketch showing the Transverse Windage Area and Transverse Underwater Areas of a simple Barge
The wind force is calculated from the air density, wind speed and the transverse windage area
using standard formula
Force = ½ x air density x (wind speed)2 x Transverse Windage Area
Current forces
The current forces are basically, the forces experienced by the underwater part of the hull.
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The underwater part of the hull experiences what is called as ‘calm water resistance’. This is the
resistance the ship experiences when it is moving in water without waves.
In the STALL scenario when the tow is not moving, the vessel is actually static, but the current
moving against the vessel creates the same effect as the vessel moving with the speed of the
current in calm water. Thus, the resistance experienced by the vessel because of current is
equivalent to the resistance which the vessel will experience in calm water when moving at the
speed of the current.
The Calm Water Resistance has many components, and is a complicated calculation. Calm water
resistance of a ship can be calculated using
• Empirical methods like Holtrop-Mennen method, Taylor’s method etc. Each method is applicable
to certain ship types
• Direct Model Tests
• Computer simulation
Barges
For barges, some studies have been done to develop empirical methods of calculating resistance.
Some of them are
• Bureau Veritas – Towage at Sea of Vessels or Floating Units

• Offshore Technology Conference (OTC) Paper 3320 – Resistance of Offshore Barges and
Required Horsepower
If the vessel is a barge, sometimes a simplification is adopted, subject to acceptance by MWS.

Similar to the calculation of transverse wind force, the current force can also be calculated from
the transverse underwater area.
Calculation of transverse underwater hull area is pretty simple in case of barges, which generally
have a rectangular section shape. If the width of the Barge is B, and its draft is T, then the
underwater transverse section area is simply B x T. If there are cuts around the bilge of the barge,
these can be deducted from the area. The current force is finally calculated using the standard
formula
Current force = ½ x water density x (current speed)2 x underwater transverse section area
Ships
For ships, an elaborate method (e.g., Holtrop-Mennen method) to calculate calm water resistance
is usually recommended to get more accurate current force.
Wave forces
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The current force calculated above is actually the force which the vessel will experience in calm
water. However, the sea is a dynamic environment because of waves which the vessel
encounters. These waves add to the forces on the vessel and are these forces are called as ‘Added
Wave Resistance’ or the ‘wave drift force’.
Wave drift force depends on the dimensions of the vessel, and its shape. The method for
calculation of added wave resistance is provided in DNV-RP-H103 Modelling and Analysis of
Marine Operations Sec 7.2.6 (see below extract).
Source: DNV-RP-H103 Modelling and Analysis of Marine Operations
Towing Efficiency
How do we get towing efficiency?
The tug’s efficiency is affected by many factors, like, size of tug, the harshness of environment,
and the towing speed. ND-0030 provides a table to calculate the towing efficiency of the Tug. If
the tug’s Continuous Bollard Pull is BP, then the table provides following values for the Towing
efficiency
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Source: ND-0030 Guidelines for Marine Transportations
Calculation of Required Bollard Pull
Now that we have the wind, wave and current forces, we can calculate the total resistance force
on the vessel as
FTOT = FWIND + FWAVE + FCURRENT
Then the required Bollard Pull can be calculated as
Required BP = FTOT/ƞ
The continuous bollard pull of tug must be higher than the Required BP for the tug to be suitable
for towing.
The role of Marine Warranty Surveyor (MWS)
The Marine Warranty Surveyor has a very critical role in towing operations. His/her role
includes, but is not limited to
• Survey of vessel and tug for towing equipment and general condition
• Approval and acceptance of environmental conditions/weather data
• Review of the bollard pull calculations
• Witness and review of Bollard Pull tests, if required to be performed
• Review and approval of the towing plan
The towing operator has to work closely with the MWS by providing all documents and
calculations on time and getting MWS approvals prior to the operation. The potential areas of
contention with the MWS might be the following, and the towing operator should carefully
prepare the supporting documents to get MWS approval in time
• Disagreement over environmental criteria adopted

• Non-willingness of MWS to grant benign weather criteria
• Disagreement over the method adopted for Bollard Pull calculation
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• Disagreement over the condition of the tug

• Insistence to carry out a Bollard Pull test to confirm the rating of the tug
While the above are not regular occurrences, it is advisable for the towing operator to be
proactive in treading these issues to avoid delays and surprises during the operation.
That leads to the conclusion of this Part – I. In Part – II (next article) we will discuss the method
of calculating the maximum feasible towing speed for a given environment.
(Click here for Part II)
References
1. DNV RP-H103 Modelling and Analysis of Marine Operations

2. ABS, 2016, Rules for Building and Classing Mobile Offshore Drilling Units, Part 3 Chapter
1,Section 3, ‘Environmental Loadings’, p.11.
3. An Approximate Power Prediction Method, J.Holtrop and G.G.J.Mennen, 1982
4. BV – Towage at Sea of Vessels or Floating Units
5. OTC 3220, Vol 4, Resistance of Offshore Barges and Required Tug Horsepower
Disclaimer: This post is not meant to be an authoritative writing on the topic presented.
thenavalarch bears no responsibility for the accuracy of this article, or for any incidents/losses
arising due to the use of the information in this article in any operation. It is recommended to
seek professional advice before executing any activity which draws on information mentioned in
this post. All the figures, drawings and pictures are property of thenavalarch except where
indicated, and may not be copied or distributed without permission.
TheNavalArch has its own products for calculating Bollard Pull required for Barges and Ships.
Please do check them out below.
Bollard Pull Calculations for Barge

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Page | 18
Bollard Pull Calculations – an Introduction (Part II) –maximum

feasible towing speed
(To read Part I, please click here)
Introduction
This is Part – II of the two part article on Bollard Pull calculations. In the Part I we saw how to
calculate the required Bollard Pull to select a tug. At this stage, we have accomplished the
following
• Calculated the required Bollard Pull (BP) to tow the vessel (barge or ship)
• Selected the tug based on the required Bollard Pull
In this part we will see how we can estimate the maximum safe towing speed for the vessel to ply
in a given sea state. Before we get to the actual methodology, let’s look at the concept of Available
Pull of the tug at non-zero speed.
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Concept – Available pull of the tug at non zero-speed
By now we have selected the tug, and it has its rated bollard pull, which is its maximum pulling
force at zero forward speed. Let’s call it BPmax. As we saw in Part I, this BPmax should be more
than the total required towing force for the STALL condition. However, the actual towing scenario
(called the TOW condition) is different in two ways
• First, the tug is not static but towing the vessel forward at a non-zero speed. When the tug moves
forward, part of the tug’s power is used in overcoming the resistance of the tug itself, and the rest
is actually available to tow the vessel. Let’s say, if Ftug is the force which the tug utilizes for itself,
then the available power for towing (BPavailable) will be
BPavailable = BPmax – Ftug
At zero speed, Ftug is zero, and whole BPmax is available for the holding the towed vessel. At the
maximum free-running speed of the tug, the whole BPmax is utilized for the tug’s own resistance,
and the available power for towing is zero. Thus, if we plot the available towing power of the tug
vs speed, we will get a curve like below. The actual curve is not exactly a straight line, but we will
assume a straight line to keep things simple (it also leads to more conservative results).
In the example above, we can see that at 6 knots towing speed, the maximum available power for
towing is only 40% of the BPmax, while 60% goes to overcome the tug’s own resistance
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• Second, the environment under which towing is performed is not the same as the STALL
environment scenario. Usually, the STALL sea state is a harsher one in which the requirement is
to HOLD the tow, and not move it forward. The towing will be done is a comparatively milder
environment.
Our objective is to find out the maximum speed which the tug can make in a given environment.
Methodology
The methodology which we are going to follow for the above exercise is outlined below
• Step 1 – Get the environmental parameters under which the towing will be done
• Step 2 – Get the tug particulars
o Bollard Pull at 100% and 85% MCR or other MCR values as required
o Tug maximum forward free run speed
• Step 3 – Plot the tug performance curves for different MCR values
• Step 4 – Calculate the total environmental forces (on the towed vessel) for different speed of
towing, beginning from zero speed up to the maximum tug speed
• Step 5 – Plot the curve of Total Environmental force (FTOT) vs towing speed on the same graph as
the tug performance curve.
• Step 6 – The intersection of the curves for total environmental force and tug performance will give
the limiting towing speed
Let’s now see each step in detail
Step 1 – Get the environmental parameters
The environmental parameters for towing in this case are the maximum wind, current and wave in
which the towing operator proposes to tow the vessel. The towing operator has to advise the safe
limiting environment in which she/he plans to tow. For example, the operator may decide that a
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wind of 20 knots, wave of 3 m and current of 1 knot is the limiting environment in which she/he
plans to tow the vessel. The operator would like to know the maximum speed she/he can make
with this limiting environment.
Step 2 – Get the tug particulars
We saw that the available power for towing keeps reducing with speed of tow. The performance
curve of the tug is an important input for determining the available power. For plotting the
performance curve, we need the following:
• The free running maximum speed of the tug – this is obtained from the tug’s specifications sheet
• The Bollard Pull of the tug at 100% MCR and 85% MCR. Usually the tug will be operated at 85%
MCR. 100% MCR is more significant for the STALL condition to calculate the maximum required
Bollard Pull. If the tug is operating at some other MCR value, then the Bollard Pull for that value
should also be obtained.
Step 3 – Plot the tug performance curve
Once we have the above data, we can plot the tug performance curves for 100% & 85% MCR (or
any other value) using the method described in Section 2.
Step 4 – Calculate the total environmental forces for different tow speeds
• Wind and current forces are calculated using standard formulas described in Part I.
• The wind and current forces will keep increasing as the tow speed increases. This is because the
effective (or relative) wind/current speed against the vessel increases as the vessel moves forward.
If the speed of the tug is Vtow, and speed of the wind is Vwind, then the effective wind speed is
Veffective = Vtow + Vwind
The wind force will have to be calculated for the above effective speed. Same holds true for the
current force
• The wave force is calculated based on DNV-RP-H103 Sec 7.2.6. The wave force also increases
with the towing speed, and is calculated in accordance with the relevant sections of DNV.
• Once we have the wind, wave and current forces, we calculate the total environmental force, FTOW
by adding them up. FTOW is calculated for different tow speeds from zero to maximum tug speed.
We can do the calculations and present them in a spreadsheet format. Once such calculation table
is presented below (speed means towing speed)
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Step 5 – Plot FTOT against tug speed on the same plot as for the tug performance curve.
The curve will then look something like the below (the tug’s bollard pull is 150 MT)
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Step 6 – Finding the limiting towing speed
The intersection of the curves for total environmental force and tug performance will give the
limiting towing speed. In the above plot, the point ‘X’ is the intersection of the two curves. We
can see that at all points to the left of the point ‘X’ (i.e., speeds less than 2.9 knots marked by blue
zone), the available towing pull of the tug exceeds the required towing force, thus making the
towing feasible. However, to the right of point ‘X’ (the red zone), the available tug power is less
than the towing force required and towing is not feasible. Thus, the maximum towing speed
feasible for this case is 2.9 knots.
We saw how the maximum feasible towing speed can be calculated for towing a vessel under a
given environment. This exercise becomes useful when the Client or MWS requires that a
minimum towing speed be achieved and demonstrated through calculations.
That brings us to the end of this two-part article on Bollard Pull. We hope it has been useful to our
readers. Do let us know your thoughts in the comment section. Happy Towing!!
References
1. DNV RP-H103 Modelling and Analysis of Marine Operations

2. ABS, 2016, Rules for Building and Classing Mobile Offshore Drilling Units, Part 3 Chapter
1,Section 3, ‘Environmental Loadings’, p.11.
3. An Approximate Power Prediction Method, J.Holtrop and G.G.J.Mennen, 1982
4. BV – Towage at Sea of Vessels or Floating Units
5. OTC 3220, Vol 4, Resistance of Offshore Barges and Required Tug Horsepower
TheNavalArch has its own products for calculating Bollard Pull required for Barges and Ships
with limiting speed. Please do check them out below.
Page | 24
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Are you chartering a tug bigger than necessary for your Barge?
Page | 25
Barges are one of the most frequently used means for transporting deck cargo of different shape,
size and weight. While some barges are self-propelled, the majority is towed by another vessel
called a ‘Tug’.
Once an owner or charterer has decided on the Barge to be used for a transport operation
(depending on the size and nature of cargo), the next step is to decide the tug which will be
adequate to tow the barge.
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From a very fundamental point of view, the tug should be able to overcome the weather forces
which the Barge experiences when it is being towed in the sea. The weather forces are those of
Wind, Current and Wave. Together, we call them the “environmental forces” or simply the
“environment”.
A tug is considered adequate for a towing operation if it can HOLD the Barge in a prescribed
environment. The word ‘prescribed’ carries huge significance. Who prescribes the environment? What is
the prescribed environment?
The effect of Environment on tug size
The prescription for the environment can be found in guidelines prepared by organizations like
Classification Societies or Marine Warranty Surveyors (MWS). For example, the DNV-ST-N-
001 Section 11.12.2.4 gives the standard environment for open ocean tows as Wind 20 m/s
Current 0.5 m/s
Wave (Significant Height) 5 m
For standard OPEN OCEAN tows, the tug should be able to HOLD the barge static in the above-
given environment.
In most cases, the standard weather criteria are applied to find out the environment forces which
the barge will experience, and then select a tug big enough to overcome these forces.
What if the tow is not in the open ocean? What if it is a tow in a benign area?
Applying the OPEN OCEAN criteria indiscriminately for coastal or sheltered tows will result in
unnecessarily high environment forces and selection of a tug bigger than required. After all, why
select a bigger tug and pay more if a smaller tug could have done the job as well?
Benign tows will require much milder environment criteria, as specified in DNV-ST-N-001
Section 11.12.2.6
Page | 27
DNV-ST-N001 Environmental Criteria for Bollard Pull Calculation – Standard

vs Benign Criteria
How do I know the right sized tug for a benign area? There are very simple steps to follow
to find out the right sized tug for the vessel.
• Study the tow route: First and foremost, study the tow route. Get the historical weather data and
nautical charts to see the maximum wind, wave and current expected for the route for the period
you’re planning to tow. It may also happen that the historical data for the whole year shows
higher environment
• Discuss the tow route with approval authority/MWS: Once you’ve established that the
weather qualifies for the ‘benign weather areas’ criteria using weather data from a confirmed
source (like Metocean data or from Nautical Charts), send the details to the Marine Warranty
Surveyor or the approval authority designated for the operation. Get approval from the MWS for
using a ‘benign weather areas’ condition for calculating the required bollard pull. This may
involve going back and forth with the MWS multiple times, supporting your case with data and
arguments. Also, at times MWS may recommend a higher weather criterion than the one stated
above for ‘benign’ condition to have some more margin of error.
• Calculate the required bollard pull for the vessel being towed: Once the environment is
established and approved by the MWS, use this environment to calculate the required bollard
pull. Bollard pull can be calculated using a detailed hydrodynamic analysis or using some simple
calculators. TheNavalArch has some useful calculators which have been used by hundreds of our
customers over the years to successfully obtain approvals for their tows. You can check them out
below:
Some scenarios which can come up and possible actions are:
Page | 28
• MWS not willing to approve the lower environment than standard – this may happen if the
Surveyor assigned is relatively inexperienced. Ensure that you have the right data. Escalate the
matter with MWS and hold meetings in person if needed to obtain approval
• Selected tug claims a high bollard pull on paper but doesn’t deliver in practice. In such cases, a
bollard pull test can be conducted to ascertain the claim.
To summarize, it is critical to establish the right environment (Standard or Benign) before

selecting the tug. A little effort at the beginning stages while selecting the tug will ensure huge
cost savings by selecting the optimum tug and avoiding an unnecessarily large tug for the same
tow job.
Page | 29
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Page | 30
Why the bollard pull calculation method for a barge won’t work for
a ship
Introduction
In my working with the marine transportation industry for more than a decade now, I have come
across many different calculations for required bollard pull for both barges and ships. The
principles of the calculation are same, whether it is a ship, a barge or any other structure being
towed (e.g., a rig). The environmental forces of wind, wave and current on the structure need to
be calculated, added up, and factored for the towing efficiency to obtain the required bollard pull
to tow the vessel.
Going by the above methodology, it would appear that there should be no difference in the
calculations for Barge or Ship. However, this is a common mistake which may lead to selection
of a tug which is either unfit or oversized for the vessel selected.
Differences between barge and ship vis-à-vis bollard pull
The simplest way to illustrate the differences is to breakdown the calculation steps of bollard pull
and analyze them. The calculation steps for Bollard Pull are detailed below:
• Step 1: Calculate the forces of the environment acting on the vessel. These forces are: Current,
Wind and Wave
• Step 2: Factor the environmental force for the towing efficiency to get the required bollard pull
for towing the vessel.
The differences between a ship and a barge lie in the methods applied for calculating the
environmental forces (Step 1).
Page | 31
Wind Force
The wind force acts on the structure above the waterline of the vessel. The formula for wind
force calculation is straight forward, and it is the same for any vessel – whether Barge or a Ship.
The force is calculated as Pressure x Area, where Area is the projected area of the vessel exposed
to the wind.
The projected area will comprise of the area of the hull above the water plus the area of
superstructure/Cargo
In case of Barge, generally superstructure is non-existent or minimal, and cargo is the contributor
to windage area. However, in case of ships, there can be both cargo and superstructure which
contribute to the windage area. Generally, if the cargo and superstructure are located quite apart
along the length of the vessel, then it is advisable to consider full windage area of both in
calculations. However, if one is shielded by other (say, if the superstructure in aft is shielded
from wind by Cargo located just forward of superstructure), then a shielding factor can be
applied to reduce the contribution of the shielded structure. For more on shielding factors, please
see DNVGL-RP-C205 (Aug 2017), 5.3.3 Shielding Effects.
Current Force
Current force refers to the ‘drag’ force which the underwater body of the vessel experiences.
This is caused by the ‘relative’ flow of current against the body of the vessel. The drag depends
on the underwater geometry of the vessel.
A Barge is generally a flat, box-type structure. Its bow can be flat, raked or spoon-shaped. Flat
structures will attract more drag compared to a more streamlined structure like a ship-shaped
vessel. A flat bow also attracts more drag than a raked or curved bow. For a ship, the body is
much more streamlined than the barge. Further, if the bow is a bulbous bow, it helps in reducing
the drag.
Thus, for the same dimensions, the Barge is expected to attract more drag compared to a
conventional ship-shaped vessel. Generally, the calculations for a Barge a more straightforward,
based on the Morison equation
F = ½ ρ x V2 x Cd x Projected Area
The term ½ ρ x V2 is the pressure created by water on the surface of the vessel. Projected area is
the sectional area of the vessel perpendicular to the direction of flow. If the current direction is
along the length of the vessel, then the midship sectional area is the area to be used.
Page | 32
The term Cd is called the drag coefficient. This term is of huge significance, and it is this term
which determines how the geometry of the body will affect the drag force. For a relatively flat
body like a barge, Cd is expected to be higher, while for a streamlined body like a ship, Cd will
be much lower.
For most barges which are flat faced, a conservative value for Cd can be taken to be 1.0 (which is
the value our Bollard Pull calculator also uses). For barges of other shapes, an established
method like one described in OTC 3320 paper may be used.
For ships, the calculation of Cd is more complicated, and while it is also principally based on
Morison equation, the calculation has to be more elaborate and take into account its geometric
differences.
A method like ‘Holtrop-Mennen’ can be used to calculate the ‘Calm Water Resistance’ of the
ship, which is the resistance which it experiences due only to current (with no waves). The
resistance includes terms like
• Frictional resistance
• Appendage Resistance
• Wave making resistance
• Bulbous bow resistance
• Transom resistance
We can see that in case of a ship, the calculation is more elaborate and pertains to special
geometrical considerations. In effect, for a barge of similar size, the current force on a ship may
be lesser due to its streamlined shape.
Added Wave Resistance
As the vessel moves forward, these oncoming waves interact with the vessel’s body to create
resistance forces called ‘Added Wave Resistance’. These are external forces created purely by
the action of the sea against the vessel and are dictated by the height of the waves the vessel
encounters.
The effect they have on the vessel will be affected by the geometry of the vessel. Something
which we can infer is that a geometry with gentler and more streamlined shape will attract less
resistance compared to a flat geometry. A Barge is generally box-shaped and has more flat
surfaces compared to a ship which has gentler shape and more curves. Thus, the added wave
resistance too is expected to be lower for a ship compared to a barge. This is evident is the
formulae which are used for calculating the added wave resistance. The DNV-RP-H-103
provides a formula for estimating the added wave resistance based on the width of the vessel,
wave height and shape of the bow. The formula is reproduced below from Section 7.2.6.4 of
DNV-RP-H-103
Page | 33
We can see that the reflection coefficient (R) is the distinguishing feature which depends on the
shape of the bow of the vessel. Obviously, for a ship shaped bow, the Reflection coefficient is
much less. Compared to a square face vessel of same breadth in the same wave height, a
shipshaped bow is expected to encounter only around 20% of the wave resistance on the square
face.
Conclusion
Thus, we see that the approach to calculation of Bollard Pull for a ship and barge have marked
differences due to the differences in their geometrical shapes. If the simplifications which are
used for Barges (e.g., using a current drag coefficient of 1.0) are used on ships without any
critical evaluation of the ship’s geometry, the resulting bollard pull can be highly overestimated,
leading to the selection of a much oversized tug than necessary to tow the ship and subsequent
high costs of towing. High savings can be ensured by taking time to study the ship’s geometry
and doing a bollard pull calculation which accounts for its geometry and follows the appropriate
methods for estimation of environmental forces.
thenavalarch bears no responsibility for any incidents or losses arising due to the use of the
information in this article in any operation. It is recommended to seek professional advice before
executing any activity which draws on information mentioned in this post. All the figures,
drawings and pictures are property of thenavalarch except where indicated, and may not be
copied or distributed without permission.
Page | 34
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Page | 35
Selecting the right gear for towing operations – Part 1
Towing operations seem pretty straightforward – we just need to connect the vessel to be towed
to the right sized tug and get started!
However, a simple exercise of digging deeper will reveal critical items that we need to take care
of. If we start thinking about the whole operation beginning from a basic level, here’s how it will
be:
• Let’s say that we have already selected the right sized tug to tow a Vessel. Next, we need to have
a means to connect the tug to the Vessel
• The connection can be done using a rope – called the towing rope. How many towing ropes
should we use?
• How do we connect the ends of the towing rope to the Vessel? Where should we hook it on the
Vessel?
• How do we prevent the Vessel swaying on the sides?
• How long should the towline be?
• How to decide the required strength of the connections?
• What if the towline breaks? What kind of emergency arrangement should we have for a tow
which is lost?
Page | 36
In this article, we’ll breakdown the above questions by discussing the simplest towing
arrangement for towing a Vessel. Part 1 will deal with towing arrangement, while Part 2 will deal
with Emergency towing arrangement.
Towing Line
First, let us talk about the most critical component – the Towing rope or towing wire or the
towing line. The need for a towing line is obvious, and following are the critical parameters
related to towing line which helps in selecting the right one:
1. Number of towlines – except a Salvage tug, all other types of tugs need only one towing line. A
salvage tug needs two for the heavy-duty operations it may be required to perform. A spare
towing line is required for all tugs, except for tugs in restricted service which can be exempted.
2. Towline Breaking Load – The required breaking load of the towline can be directly found from
the Continuous Static Bollard Pull (BP) of the tug selected for the tow. DNVGL-ST-N001
provides a simple table to select the right strength of the towline
Thus, we can see that for a BP of 30 tonnes, the minimum strength of the towline should be 90
MT in regular weather and 60 MT in benign weather, while a 40 MT BP tug will require a 120
MT towline breaking load in normal weather and 80 MT towline in benign weather.
3. Towline length – it is important to maintain a minimum distance between the tug and the Vessel
during the towing. This is signified by the ‘Deployable length’, which is the distance measured
from the stern roller, and doesn’t include the minimum turns on the winch drum. A short length
maintained between the Vessel and tug can affect the efficiency of the tug due to the wake of the
propeller of the tug hitting the hull of the Vessel, thus increasing the friction on the Vessel and
requiring more pull.
The formula for determining the minimum towline length is provided in DNVGL-ST-N001
Page | 37
In no case can the towline length be less than 650 m for normal weather, and 500 m for benign
weather.
Towing Gear aboard the towed vessel
Next, we move to the equipment required on the Vessel being towed.
The figure below shows a simple towing gear arrangement for connecting a Vessel to the tug
Page | 38
Before we delve into individual equipment, let’s discuss about the design of this towing gear. We
can see that there are two chains/wires connected to two points on the Vessel to make a
triangular shaped connection which meets at the apex. This combination of the two chains/wires
and the apex along with the accessories is called a ‘towing bridle’. It is simply a means to
connect the towline to the Vessel. If only a single chain/wire is used to connect to a single point
on the Vessel, then there is high possibility of the Vessel swaying during the tow. The triangular
bridle helps in better control of the Vessel during the tow.
Now let’s discuss all the paraphernalia in this arrangement one by one
• Tow connection – the Vessel needs hard points where the towing bridle can be connected.
Generally, smit brackets welded to the deck of the Vessel are used for this connection. A typical
smit bracket is shown below
Page | 39
Source: https://pilotfits.com/products/smit-bracket/
• Closed Fairlead – fairleads (also called as ‘chocks’) are structures welded to the Vessel, and
they serve as guides for chains which connect the hard point on the Vessel to the towing bridles.
Basically, the fairlead protects the hull of the Vessel from the friction of the chain, and their
smooth contour guides the chains during towing operation.
Page | 40
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detailqXWEcKgoHAUp/China-Closed-Open-Casting-Steel-Deck-Bulwark-Mounted-Panama-
Fairlead-Ship-Chock.html
• Chafe Chain – chafe chains connect the hard point on the Vessel (smit brackets) with the
towing bridles. If the bridles are connected directly to the smit brackets and guided through the
fairleads, they will be subject to wear and tear due to the friction between them and the fairleads.
The chain is deployed to protect the bridle from this wear and tear.
• Wire or chain bridle – these are the wires or chains which form the towing bridle and connect
the chafe chains to the apex of the bridle. In some cases, these may be directly connected to the
Vessel connection points without providing for chafe chains.
• Bridle Apex – the bridle apex is a structure which is a confluence of the towing bridles and the
towing line. Thus, it needs to have three connection points – two for the towing bridles and one
for the towing line. Bridle apex is designated by the following:
• Apex angle – This is the angle between the two bridles and should ideally be between 45
degrees and 60 degrees. If it exceeds 90 degrees, additional reinforcement of towing gear is
needed
Page | 41
• Apex connection type – the connecting structure at the apex can be a delta plate or a towing
ring. Enlarged shackles can also be used.
• Towing pennant – pennants are connections between the apex and the towing line. There can
be a chain pennant connected to the apex, and another intermediate wire pennant connecting the
chain pennant to the towing line. The main use of pennants is for ease of connection and
reconnection with the towing line
• Shackles – Shackles are used at multiple points

o For connecting the chafe chain to bridle
o For connecting the bridle to apex
o For connecting the apex to the towing pennant
• Recovery system – For recovering the towing bridle in the event of towline breakage, the
winch and the recovery wire form the recovery system.
Selecting the towing equipment
Next, we come to the method of selection of the towing gear. Any towing equipment will be
specified by two parameters: its Breaking Load and its Size.
The requirements for both the parameters are provided in various sections of DNVGL-ST-N001.
The following table lists the specific requirements of each item and the relevant section of the
DNVGL-ST-N001 is also stated. These requirements do not cover a Salvage tug.
Page | 42
Thus, we can see that using the DNVGL-ST-N001, we can make an informed decision on
selecting the right towing equipment for the vessel to be towed. In Part-2 we will see how we can
select the right Emergency towing equipment for the tow.
References
1. DNVGL-ST-N001 Marine Operations and Marine Warranty
2. https://www.shipownersclub.com/media/2015/08/PUBS-Loss-Prevention-Tug-and-Tow-Safety-
and-Operational-Guide_A5_0715.pdf
Page | 43
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Page | 44
Selecting the right equipment for towing operations – Part 2

(Emergency Towing)
In Part 1 of the article, we discussed the regular towing arrangements and how to select the
towing gear for the same. In this part, we will discuss the components of the emergency towing
arrangement and how to select them.
The purpose of emergency towing equipment is to recover a disabled and/or abandoned vessel.
This may happen in case of engine breakdowns, loss of power or loss of steering capability
coupled with a failure of the main towline/bridle. Such a situation carries significant risks and
dangers of the vessel floating ashore. How do we recover such a vessel? Thinking in very
layman terms, we need to hook it up to another ship (a tug) which can carry it to a safe harbor for
repairs. Picturing a worst-case scenario can be of a vessel which is powerless, abandoned and
floating in the dark of night at sea in a bad weather. What if we need to hook-up such a vessel to
rescue it? How should the towing arrangement look? Needless to say, time is extremely critical
in such operations and the available window of time is highly limited.
In view of the above, the emergency towing or hook-up arrangements made on the vessel must
be very simple and quick to deploy.
Again, thinking very fundamentally, the ship and the tug have to be connected, say by a chain.
The ship must have some strong point where the chain can be connected. Further, if the chain is
lying on the ship’s deck during the emergency situation, then it becomes useless, as it can’t be
accessed. Thus, there should be a mechanism to make the chain float in the sea, so that it can be
picked up easily to be connected to the tug’s towing line. The whole arrangement should be long
enough to provide a safe distance from the abandoned vessel while the operation is performed.
In view of the above, a typical setup for emergency towing is shown in below. While this is the
recommended setup as per DNVGL-ST-N001, an alternate setup which includes a separate
bridle and pennant is also acceptable. In that case, the strength of the emergency pennant/bridle
system should be the same as that of the main towing bridle.
Page | 45
Figure 1 – A typical Emergency Towing Arrangement as recommended by DNVGL-ST-N001
Page | 46
Coming back to the recommended arrangement, we can see that the whole arrangement has been
designed to be simple and easy to be deployed. The emergency pennant is the most critical
component, and the other equipment are enabler equipment to ensure the smooth working of the
pennant. Generally, the Emergency Towing Equipment (ETA) is required to be placed at the bow
of the vessel.
We can see the system has following components/features:
• Emergency Pennant – this is the main tow wire, and is recommended to be in one length with a
minimum length of 80 m. The minimum length can be reduced for small vessels or when the tow
is benign. The pennant runs along and is secured to the side of the vessel (on the deck) with soft
lashings (shown as ‘seizing’ in the drawing) which can easily break free when pulled during
deployment.
• Tow connection – We can see that the pennant is connected to the vessel using a tow connection
(e.g., a smit bracket). The tow connection should be on the centerline of the vessel, and should be
installed on a hard point on the vessel (like a bulkhead).
• Chock/fairlead – the chock/fairlead is required to guide the pennant from the vessel to the tug,
and it also protects the deck as well as the pennant from chafing. The fairlead should be a closed
one.
• Float buoy – There is a conspicuous float buoy which is used for easy identification and pickup
of the emergency towing line. Most of the time, it is equipped with a self-igniting light.
• Float line – the emergency pennant is to be connected to a float line which is buoyant, i.e.,
floating. This is meant for the recovery of the emergency pennant when required. The float line
should be long enough for the buoy to be clear of the barge, and to be easily picked up by a tug
Emergency Towing Procedure
Now we will talk a bit about the actual procedure for emergency towing, and the steps it follows.
The whole idea is to connect the tug’s towing line safely to the emergency tenant of the
abandoned/floating vessel.
For this, the tug is first maneuvered to the stern of the barge, where the float line and the float
buoy are.
The float line is retrieved gradually along with the extension line, if any, until the eye of the main
towing pennant is retrieved to the tug.
The pennant eye is then connected to the tug’s towing hook
The tug is then slowly maneuvered to the bow and then the barge is towed away
Page | 47
Emergency Towing Equipment – Minimum Specifications
Now we take a look at the minimum specifications needed for the emergency towing equipment
onboard a vessel.
The following table summarizes all the requirements as per DNVGL-ST-N001, Sec 11.13.13.4.
Thus, with an understanding of the purpose of emergency towing, and of the special practical
requirements which govern it, we can be in a position to design the right emergency towing
arrangement and select the right equipment for it.
References:
1. DNVGL-ST-N001 Marine Operations and Marine Warranty

2. https://www.shipownersclub.com/media/2015/08/PUBS-Loss-Prevention-Tug-and-Tow-Safety-
and-Operational-Guide_A5_0715.pdf
3. http://www.gard.no/web/updates/content/52597/emergency-towing-arrangements-for-tankers
Page | 48
4. https://www.wartsila.com/encyclopedia/term/emergency-towing-system-(ets)-also-emergency-
towing-gear
5. http://www.imo.org/en/KnowledgeCentre/IndexofIMOResolutions/Maritime-Safety-Committee-
%28MSC%29/Documents/MSC.35%2863%29.pdf
6. https://www.shipownersclub.com/media/emergency-towing.pdf
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Page | 49
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Page | 50
SECTION 2 – MOORING AND BERTHING
Page | 51
Mooring System Design and Analysis

by Rahul Kanotra, Consultant Naval Architect
As the offshore industry moves towards greater technological advancements, one thing that has
plagued the engineers is the “plug and play” computer programs or software. I am not against
Page | 52
any software as such, and in fact, I am a big fan and power user of Bentley’s MOSES program.
What I do not like is engineers blindly feeding inputs in the software to get outputs without
actually understanding the theory behind engineering problem at hand. Engineers these days
spend more time on mastering the software manual then the actual theory itself. I have been
extremely fortunate to be mentored by some of the best Engineers/Managers/Professors in both
industry and academia. As a passionate Naval Architect, I have always had a deep interest in the
interaction of floating/fixed bodies with sea waves. In an attempt to share my knowledge of
offshore installation engineering, I am going to write a series of articles on various offshore
engineering analysis. The target audience is fellow Naval Architects, Engineers, Project
Managers and anyone interested in learning about the field. As these articles will be targeted for
the audience from diverse backgrounds, I will try to keep things as simple as possible. I will use
Bentley’s MOSES as the prime software and get into the details of inputs and outputs. I recently
delivered a training session to a group of structural engineers on the topic “Mooring Analysis
and Design,” and I have chosen the same topic for my first article.
Mooring System Fundamentals
A mooring system comprises a floating body (or collection of bodies) which are connected to the
sea floor (or terminals) by a system of lines that provide restoring forces against external loads.
The General purpose of mooring lines is:
• To keep the body in reasonable proximity of some target location (Station Keeping).
• To operate in deep water (Drilling Rigs, FPSOs, TLPs, ).
• To allow re-location of the units such as pipe laying barges.
• To check clearance with other units or pipelines during drilling campaigns or installation
procedures.
• Loading/Unloading operations.
Mooring System Classification
Mooring systems are broadly classified into two categories namely slack (or catenary) mooring
system and taut mooring system as shown in Figure 1.
Page | 53
Figure 1: Taut Mooring vs. Catenary Mooring (Source: Chakrabarti, S. K. (2005). Handbook of
offshore engineering. Amsterdam: Elsevier.)
It is important to understand the fundamental differences between the two as the restoring forces
generated in both are due to different mechanisms. In slack (catenary) mooring lines the
restoring forces are mainly due to the result of a change in suspended weight of lines whereas in
taut mooring the restoring forces are generated primarily due to the result of the elasticity of the
line. Below figures demonstrates the difference between taut mooring and catenary mooring.
Figure 2: Restoring forces – Catenary Mooring
Page | 54
Figure 3: Restoring forces – Taut Mooring
Ever wondered why slack mooring is also called as catenary mooring? It is easy to
mathematically prove that any line/chain suspended under its self weight assumes a shape of a
geometric curve called catenary. The geometry of the offshore slack mooring line is the same as
a chain suspended between two poles. The only difference is that one end of the offshore
mooring line is connected to the anchor and another end to the fairlead of the floating body.
Also, the offshore mooring line has buoyancy and hydrodynamic forces acting on it unlike in
case of a chain suspended in air between two poles. I have pointed out this similarity between
offshore mooring line and a chain suspended between two poles to illustrate the simplicity of the
problem at hand. The physics behind mooring line behavior is not different from that of a
suspended chain in the air. In the below figure let’s assume that the length of the chain is S and
weight per unit length is W. The Tension on each side of the pole is same as T (due to symmetry)
and the angle it makes with horizontal is Փ. Now balancing forces in vertical direction gives us:
2 T Sin Փ = WS T = WS/2 Sin Փ
Page | 55
Figure 4: Chain suspended between two poles – Catenary
Mooring System Design and Analysis
Now that we understand the basic difference between taut mooring and catenary mooring lines
let’s look at the design and analysis aspects of a mooring system. Let’s assume a simple scenario
of a barge moored by 8 point catenary mooring system. To analyze this system in any software,
we need to input the properties of each mooring line and barge system. One of the best
software’s out there is Bentley’s MOSES software. I like working in MOSES due to its inbuilt
coding language environment which makes it possible to look at different scenarios and be
creative with the problem at hand. Below are the inputs provided in MOSES software.
Page | 56
The mooring pattern of the barge is symmetric about X and Y axis as shown in the Figure 5. The
horizontal distance between fairlead and anchor point is considered to be 1000m for each line. It
should be noted that the mooring pattern will not always be as pretty in the real world. There
may be subsea assets (pipelines, manifolds, etc.) in the vicinity and therefore the length and
orientation of each line may differ. Engineers must strive to keep the mooring pattern as
symmetrical as possible for better load distribution.
Page | 57
Figure 5: Top View – 8 Point Mooring Spread.
Figure 6: Isometric View – 8 Point Mooring Spread.
Now before analyzing this mooring system let us look at the things which we have some control
over, during the actual field operation. The anchor drop location and therefore the length of each
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mooring line can be changed. The individual mooring lines can be tended based on the direction
of environmental forces. The mooring tension in the line can be increased/ decreased by paying
out/in line from the winch. Below Figure 7 illustrates the effect of line tension on the catenary
profile of any one mooring line. As the tension is increased (line length reduced) more length of
the line is lifted off the seabed. For slack condition, the whole length of the line is laying on the
seabed whereas for 200 MT tension the entire line is off the seabed. The Delta Flipper type
anchor can only take loads in the horizontal direction, and therefore it will not hold ground for
200 MT line tension. From this exercise, we get a good idea of tension limitations on each line
from anchor uplift point of view. It is to be noted that line tension/ geometry of line will also
change with the change in horizontal distance between anchor and fairlead.
Figure 7: Catenary Profile for varying Tensions
Now that we have looked at the characteristics of the individual lines, the next step is to study
the characteristics of the whole barge mooring system. From a mathematical point of view, it is
useful to see the restoring force due to mooring vs. the barge excursion. Figure 8 plots the
mooring system restoring force due to barge excursion in the X direction (Refer to Figure 5) for
different pre-tension. As we know that the pre-tensions in each mooring line can be increased or
decreased by the deck crew by operating the winches. It can be seen that higher the pre-tension
the stiffer the system, i.e., lesser excursion for the same amount of force. However, the higher
stiffness also means higher line forces and risk of breaking of highest loaded lines. Therefore, we
need to keep a balance between barge stiffness vs. excursion to ensure safe mooring design.
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Figure 8: Barge excursion (from the mean) vs. Restoring Force in Mooring
Up until now, we have talked about the characteristics of internal forces generated by the
mooring system, i.e., the restoration forces. In the following section, we will discuss the external
excitation forces on the barge mooring system. Any floating body in the sea is subject to some,
or possibly all of the following loads:
• Winds
• Current
• Waves/ Swell
• Tides
For all practical purposes the environmental forces due to winds, current and mean wave forces
can be considered as static and are easy to deal with using static analysis. The total forces due to
static components are calculated and equated to the restoring force to calculate total barge
excursion from mean position. One thing which is very crucial for Engineers is to have a “feel”
of the magnitude of environmental force for a given size of the barge and operational sea states.
A great resource that every Engineer should refer to when analyzing a mooring system is
OCIMF – Mooring Equipment Guidelines 3rd Edition. Appendix A of this document provides
detailed calculations for calculating environmental forces due to wind and currents. Now that we
have talked about static forces the next step is to look at the dynamic forces due to waves and
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swells. In a typical mooring analysis in MOSES, the hydrodynamic model of the vessel is
created to perform the analysis to identify the optimum mooring configuration. The software
considers steady state loading from current, wind and wave drift and oscillatory loading from
direct waves and low frequency components of wave/wind drift. The required hydrodynamic
database is generated using the ‘three diffraction theory. The analysis is performed in the time
domain. The expected peak values of the barge motion, excursion and line tensions are derived
from a computer simulation time of 1200-1800 seconds using input sea spectra (such as
JONSWAP, ISSC, etc.). The analysis is usually performed for eight headings (head, stern, beam,
quartering seas) as shown in Figure 5. In order to calculate maximum excursions and forces the
loads due to wind, wave and currents are applied collinearly for each heading. The mooring
analysis is performed for Intact and Damaged condition as shown in Table 3.
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Table 3: Intact and Damaged Condition
The predicted maximum mooring tensions and excursion results of mooring analysis in MOSES
are summarized in Table 4 and Table 5 respectively. It is no surprise that maximum tension
occurs for beam seas where the largest underwater and above water surface area is exposed to
winds, waves, and current.
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Table 4: Mooring Line Loads – Intact Condition
Page | 63
Table 5: Barge Excursions – Intact Condition
Figure 9 shows the mooring line tensions for the environment in which the highest tension
occurs in line S2. Figure 10 shows the barge excursion in the Y direction for the same case.
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Figure 9: Mooring Line Tensions – Intact Condition
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Figure 10: Barge excursion (from the mean) in Y direction –Intact Condtion
Once the intact case is analyzed, the next step is to study the mooring system for one line
damaged condition. In damaged case, the time domain simulation is run for top three load cases
that generated the highest line tension in the intact condition. Remember damaged condition
aims to find out maximum tension and excursion that would occur if any one line is damaged. In
our example, the damaged case is analyzed for Hs = 2m, Tp = 5.1 seconds, Heading 90 deg., and
line S2 is considered damaged. The maximum line tensions from MOSES time domain
simulation in the damaged case are plotted below in Figure 11. It can be seen that line S1 that is
adjacent to S2 takes the maximum load when S2 is damaged.
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Figure 11: Barge excursion (from the mean) vs. Restoring Force in Mooring
The maximum loads and excursions obtained from analysis should be within maximum
allowable limits as per guidelines such as APIRP-2SK. The maximum loads should not exceed
the “weakest link” of the Mooring system. I would like to conclude by emphasizing that Mooring
analysis and design is an iterative process dependent on environmental as well as operational
constraints. Engineers should exercise due diligence while analyzing any mooring pattern for the
safety of crew and offshore assets. Feel free to share this article and post comments if any. Until
next time, have a great day.
Disclaimer:
indicated, and may not be copied or distributed without permission. The views, information, or
opinions expressed in this article are solely those of the author and do not necessarily represent
those of TheNavalArch Pte Ltd and its employees
Page | 67
Author Profile:
Mr. Rahul Kanotra is a Consultant Naval Architect and Hydrodynamic Expert with extensive experience
in large offshore projects, front-end design, and other aspects of installation engineering. He holds a
Master’s and Bachelor’s degree in Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering from Indian Institute of
Technology, Madras. He has worked on multiple Research & Development projects and published and
presented technical research papers in esteemed international conferences. Mr. Kanotra has extensive
experience in numerical and experimental analysis of floating and fixed offshore platforms. He has
provided his engineering expertise for multiple Offshore installations across the globe. To contact Mr
Kanotra for any consulting assignments, please get in touch with TheNavalArch team at
info@thenavalarch.com
Page | 68
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Page | 69
OCIMF MEG-4 and Mooring Design of your vessels – Part I
Part I – Environment and Environmental forces
The OCIMF (Oil Companies International Marine Forum) has come out with the latest edition of
mooring Equipment Guidelines (MEG) – Rev 4. This revision incorporates significant changes
and updates over the MEG-3, the third Edition. The changes include, besides other additions, a
guidance on documentation of mooring equipment (Mooring System Management Plan),
addition of a section on human factors in mooring operations, and significant updates to the
Appendix A for calculating environmental forces on tankers/gas carriers.
Mooring in the context of MEG-4 means mooring to a fixed structure like a berth, jetty, terminal
or another ship.
Page | 70
Mooring Forces and Mooring Design
The design of mooring at berth can be broken down into a certain number of steps by thinking in
very basic terms.
The problem at hand is – we are given a vessel, and we need to moor it to a berth. The first
question which pops is why at all we need to berth the vessel? Why can’t we just leave it
floating? Well, if we leave it floating, it is subject to environmental elements of wind, current,
waves, tides etc. These will make it drift, with the possibility of hitting another vessel in the
vicinity.
The next thought that comes is: what’s the best way to secure it to a berth? The simplest solution
we can imagine is using ropes to tie it to strong and fixed structures on the berth. A ship needs
equipment like bollards, fairleads and winches which can help secure the rope from ship to the
mooring equipment on the berth.
So, how do we go about selecting the right sized rope? What about the bollards, fairleads and
winches on the vessel? How big should they be? It is natural to expect that a bigger ship will
require bigger sized equipment (bollard, winches, fairleads etc.) and ropes to secure it. How
could we devise a method to do it?
In simplest terms, mooring involves tying the vessel to a berth using ropes so that the vessel
stays in place and is not carried away by the environment. The environment may comprise wind,
current, tides, waves, ice, swell etc. which the berth is subject to.
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To know how many and how big ropes and what size equipment are needed, we should have an
estimate of how much environmental forces the vessel is subject to. Once we know the forces,
we can go about tying ropes in such a way that these are able to resist the forces.
Hence, the steps to designing a mooring system can be:
• Step 1: Get the environmental data for the berth – wind, wave, current, tide etc.
• Step 2: Calculate, based on the size and geometry of the vessel, the total environmental forces on
the vessel
• Step 3: Design a mooring system comprising ropes and equipment adequate for resisting the
environmental forces obtained in Step 2. This includes designing the mooring pattern and
selecting the right equipment.
In this article we’ll look into Steps 1 and 2, while the Step 3 will be dealt with in Part 2.
Step 1 – Environmental data
The application of environmental data depends on the purpose which we’re using it. If we’re
designing the mooring equipment of a specific berth or terminal, then the environment
experienced at that specific berth is important. This is obtained from Metocean data for the
specific berth location.
However, things are different if we’re designing the mooring equipment for a ship (which is
what this article talks about). A ship may visit multiple berths over its lifetime, and each berth
may be subject to different environments. Does that mean that we gather the environmental data
of each berth the ship is expected to visit over its lifetime, and then take the worst-case
environment? Such an exercise will be extremely cumbersome.
MEG-4 provides a simple solution: Section 3 of MEG-4 provides the ‘Standard’ environmental
criteria which are to be used for ships. These criteria cover a wide range of environmental
conditions and can be used for the mooring design. However, these are applicable only for
vessels with DWT 16000 MT and above. The criteria are shown below:
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Loading Conditions and tidal variations
The ship may be loaded to different drafts, which leads to different windage and current areas.
For example, when the vessel is ballasted, it has a higher windage area and so the wind forces are
expected to be higher compared to other loading conditions with higher draft. Similarly, fully
loaded condition with fetch higher current forces compared to other loading conditions.
For the purpose of mooring design, it is generally recommended to investigate two extreme
conditions:
• Fully loaded condition at lowest astronomical tide (LAT)

• Ballasted condition at highest astronomical tide (HAT)
Water Depth to Draft Ratio
The ratio of Water Depth (WD) to Draft (T) is a critical parameter affecting the current forces on
a vessel. OCIMF recommends the following values to be used for the WD/T ratio:
• For tankers, WD/T to be taken as 1.05 when loaded and 3.0 when in ballast condition
• For a gas carrier the WD/T should be taken as 1.05 for all conditions
We can see here that there will be multiple cases for which the forces have to be calculated.
Since the wind of 60 knots can be from any direction, simultaneously with current from either
head/following seas or beam seas, we need to investigate all cases while varying the direction of
current from 0 to 360 deg, and also varying the loading condition (ballast/loaded). To simplify,
we can create cases by considering wind and current to be collinear (along the same direction),
and investigate the cases listed below:
The cases are listed below:
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Now that we have defined the environmental conditions – wind and current, which also included
the loading conditions and water depth to draft ratio, we can move on to the next step:
calculation of environmental forces.
Step 2 – Environmental forces
At a berth, generally it is only wind and current forces which significantly impact the design of
moorings.
The environmental forces on the vessel can be calculated using the force coefficients provided in
Appendix A of OCIMF MEG-4. These tables provide the coefficients for Wind and Current
forces depending on the vessel heading, loading condition (ballasted/loaded) and also the Water
Depth to Draft ratio. At this stage, and for the purpose of this article, waves and other factors
which are ‘dynamic’ in nature (i.e., which cause time-varying forces on the ship) are not
considered, and the analysis is limited to a ‘static’ analysis.
The environmental force coefficients comprise the following:
• Surge force or longitudinal force – wind and current forces faced by the fore or aft of the vessel
• Sway force or transverse force – wind and current forces faced by the beam of the vessel
• Yaw moment – wind and current yaw moment which makes the vessel turn about its vertical axis
The force coefficients provided in MEG-4 follow a specific sign-convention as per the figure
below:
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The coefficients can be obtained from the charts and tables provided in Appendix A of OCIMF
MEG-4.
Page | 75
Next, we calculate, for all cases listed in Step 1, the environmental forces of wind and current
(forces and moments).
The forces are obtained from the coefficients by using the standard formulae:
Page | 76
Once we have the environmental forces, the next step is to design/select the mooring equipment
based on the forces obtained.
Mooring equipment can be the following:
• Mooring lines and shackles

• Bollards
• Fairleads
• Winches
Each mooring equipment is specified by its Safe Working Load (SWL), which is what we need
to determine.
OCIMF provides a simple approach to calculating the SWL once environmental forces are
calculated.
OCIMF proposes calculation of a parameter called the ‘Ship’s Design MBL’.
In Part 2, we’ll look into what is Ship’s Design MBL, and also how the mooring pattern for the
vessel can be designed.
Disclaimer:
Page | 77
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Page | 78
OCIMF MEG-4 and Mooring Design of your vessels – Part II

(Ship’s Design MBL)
In Part 1 of this article, we saw a step by step guide to calculate the Environmental forces on a
vessel based on “Standard” environmental criteria defined in Section 3 of OCIMF Mooring
Equipment Guidelines Fourth Edition (MEG-4) in order to determine the ship’s design MBL
which in turn can be used to size the various components of the vessel’s mooring system, like
bollards, fairleads and winches. Various parameters like loading conditions, tidal variations,
WD/T ratio etc. were discussed and calculation of wind and current forces on the vessel based on
coefficients was presented.
In Part 2 of the article we will look into how to
1. Select a generic mooring line layout

2. Calculate static Equilibrium of the vessel and stiffness of mooring line layout
3. Determine Ship design MBL
Mooring Pattern
The vessel mooring pattern is to be designed to effectively counter the environmental forces
from any direction. This means that the lines should be able to cope horizontal as well as
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transverse loads. The mooring pattern should therefore have lines along longitudinal direction to
prevent motion in forward and aft directions and also in the transverse direction to prevent
motion away from the berth. The longitudinal lines are knows as spring lines and the transverse
lines are known as breast lines. The pattern also depends on the provisions at the terminal and it
should be chosen, as much as possible, to keep the spring lines parallel and breast lines
perpendicular to the ship length.
Mooring Pattern (Source: OCIMF MEG-4)
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MEG4 provides the below guidelines for a generic mooring line layout.
• Breast mooring lines should be at an angle less than 15o to the perpendicular axis of the ship.
• Spring mooring lines should be at an angle less than 10o to the side of the ship.
• Maximum vertical angles of 25 degrees should be assumed for the lightest ballasted condition.
Static Equilibrium
A vessel subject to environmental forces/moments will move in the forward or transverse

directions or rotate about the vertical axis i.e. the vessel will have surge, sway or yaw
respectively. The vessel motion will change the relative distance of the fairlead from the shore
anchor point, changing the length of the mooring lines. The lines, generally speaking, behave
like a spring and the force exerted is proportional to the change in length of the line. This
characteristic of the lines can be found from the data sheet of the line from the manufacturer. The
change in length of the lines increases the tensions in the lines and the combined load exerted by
all the lines then balances the total environmental loading. This condition of the vessel where the
environmental loading is balanced by the mooring lines is known as static equilibrium.
Ship design MBL calculation
A simple spring formulation can be applied to evaluate the translations/rotations of the vessel in
static equilibrium under the effect of the calculated environmental loads. Once a mooring system
for the vessel at the berth has been chosen, for given position of the vessel the change in length
of each mooring line with respect to its initial (un-stretched) length can be calculated using a
simple spring formulation F = k δL where F is the line tension, k is the stiffness of the line and
δL is the change in line length. Tension in each line can be aggregated to get the net loading on
the vessel.
Hence we can calculate the translation/rotation of the vessel that will result in unit force/moment
on the vessel by the mooring lines. Let’s call this the inverse stiffness k’. If k’ is displacement
produced by unit force on the vessel, the total displacement X produced by the net environmental
loading F can be calculated as X = F k’. The new position for the ship can be used to re-calculate
the net mooring loads on the vessel and compared to the environmental forces and the whole
process can be repeated until static equilibrium is achieved. The total length of the mooring line
from winch to bollard should be used in the calculations. Also the stiffness of the lines change
with use and the calculations should use the stiffness of used lines instead of new lines. The
above can be summarized in below steps,
1. Calculate total environmental forces/moments on the vessel in surge, sway and yaw directions.
E.g. Fx is the net environmental force in the surge direction
2. Determine the inverse stiffness of the mooring system in terms of amount of surge/sway/yaw per
unit force/moment. E.g. k’ m/N is the stiffness of the vessel in surge direction.
3. Calculate the total amount of surge/sway/yaw. E.g. Surge (m)= Fx * k’
4. Calculate the resultant mooring forces based on the new position. E.g. Rx is the net mooring force
in the surge direction.
5. Compare the environmental forces and resultant mooring forces i.e. Fx = Rx?
Page | 81
6. Several iterations of steps 2-5 may be required until static equilibrium is achieved.
Once static equilibrium is achieved, maximum mooring restraint force can be determined and
used in the flowchart below, provided by MEG4, to calculate the ship design Minimum Breaking
Load i.e. Ship design MBL. With the vessel in static equilibrium, the tensions in each mooring
line can be determined. Since there are several components in the mooring pattern that support
multiple mooring lines, the total loading on such component can be used to calculate the Ship
design MBL as
The ship design MBL is the MBL of a new, dry mooring line for which a ships mooring system
is designed and that meets the mooring restraint requirements as defined in MEG4, section 3. All
other components of a ship’s mooring system are based on this ship design MBL, with defined
tolerances.
It must be noted that static analysis may only be suitable for benign environment as we are
assuming the lines as simple springs. In other cases dynamic analysis for the vessel motions and
line tensions should be performed.
The steps above are also lined out in OCIF MEG-4, and shown in the figure below.
Page | 82
Ship’s Design MBL Calculation Steps (Source: OCIMF MEG-4)
In Part 3, we will further look into using this Ship design MBL for line selection and to
determine D/d ratio (bend dia/rope dia) of mooring line and other parameters.
Page | 83
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TheNavalArch bears no responsibility for the accuracy of this article, or for any incidents/losses
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Page | 84
A simple method of selecting the right anchor for mooring a

tanker/gas carrier
Anchoring is a fundamental and sensitive operation for a vessel. When a vessel is at anchor, it
swings to align itself along the direction of the dominant environment. The anchor is supposed to
hold the vessel in varying environmental conditions depending on where the vessel is being
Page | 85
anchored. Thus, it is critical to know if the anchor has enough holding power when the weather
goes inclement. While vessel masters have reliable experience in knowing the holding power of
their vessels and decide based on their invaluable practical knowledge, an estimate of the forces
which the vessel is experiencing in a particular weather is always useful in knowing whether the
anchor can hold or not, helping in critical decision making on whether to remain at anchor or let
go – thus saving the vessel from a potential damage of anchoring systems.
In this article we will present a simple method based to estimate the holding power required for
an anchor operating in a given environmental condition. The method is based on OCIMF’s
publication ‘Estimating The Environmental Loads On Anchoring Systems‘.
Basically, the two steps involved are:
Step 1: Calculating the wind, current and wave load on the vessel to give the total environmental
load
Step 2: Selecting the right anchor with holding power sufficient to take the total environmental
load
Applicability and Assumptions
An anchoring system is subjected to the three primary environmental loads – Wind, Wave and
Current. The simple outline of the method is to find out what these loads are, sum them up and
check if the anchor has enough holding power to overcome the combined environmental loads.
However, the method is NOT universally applicable to all types of vessels, and is limited only to
Oil Tankers or Gas Carriers with accommodation located aft. The method can be used for tankers
down to a DWT of 16000 MT. Further, only a static condition has been considered for
calculation of forces. This means that the effects of the vessel’s own motion (pitching, heaving
etc.) have been ignored. The vessel is considered as static while the environmental forces of
wind, wave and current act on it. It is to be noted that dynamic effects can have a multiplier
effect on the forces obtained from the static condition. The method also ignores the interaction
among the three forces, and assumes that the vessel is lying to a single anchor and longitudinally
aligned with the anchor chain. Thus, all the three forces of wind, current and wave need to be
considered only in the longitudinal direction of the vessel. Catenary effects of the mooring chain
are ignored.
Page | 86
However, there are some important assumptions which the method relies upon. These are:
• the vessel is an oil tanker or an LNG carrier (spherical or prismatic) with accommodation aft
• environmental forces acting on the vessel comprise:
wind
current
waves (mean wave drift force).
• the data presented refers to the static condition. It should be noted that dynamic effects (e.g.
yawing, pitching) can result in forces in the anchor system being 2 or 3 times higher than the
estimated static forces.
• the environmental forces are considered as individual components that are summed to provide a
total force. Interaction effects between the forces are not considered.
• the vessel is lying to a single anchor.
• the anchored vessel is in a steady position, having swung at anchor in the direction of the
dominant environmental force or has reached an equilibrium position.
• the vessel lies at anchor such that the lead of the anchor chain is parallel to the centreline of the
vessel. As a result, only the longitudinal components of the wind, waves and current forces need
be considered.
• wave drift forces have been estimated using a Pierson-Moskowitz sea spectrum.
• the catenary effect of the anchor chain is not considered
Step 1: Calculating the environmental loads
Wind and Current Forces
The environmental loads of wind and current are estimated from the non-dimensional
coefficient curves provided in the OCIMF document, which in turn are taken from OCIMF
Mooring Equipment Guidelines (MEG). The OCIMF document on anchoring refers to MEG
Edition 3; however, MEG has been updated to Edition 4, and the same shall be referred to in this
article.
• The wind coefficients depend upon

o the wind angle of attack
o the type of bow – conventional/cylindrical
o loading condition of the vessel – ballasted or fully loaded
• The current coefficients depend upon

o the current angle of attack
o the ratio of Water Depth to Draft of the vessel
Page | 87
Page | 88
Current and Wind Coefficients taken from OCIMF MEG-4
Once the wind and current drag coefficients are obtained, the standard physical equations can be
used to determine the applicable forces. Only the forces in longitudinal direction are considered.
The formulas are presented below:
Page | 89
Wind Force Formula
Cxw = Wind Coefficient in Longitudinal direction
ρw = Density of Wind (1.28 kg/m3)
Vw = Wind Speed (m/s)
AT = Transverse Windage Area of the Vessel (m2)
Wave drift forces – these are calculated from three dimensional surface plots. The surface plots
provide the wave force in tonnes, depending upon the two parameters of Singnificant Wave Height and
Mean Wave Period which can be obtained from the environmental data (nautical charts/Metocean data) of
the location under consideration.
These wave loads are only the longitudinal forces which act on the vessel when the vessel is at
anchor (since the vessel aligns itself along the environment). However, in the case the vessel is
yawing, transverse forces also come into play which can be multiple times higher than
longitudinal forces, and need to be accounted for in the force on anchor. As a thumb rule, for 20
degrees yaw, the longitudinal force obtained from the surface plot is multiplied by 2; for 40
degrees yaw, the force is multiplied by 3.
Page | 90
3D plots from OCIMF document to calculate wave drift forces
Step 2: Calculating the anchor holding power and selecting the right anchor
The next step is to calculate the anchor holding power from the environmental forces. Let’s say
the total environmental force Fenv has been calculated:
FENV = Fxc + Fxw + Fwave
where, Fxw = Wind Force, Fxc = Current force and Fwave = Wave Drift Force
For the anchor to be adequate for holding this vessel in the given environment, the anchor’s
holding power FHOLD must be greater than the environmental force, i.e.,
FHOLD > FENV
Page | 91
The anchor’s holding power, FHOLD depends on the the type of anchor, the size of the anchor’s
fluke and also on the seabed type. Soft mud is considered the weakest sea bed in terms of
holding power, and sand is a better surface with higher holding power. Anchors with higher
fluke area also have higher holding power. Generally, heavier anchors provide higher holding
power too. See this article for more detail -> Article on anchors
Anchor holding power can be estimated form the anchor’s weight and a factor for the type of
seabed. The formula is below:
Anchor Holding Power = Anchor Weight (tonnes) x Seabed Factor
The table from OCIMF (reproduced below) gives the typical anchor weights for Tankers and Gas
carriers of different sizes.
Typical Anchor Weights for tankers and gas carriers
The seabed factor depends on the type of seabed and also the category of anchor (Standard
Anchor vs High Holding Power, HHP Anchors). The following table from OCIMF document
gives the seabed factors
Page | 92
If the anchor holding power is found insufficient against the environmental load, then there’s a
possibility of the anchor being dragged which is a dangerous situation and can lead to collisions
and grounding. This calls for corrective action like preparing the vessel for maneuvering,
deploying more cable etc. However, prevention is always better than corrective action, and it
always helps in knowing beforehand the expected environmental forces on the vessel and check
if the anchor has sufficient holding power.
TheNavalArch’s app for Anchoring Loads Calculation is an easy-to-use tool which is based on
OCIMF MEG-4 and can be used to estimate the environmental forces on a Tanker/Gas Carrier
and make an informed assessment of whether the anchor is suitable or not.
Please do take a moment to check our related app below.
OCIMF Anchoring Environment Loads Calculator
Page | 93
Equipment Numeral Calculation for a Ship – a Guide
Intriguing as it sounds, Equipment Number (or Equipment Numeral) throws a plethora of

questions when heard for the first time. Is it something which tells the number of equipment on a
ship, or is it a catalog which assigns specific number to the equipment on a ship?
Cutting to the chase, Equipment Number (abbreviated as EN) is just a non-dimensional

parameter which can be used to select the right sized anchoring and chain cables for a new ship.
However, it is to be noted that these equipment are only meant for harbor mooring, and not for
open sea or rough weather mooring.
Once the EN is known, a set of adequately sized equipment for mooring/anchoring of the vessel
can be selected. Following are some equipment which can be selected based on EN:
• Stockless bower anchors

• Stud-link chain cables
• Towlines – made of Steel of fiber ropes
• Mooring lines – made of steel or fiber ropes
Page | 94
First Principles
Thinking in very basic terms, the problem at hand is to select the right set of equipment for
anchoring/mooring a vessel at port/harbor. That brings us to the basic question – why do we need
to anchor a vessel? The simple reason is to prevent it from drifting away. What causes the drift?
It is the forces of the environment acting on the vessel. What are these forces? The forces are
wind, current and wave. Wave is generally non-significant at harbors.
How is wind/current force on the vessel calculated? Wind and current forces are drag forces, and
they follow the simple drag equation
F = ½ x ρ x V2 x A
where, F = drag force, ρ = density of the medium (air/water), V = speed of wind/current, A =
Area of vessel exposed to wind/current
From the above formula, we can understand that the Area of the vessel exposed to the wind or
current is a critical input in calculation of the drag force. Inferring further, Wind force will
depend on the projected windage area of
• the hull above the waterline, and

• topsides/superstructure/deckhouses
Current force will depend upon the wetted surface area of the hull underwater
Analysis
Now that we know the basis of the calculation, let’s move on to establish the how a number (the
Equipment Number) can be used to gauge the environmental forces for a vessel.
One thing is clearly obvious – that a bigger ship will have higher windage and current areas, and
thus will attract higher forces. Similarly, a smaller ship will have smaller forces. These forces
depend upon the projected areas, which become the determining parameter.
Also, we can infer that a ship with higher forces will need heavier equipment to anchor itself.
Page | 95
Thus, we can establish the following relationship
The above relationship is good to know but is obvious and not really spectacular or particularly
helpful in selecting the anchoring or mooring equipment. The question remains – How do we
select the right size equipment?
Do we go about calculating the forces for each port/harbor the vessel is expected to dock at?
That will be a tedious exercise.
Won’t it be great if there was some standard table which recommends the equipment size based
on the size of the vessel? That would make our lives much easier. Say, given the windage/current
areas of the vessel and its topsides/superstructure, the table can belt out the sizes of anchors and
cables to be used. Further, it will be much better to combine both windage and current areas as
one input against which the equipment sizes can be presented.
The windage and current areas are combined in a number called Equipment Number (EN). The
table which gives the sizes of anchoring/mooring equipment for various Equipment Numbers is
called the Equipment Number/Numeral (EN) Table. EN Tables are provided in most
Classification Society rules and the formula to calculate the Equipment Number (EN) is also
provided.
For example, the DNV-GL rules provide the formula and table for EN in its Rules for Ships, Part
3, Chapter 11, Section 1-3. An extract of the EN formula is presented below:
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Δ = Rule Displacement in MT
Let’s analyze the formula.
The formula is a sum of the different components of current and windage areas.
• The first term, Δ, is the vessel displacement. This term, being the weight of the underwater
portion of the ship, relates to the area exposed to current forces (the displacement raised to the
power of fraction 2/3 factors the cubic displacement term to a squared area term, roughly)
• The second term 2 BH, is an indicator of the transverse windage area of the vessel. We can see
that H is the height of effective height of the uppermost deckhouse. Calculation of H has two
parts:
1. The part representing the hull exposed to wind – captured by the term ‘a’
2. The part representing deckhouses – captured by adding the heights of deckhouses present on the
vessel.
The following diagram from ABS Rules Part 3, Ch 5, Sec 1/3.5 demonstrates the calculation of
H. Only deckhouses which have width greater than B/4 (B = breadth of the vessel) are
considered in the calculation
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• The third term 0.1A, is an indicator of the profile windage area of the vessel. The profile area is
not a governing one for windage area calculation, as the anchored vessel will weathervane to face
the wind direction, and thus the transverse windage area of the vessel governs. Thus, the profile
area is factored by the value 0.1. When EN has to be calculated to select the towing or mooring
lines, then the area A has to additionally include the profile area of the maximum stacks of deck
cargoes above the summer water line.
We can see that EN is obtained as a numerical value from the above formula and has the units of
area (m2). Also, the value obtained from the above formula should be rounded off to the nearest
higher integer to get the EN.
Getting equipment sizes
Once we have the EN, what next? How do we select the right sized equipment from EN? Once
again, Class rules come to assistance.
Class Rules provide standard tables for getting the equipment sizes once the EN has been
calculated.
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Once such table for DNV Rules is shown below:
We can see above that the first column has different ranges of Equipment Number (EN). Every
EN range is allotted an equipment ‘letter’ which is an alphabet (sometimes with a subscript).
This is a notation used for classifying the equipment based on equipment number.
The above table is straightforward – from the value of EN, we locate the correct range in the first
column. For example, if the EN is 250, then the range to be used is 240 – 279, as highlighted in
the table above.
It is to be noted here that for the same vessel, the EN to be used for Towline and Mooring line
selection can be higher compared to the EN used for the rest of the equipment (cables and
anchors), since additional profile areas of deck cargoes are also included while calculating EN
for towline/mooring line selection.
Exceptions and deviations
• For fishing vessels with EN up to 720, the table to be used is separate. For EN above 720, the
regular table can be used (as per DNV rules, Ref )
• For vessels operating in harbored/restricted service areas, the EN can be reduced. Please see DNV
Rules (Ref ) for more details.
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References
https://www.wartsila.com/encyclopedia/term/equipment-number
DNV Rules for Ships, Part 3 Hull Chapter 11 Hull equipment, supporting structure and
appendages
ABS Steel Vessel Rules, Part 3, Ch 5, Sec 1, Anchoring, Mooring and Towing Equipment
Disclaimer:
This post is not meant to be an authoritative writing on the topic presented. thenavalarch bears no
responsibility for the accuracy of this article, or for any incidents/losses arising due to the use of the
information in this article in any operation. It is recommended to seek professional advice before executing
any activity which draws on information mentioned in this post. All the figures, drawings and pictures are
property of thenavalarch except where indicated, and may not be copied or distributed without permission.
Please do take a moment to explore our products on Equipment Numeral Calculation:
Equipment Number Calculator Fishing Vessel Equipment

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Mooring Equipment)
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Page | 100
Vessel with Stern on Quay: A simplified method for mooring design
A vessel at berth experiences much lower forces compared to a vessel in the open sea due to the
milder environment, but it still requires a mooring configuration suitable to the forces it
experiences, and also suitable for the type of berthing configuration adopted. The berthing
configuration depends on the geometry of the berth, and also on the available space depending
on the traffic at the berth and size of the vessel. Two berthing configurations which are mostly
used are:
1. Configuration 1: with the vessel’s Stern aligned with the Quay

2. Configuration 2: with the vessel’s Port or Starboard side aligned with the Quay.
Both these configurations are shown in the sketches below.
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Figure 1 – Two different mooring arrangements at Quay
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Concept
For each configuration, the mooring design has to be adequate to restrain the forces which the
vessel experiences. In this article, we will analyse the first configuration – the Stern on Quay in
more detail, and present a simplified method for calculating the line loads for a 4-point mooring
pattern with the vessel’s Stern on Quay.
The Stern-on-Quay configuration can be used when there’s limited space available for the Port-
on-Quay configuration, or when specialized operations like loadout are needed. During these
operations, it is important to hold the vessel in place when the loadout operation is being carried
out. The vessel will be subject to external forces of wind, current and wave, and so it is important
to design a mooring system which can overcome these forces.
Thinking in very basic terms, the vessel will have its Stern pressing against the Quay (with
fenders between the vessel and Quay to take the load). This vessel will be subjected to
environmental loads coming from the beam side of the vessel (athwartship) which will tend to
drift it off. A simple way is to tie the vessel to the quay side using ropes, and the simplest
solution is to use a rope on each side, running each from the Port or Starboard side of the vessel,
and tied to a bollard on the Quay. However, this simplest solution, while feasible, doesn’t have
any backup in case the rope on either side breaks. Also, if the ropes are tied closer to the fwd end
of the vessel, the aft end may be subjected to an undesirable yaw moment. Thus, a safer and
more recommended solution is to have two ropes on either side, running to different bollards on
the Quay Side. This ensures that the entire load is distributed over two ropes on either side.
The next step will be to find out what line size and strength will be required to moor a vessel.
The entire concept can be delineated in the following steps:
Calculation Steps
• Get the vessel’s dimensions and cargo dimensions

• Get the environmental parameters of the Quay – Wave height, wind speed and current speed
• Calculate all the environmental forces on the vessel from the beam side (either port or Starboard).
Also calculate the location along the length of the ship where the net force acts.
o It should be noted here that while current and wave forces can be considered to be acting
at the longitudinal centre of floatation of the vessel (which is close to midship), the point
of application of wind force will depend on the size and location of cargo (if any) along
the length of the vessel.
o For a conservative analysis, the forces are considered to be collinear, i.e., all forces acting
at the same time along the same direction
• Using basic physics formulae, balance the mooring line tensions against the force and moment
due to the force. Here, the moment arm is the distance of the net force from the Quay.
o There are two sets of equations – one balancing the line tensions against the net
environmental force, and the other balancing the moments.
o The combination of the above two equations gives the lie tensions on the lines on either
side. It is assumed that the lines are non-elastic
Page | 103
Environmental Forces
When calculating the wind and current forces, the standard physics formula of Force = Pressure
x Area shall be used.
For wind force, the formula is Fwind = 1/2 x ρwind x Vwind2 x Awind, where ρwind is the density of
air, Vwind is the wind speed, and Awind is the total area of ship and cargo which is exposed to the
wind from beam direction (the above-water area)
Similarly, for current force, the formula is Fwind = 1/2 x ρwater x Vcurrent2 x Aunderwater, where ρwater is
the density of water, Vcurrent is the current speed, and Aunderwater is the total underwater area of ship
which is exposed to the current from beam direction.
The exposed areas to current and wind are shown in the figure below:
Figure 2 Mooring-Stern-on-Quay-Wind-and-current-areas (above water area includes hull, cargo

and superstructure)
The Wave force is the additional wave load (Wave Drift Force) which will arise due to the
harbour waves which the vessel experiences. Though the wave heights at Quay are generally
low, this force whould also be considered. These are related to wind speeds, and high wind
speeds may lead to significant wave heights as well. Please see below Beaufort scale to get the
idea of relation between wave height and wind speed:
Page | 104
Figure 3 Beaufort-Scale
The Wave drift force can be calculated from DNV-RP-H103, Sec 7.2.6, taking the reflection
coefficient R as 1. L is ship’s length and HS is the significant wave height.
FWD = 1/8 *ρwater*R2*L*HS2
Line Force Calculation
Once the forces have been calculated, the calculation of the line forces on the mooring line on
either side can be done using the two equations of balance of forces, and balance of moments.
The calculations based on TheNavalArch’s own App, are shown below:
Page | 105
Figure 4 Sample calculations for 4-point, Stern-on-Quay mooring arrangement
Page | 106
The above simple method can serve as a quick check to help design a simple 4-line mooring
pattern for vessels moored with their Stern on Quay. However, if high accuracy is demanded, or
if multiple cases of environment from different directions are to be investigated, then a full
fledged mooring analysis can also be carried out using standard software like Orcaflex (you may
contact us for the same). For simple cases, the above calculation should suffice.
Please do take a moment to explore TheNavalArch's excel-based Apps for mooring arrangement
design:
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or Stbd on Quay) (Stern on Quay, 4-Point
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Page | 107
Fendering – an Introduction
In this article we will talk about Fendering, which is one of the basic but critical operations
related to a ship. Fendering is, basically, protecting the ship’s sides from contact with another
body (which can be another ship, jetty or quay wall). It can also mean protecting the jetty or
berth from contact with ships. Thus, there are two situations for which fenders may need to be
designed:
1. For Ship-to-Jetty berthing

2. For Ship-to-Ship berthing
In this article, we will cover the following:
• Berthing Energy
• Berthing types – side and end berthing
• Selecting the right fender
• Rules and standards
• Berthing energy calculation
Berthing Energy
When a ship comes close to the berth or close to another ship, then there is a chance of the ship’s
body impacting against the berth or other ship. This impact can damage the ship’s body or the
Page | 108
berth. Fenders are provided to absorb the impact of berthing, and minimize the effect on the ship
or berth/jetty.
If there is no fender, this energy KE (the Berthing Energy) will be completely transferred to the
Jetty OR the other Ship.
Thus a fender is meant to absorb the impact during berthing. The energy of impact is called the
‘Berthing Energy’
We will now discuss the mechanics of impact, and what is the berthing energy which the fender
has to absorb.
When a body moves, it carries with it the kinetic energy of motion. During an impact, the kinetic
energy is transferred to the body impacted. The kinetic energy is given by
Kinetic Energy of Impact, KE = ½ x M x V2
There are two scenarios possible
1. Ship (say, Ship 1) berthing along a Jetty or Quay

2. Ship (say, Ship 1) berthing along another Ship (say, Ship 2)
Mass, M
In case of a ship berthing along a Jetty or Quay, M is the mass of the Ship 1. In case of Ship 1
berthing along Ship 2, M is the ‘effective mass’ of the two-ship system. The Ship 1 moves
relative to the ship 2 as a body of mass
M = M1 x M2/ (M1 + M2),
where M1 = mass of Ship 1, M2 = mass of Ship 2
Berthing Velocity
The velocity of berthing, V, is a very critical input in calculating the berthing energy. The
berthing velocity is determined based on many factors
• Ship size to be berthed.

• Environmental parameters at location of berthing – whether berthing is sheltered or exposed
• Berthing angle and ease of berthing
A guide for determining the berthing velocity is found in PIANC 2002. A graph which shows
different curves considering different berthing scenarios is used to determine the berthing
velocity.
Page | 109
Estimating the berthing velocity (source: www.trelleborg.com)
In fact, there are other factors which come into play in determining the Impact Energy. These are
• Added mass factor – due to mass of water moving along with ship
• Eccentricity factor – due to ship not berthing parallel to the jetty
• Softness Factor – whether the fender is soft or hard
• Berth Configuration factor – whether the jetty/quay is solid or open type
These will be taken up in detail in Part 2 of this article.
Normal and Abnormal Berthing Energies
Berthing energy is classified as ‘Normal Berthing Energy’, and ‘Abnormal Berthing Energy’.
Normal Berthing Energy is the energy capacity of the fender required for regular operations
during the lifetime of the berth/vessel. Abnormal Berthing Energy is the energy capacity required
to take care of rare incidents in which there can be significant fender damage, e.g., rare
environmental hazards, or exceptionally large ships encountering the berth etc.
By now, we know that the fender is to be designed to absorb a Berthing Energy which depends
on the size of the ship and other factors. Let’ see the concepts of Side and End berthing before
we move on to see how to select the right fender.
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Section B: Fendering methods – Side Berthing or End Berthing
A ship berthing with a jetty/quay can berth with either its side or its end aligned to the jetty/quay.
There can be other types of berthing like Dolphin berthing or Locks, but we’ll limit ourselves to
Side and End berthing for this article. The selection of berthing type will depend on factors like
the ship size, berth type and size, and the ease of approach.
The figure below demonstrates the two different types of berthing:
Types of Berthing (Source: www.rubberstyle.com)
Section C: Selecting the right fender
Selecting the right fender requires a step-by-step approach which we delineate below:
Step 1 – Homework
Before evaluating the properties of fender needed, we need to do some background work to
gather relevant information through a study of two broad aspects:
Page | 111
1. Environment in which the fender is going to operate. Some important factors are –
o Berth construction
o Available space for fenders
o Seabed depth
o Tidal ranges
o Corrosion levels
2. Range and characteristics of ships which it is going to serve. Some important factors are –
o Ship sizes to be served
o Ship types – a passenger vessel will have different fendering requirements than a Ro-Ro
vessel
o Approach speeds
o of points of contact
o Frequency of berthing
o Mode – Side/End berthing
o Bow construction/flare angles of ships served
Step 2 – Estimating the berthing energy
The next step is to estimate the berthing energy required to berth the vessel. The berthing energy
is the most critical test of a fender. Whatever be the shape, size or material of the selected fender,
it should be have the capacity to absorb the impact of the berthing energy. The fender’s capacity
should be sufficient for it to absorb the Abnormal Berthing Energy. The detailed calculations for
estimating the berthing energy shall be taken up in the Part 2 of this article.
Step 3 – Fender selection
With the information from Step 1 available, and with the required berthing energy calculated, we
can now select the right fender.
Selecting a fender is an exercise with multiple factors and constraints to be managed.
• Fender type and shape – Fenders can be fixed to the structure (e.g. in a berth/jetty) or floating
(e.g., pneumatic fenders on a ship). This is best decided based on a case-to-case basis depending
on the design requirements at hand. For example, for ship to ship berthing, pneumatic or foam
fenders are generally used. These are usually hanging on the side of the vessel through chains and
are lowered down when approaching the berth. On berth/jetty, a fixed type of fender is generally
used, but it can also be floating one for berths with high tidal variation.
Fenders can also be of different shapes. Flat panel fenders are generally used on berths, while
cylindrical/pneumatic fenders are used on ships. Pneumatic fenders are filled with air at high
pressure to provide the absorption energy needed. They are generally used in ship-to-ship
berthing and have a low deflection and high energy capacity. Foam fenders can be cylindrical or
spherical and have a core of foam and an outer skin of a polymer. Donut fenders are designed to
simply slip on a pile and float up and down on the pile with tidal variations. However, the
selection really depends on the design needs of the case at hand.
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• Fixed fenders – Cell fenders, V-type fenders and cylindrical fenders are generally used as fixed
fenders.
V-type fender (source: www.theartofdredging.com)
Cell type fender (source: www.trelleborg.com)
Page | 113
Cylindrical fixed fender (source: eurotechbenelux.com)
• Floating fenders – Foam fenders, donut fenders and pneumatic fenders are generally used as
floating fenders.
Foam Fender (source: www.trelleborg.com)
Page | 114
Pneumatic Fender (source: www.airbag.cc)
A donut fender (source: www.shibata-fender.team)
• Checking the energy capacity – The fender should have energy capacity to absorb the Abnormal
Berthing Energy. Allowances are required to be made for factors like temperature, velocity,
compression angle, manufacturing tolerance etc. The fender’s energy capacity is measured in
terms of RPD, or Rated Performance Data which is its capacity at a temperature of 23 degrees
Celsius, 0.15 m/s impact velocity, 0 degrees compression angle and mid-tolerance. For values of
temperature, velocity, compression angle and tolerance differing from these standard values, we
need to apply allowance factors. The fender energy capacity is calculated as
EF = ERPD x fTOL x fANG x fTEMP x fVEL
Page | 115
Where
EF is the minimum fender energy
ERPD is the fender energy at Rated Performance Data (RPD)
fTOL is the allowance factor for fender manufacturing tolerances
fANG is the allowance factor for compression angle. The minimum energy occurs at the maximum
compression angle
fVEL is the allowance factor for the impact velocity other than 0.15 m/s. The fender’s minimum
energy occurs at the maximum impact velocity
fTEMP is the allowance factor for temperatures other than 23 degrees C. The minimum fender
energy occurs at highest temperature.
Each of the above factors can be determined from curves specific to the fender being selected.
• Checking the fender reaction – The fender is not only supposed to absorb the berthing energy,
but it’s impact on the ship/berth structure too should be minimal. The reaction force is the force
that the fender imparts on the vessel/berth. This reaction force must be less than the structural
capacity of the vessel/berth. The maximum fender reaction is given as:
RF = RRPD x fTOL x fANG x fTEMP x fVEL
Where
RF = maximum fender reaction
RRPD = fender reaction at RPD
The rest of the terms are as described above.
• Fender Spacing and contact – Spacing of fenders is specified by ‘fender pitch’ which is the
distance between two adjacent fenders. The spacing of fenders is critical – fenders spaced too far
apart may lead to the vessel hitting the berth. The spacing of fenders should be determined by
studying the complete range of vessels expected to visit the berth. The spacing is determined from
properties like bow radius and length of vessel. Generally, it is not recommended to exceed a
spacing of 10 – 15 m. The figure below demonstrates the fender pitch (P).
Page | 116
Fender Pitch (source: www.trelleborg.com)
• Fender Contact
The fender selection depends also on how many fenders are in contact with the vessel. The
berthing energy is accordingly divided among the fenders in contact, depending on the extent of
deflection of each fender.
Fender contacts – 2 Fender and 3 Fender contact cases (source: www.rubberstyle.com)
Page | 117
• Fender material and construction –
For panel fenders, the panels are generally made of weldable structural steel. The actual
material selected depends on the design requirements. For heavy duty environments, higher
grade steels may be used. The panels are then covered with low-friction pads to minimize
damage due to frequent encounter with the ship’s hull. Low friction material is important for
longer life and lower maintenance cost of a fender. Generally, Ultra High Molecular Weight
Polyethylene (UHMW – PE) pads are fitted to fender panels. They have good wear resistance,
low-friction and long life.
For pneumatic fenders, generally rubber fenders are used. Natural rubber, synthetic rubber or a
blend can be used. Synthetic rubber is generally more weather resistant than natural rubber.
EPDM (Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer) rubber is a special purpose rubber with weather
resistance and long life. However, almost all rubber fenders have poor resistance to oil, fuels,
hydraulic fluids, acids and most hydrocarbons.
• Other Factors – Depending on the shape and type of fender selected, there will be other factors
which we will need to consider while selecting the right fender.
Accessories design – Fender chains, shackles, nuts, pins, wheels, rollers, brackets etc. should
also be designed to support the fender weight and prevent excessive movement of the fender.
Hull pressure, belting and bending Moment – The hull pressure against the fender affects the
internal structure of fenders made of steel panels. For cell fenders installed on the berth, the
bending moment imparted by the hull pressing against the fender should be within the strength of
the fender. Different loading cases need to be analysed and the structural strength of the fender
needs to be assessed for each case
Paint and corrosion prevention – Fenders are required to function in harsh and corrosive marine
environments. The fatigue due to frequent berthing adds to the corrosivity. Similarly, high
temperatures in tropical zones and ship vibrations can be additional factors which lower the life
and performance of fenders. The material of the fender must be reliable and corrosion resistant.
Several methods can be used
• Galvanizing of all steel pads or accessories like chains, shackles etc

• Using sacrificial anodes
• Using protective paint coatings – the standard followed is ISO 12944
• Using stainless steel fixtures
Availability, cost and spares – the availability of the selected fender design, its cost, and
availability of spare parts are other important factors to be considered.
Page | 118
Testing – Fenders can be tested in the factory before being purchased (Factory Acceptance Test
or FAT). Tests can be setup to measure energy absorption and reaction force. Testing can be
done in accordance with PIANC guidelines.
Standards and guidelines
ROM 2.0-11 Actions in the Design of Maritime and Harbor Works
ROM 3.1 Actions in the Design of Maritime and Harbor Works: this is the latest version of the
Spanish ROM available in English
BS6349-4:2014 Code of Practice for Design of Fendering and Mooring Systems
EAU 2004 Recommendations of the Committee for Waterfront Structures
PIANC 2002 Guidelines for the Design of Fender Systems: 2002 Marcom Report of WG33
ISO EN 12944 Standard for Corrosion protection of steel structures by protective paint systems
ASTM An international standards organization that develops and publishes voluntary consensus
technical standards for a wide range of materials, products, systems, and services
EN 10025 A set of European standards which specify the technical delivery conditions for hot
rolled products of structural steels
JIS G-3101 A Japanese material standard for hot Rolled steel plates, sheets, strips for general
structural usage
PIANC report WG121 Harbor approach changes design guidelines from 2014 incl. the latest
design information on vessels
OCIMF Ship to Ship Transfers – Considerations Applicable to Reverse Lightering Operations
thenavalarch bears no responsibility for any incidents or losses arising due to the use of the
information in this article in any operation. It is recommended to seek professional advice before
executing any activity which draws on information mentioned in this post. All the figures,
Page | 119
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Page | 120
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Page | 122
SECTION 3 - SEAFASTENING
Page | 123
Transportation Analysis for deck cargo – complete breakdown
A project cargo being loaded onto a vessel’s deck (Source: torontodrydock.com)
Page | 124
Introduction
In the simplest terms, Transportation Analysis is the complete design and engineering which
goes behind making a transportation operation successful. In this post we’ll talk about
transportation of project cargo over deck. Such cargo can be equipment, modules or other heavy
structure (like a jacket or a crane being transported). A visualization of the entire operation
appears quite simple – place the item on the deck of the vessel, move the vessel to its destination,
and unload the item. However, depending on the size and geometry of the cargo, the whole
operation can involve deeper intricacies which require careful engineering calculations and
analyses. In this article we breakdown the steps involved in doing a complete transportation
analysis. This may or may not be applicable to all vessels or cargo, but it can give a fair idea to
avoid common pitfalls of engineering during marine transportation.
Steps of Transportation
In general, the following steps are followed for any deck cargo transport:
1. The Cargo is lying on quay side and is loaded to the vessel. This step is called ‘loadout’
2. After loading on the vessel, the cargo has to be secured to the vessel. This step is called
‘Seafastening’
3. The vessel motions and stability during the voyage have to be pre-assessed
4. Upon reaching the destination, it has to be loaded in from the vessel to the quay/port. This step is
called ‘load-in’
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Digging deeper
If we dig deeper and think more analytically, following are the questions which may become
relevant for each step
During Loadout/Load-in
o Is the vessel big enough to accommodate the cargo?

o Even if the vessel if big enough, is it strong enough? Will its deck be able to withstand
the load of the cargo?
o How will the transfer from quay to vessel be done? Will the cargo be lifted, will it be
skidded or transferred using a SPMT trailer?
o Will the vessel stay stable during the loadout/load-in? How will we ensure it is at even
keel during the process?
After Loadout from Quay to vessel
o How will the cargo be secured to the deck? Will it be lashed using ropes, or will it be
welded to the deck?
o How many lashings to be used? How strong should the lashings be?
o How to spread out the cargo load on the deck? What should be the ideal location where
the cargo legs should sit?
During the transportation
o How to maintain the stability of the vessel during the transport?

o How will the cargo be affected by environmental forces of wind, wave and current? How
to estimate how much load will come on to the cargo from these forces? How will they
impact the design of the seafastening?
Page | 126
o How will the vessel move? Will it use its own propulsion, or will it be towed? How to
select the right tug, if it is to be towed?
Breaking it down
Here we break down the steps of engineering which are performed for a successful transportation
operation. Again, not all of them may be applicable to all operations, and we can pick and choose
depending on the complexity of the operation.
Additionally, it should be noted that all these analyses and calculations must be performed much
prior to the actual operation and passed on to the operations team and approving authority
(generally Marine Warranty Surveyor).
• Ship or tug-barge? Whether to use a self-propelled ship or a tug-barge combination is

generally a commercial decision and taken at the very initial stage
• Space check – The vessel must have clear deck space to accommodate cargo. However, that’s
not enough – the deck space should be sufficient to add lashings to the cargo on the sides and
ends. An initial look on the locations of lashing points on the cargo can give a good idea of the
space needed for lashings
• Deck strength – A quick check to see if the deck of the vessel is strong enough can be made by
looking at the vessel’s specification sheet. The deck strength is specified in units of tons/m 2.
Given the weight of the cargo and its footprint on the deck, we can calculate the deck load due to
the cargo. This deck load should be within the deck strength limit of the vessel. While this may
not be a very good parameter to judge any point loads the vessel may experience, it is still a good
parameter to gauge the vessel’s strength sufficiency in vessel selection stage. For the final
transportation analysis, a thorough assessment of the deck strength (beam analysis or FEA if
needed) must be carried out
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FE Analysis of a deck structure
• Loadout capability and strength: If the loadout is a lifted loadout, then the loadout operation
is simple and doesn’t require a detailed ballasting operation. For SPMT or skidded loadouts, the
vessel must have enough ballast capability to go through the critical stages of loadout. Generally,
the most critical stage is when the whole cargo has just lifted on to the vessel and is lying on the
end where it has been loaded from. The tanks at the other end of the vessel must have enough
ballast capacity to keep the vessel on even keel. Also, the longitudinal strength of the vessel must
stay within the limits. Generally, a spreadsheet solution for preliminary checks of vessel ballast
capability can be developed for preliminary assessment. However, for heavier cargo, a software
solution for hydrostatics and stability (like GHS/MOSES) must be used. For heavier Cargo, it
should also be noted that the foot of the cargo should sit on strong points like bulkheads to avoid
any strength issues. Once the vessel has been selected, a thorough assessment of its ballasting
capability, stability and strength must be performed for each stage of loadout. However, generally
Loadout is a separate operation in itself and a separate loadout report is prepared. It is not
generally included in the Transportation Analysis document. Design of loadout accessories like
the loadout ramp also forms part of this stage
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A loadout using SPMT trailer
• Transportation Stability: a check of the intact and damaged stability of the vessel during the
transportation stage too needs to be performed. This may involve creating a 3D model of the
vessel, performing detailed stability calculations using standard software and checking them
against applicable Class rules
A typical Ship Stability Curve (a.k.a. GZ Curve or righting arm curve)
• Seakeeping/Motions analysis: To determine what kind of forces the cargo may experience
during the transport (wind, wave, current), we may need to perform a complete seakeeping
analysis, keeping in mind the worst sea state which the cargo may experience along the route. The
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environment data can be obtained from nautical charts or metocean data. However, during the
design or vessel selection stage, a conservative estimate can be made using a simple spreadsheet
application following standard guidelines like DNV-ST-N-001.
• Seafastening Design: a detailed design of lashings may not be required at the vessel selection
stage, but it will be a part of the transportation analysis. The lashing design will involve design
and specification of multiple lashing items:
o Lashing ropes or wires: As applicable, enough lashing ropes should be provided on
sides and end of the cargo to restrain the cargo against the forces obtained from
seakeeping analysis. The complete specification of ropes/wires must be provided –
length, size, type, end type, material etc.
o Stoppers/clips/dog-plates: Stoppers are used to restrain the translational movement of
cargo. Clips/dog-plates are used to restrain the tipping of cargo. At times they my be used
in conjunction with lashings
o Shackles and pad-eyes – Shackles must be of sufficient strength to support the lashings.
Pad-eyes must be designed to be installed on deck and should be checked against any
out-of-plane loads.
o Stanchions: If the cargo needs to be supported by stanchions on the side, the stanchions
shall be of sufficient strength. At times, a FE Analysis may be needed to affirm the
suitability of stanchion.
o Dunnage: For cargo with small footprint, dunnages should be used to spread the load on
the deck. Detailed check of dunnage strength should be performed to ascertain their size
and suitability
o Wegdes, turnbuckles, rubber hoses – these are accessories of lashing ropes and should
be provided in sufficient numbers.
o Lashing Plan: A complete lashing plan drawing showing all lashing items must be
prepared and included in the Transportation Analysis document
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Typical lashing for transporting pipes
• Towing/Emergency towing arrangement: If the vessel is being towed, a suitable tug has to
be selected for it. This will involve carrying out bollard pull calculations to select the tug. Also, a
towing arrangement plan may be needed detailing the complete towing bridle and its
specifications required as per standard guidelines (DNV-ST-N-001). If the vessel is a Barge, an
emergency towing arrangement may also have to be prepared and submitted as part of the
Transportation Analysis document.
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Typical Towing/Emergency Towing Arrangement (source: GL ND-0030 Rev 5)
Thus, we can see that a complete Transportation Analysis involves multiple engineering
calculations and analyses which have to be performed diligently to ensure success of the
operation.
Now we list down the typical contents table of a Transportation Analysis below. Please note that
loadout is not included, as it is generally considered a separate operation with an independent
analysis report. For each analysis performed, detailed results from software can be included in
the Appendix of the report.
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Transportation analysis: typical table of contents
• Introduction: project details and what cargo is being carried

• Vessel and cargo particulars
• Tow route particulars and environment data
• Stability analysis during transport
o Intact and damaged stability
o Longitudinal strength check
• Motion/Seakeeping analysis
• Deck Strength check
• Seafastening design
o Lashing design based on seakeeping results
o Lashing plan (drawing)
o Stanchion design/check
o Pad-eye check
• Towing Arrangement design (if applicable)
o Bollard Pull calculation
o Towing bridle design
o Towing and emergency towing arrangement plan (drawing)
A thorough Transportation Analysis (TA) performed on time for an operation is a great asset to
the operations team in planning and execution. While surprises are almost always guaranteed
during operations, a comprehensive TA serves as a solid reference to manage them effectively.
Disclaimer:
This post is not meant to be an authoritative writing on the topic presented. thenavalarch bears
no responsibility for the accuracy of this article, or for any incidents/losses arising due to the use
of the information in this article in any operation. It is recommended to seek professional advice
before executing any activity which draws on information mentioned in this post. All the figures,
Page | 133
TheNavalArch’s Apps for Seafastening Design
TheNavalArch has its own apps to help in various aspects of transportation analysis. Do check
them out below:
Cargo Forces & DNV Ship Motion Lashing Design (4

Accelerations Calculator Point Lashing, IMO
Rated3.00out of 5 Rated4.00out of 5 CSS)
Dog Plate Design Smit Bracket Design Stopper Design

Spreadsheet Spreadsheet Spreadsheet
Pad-Eye Design Bolt Check

Spreadsheet Stanchion Design Spreadsheet (based
Rated5.00out of 5 Spreadsheet on Eurocode 3)
Page | 134
Designing a simple 4-point lashing system for a Deck Cargo
Introduction
Lashing of a deck cargo on a ship involves different means and mechanisms to secure the cargo
to the deck of the ship. This ‘securing’ is important to contain the movement of the cargo in view
of the ship motions during the transportation.
The simplest ‘system’ which comes to the mind is to take a few ropes and tie one end of each
rope to some point on the cargo, and tie the other end to some point on the ship’s deck. The ropes
can be evenly distributed so that the securing in all the directions is ensured.
In this article we’ll discuss the basics of cargo lashing and will also take a look at a simple 4-
point lashing system design for a rectangular shaped cargo.
Designing the right lashing for a cargo depends on multiple factors
• Size and weight of cargo – a bigger, heavier cargo requires stronger lashings. Also, the available
space for lashing is an important factor in deciding the lashing configuration
• Forces on the cargo – depending on the size of the vessel and the environment of the tow route,
the cargo experiences forces of surge, sway and heave which lead to pitch, roll and heave forces
which need to be overcome by the lashings
• Force distribution – another very important factor is the distribution of forces among the lashings
used. The forces should be evenly distributed among lashings, and there should not be a
possibility of a lashing getting slack or another getting overloaded.
• Protection against sliding – generally if the friction force is not enough to protect against sliding,
then dunnage can be utilized for increasing friction. Lashings should be able to provide sufficient
restraint against sliding. Alternatively, stoppers can be used in conjunction with lashings
• Protection against tipping – the lashing design must also provide protection of the cargo against
tipping when the vessel rolls/pitches.
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Four-point lashing design for a rectangular shaped cargo
A Cargo in the sea will experience forces of surge and sway in the longitudinal and transverse
directions, and heave in the vertical direction.
The lashings should be sufficient to resist the transverse forces from either Port or Starboard
sides, and also to resist the longitudinal forces from fwd/aft.
Since there are restraints to be provided in four directions, we can imagine a simple system
consisting of four lashings are shown in figure below:
We can infer from the above figure that
• The longitudinal force aft is restrained by Lashings 2 & 4

• The longitudinal force fwd is restrained by Lashings 1 & 3
• The transverse force PORT is restrained by Lashings 1 & 2
• The transverse force STBD is restrained by Lashings 3 & 4
How much of a load a particular line will be able to take up in a given lashing configuration
depends purely on the location of the line, its length and the angles it makes relative to the
vertical and horizontal planes.
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The basic outline of the whole method is:
• Calculate the total restraining forces + friction forces in a particular direction

• Check if the total restraining force in that direction is more than the external force
o If yes, then lashing is adequate
o If no, then consider reconfiguring the lashings – change size or strength of lashings and
check again
We take an example of the transverse sliding force on the port side.
• We can see that the Ropes 1 & 2 are restraining the port side transverse force
• The restraining force available from each rope is not the full MSL (Maximum Securing Load) of
the rope. A rope at an angle of θ to the horizontal will be able to provide a restraint of only R =
MSL x cos(θ) in the horizontal direction (See figure below). The MSL is further reduced by a
factor of 1.5 as per IMO CSS.
• The restraining forces of each of the ropes 1 & 2 is calculated depending on their orientation in
the lashing design. The factors for calculating the restraining forces are provided in IMO CSS,
depending on
o Angle of rope with vertical
o Angle of rope with horizontal
o Coefficient of friction between cargo and deck
• If the restraining forces available from the ropes 1 & 2 is F1 and F2, respectively, and if the
frictional force on the cargo is Ffric, then the total restraining force available in the transverse
direction (Port side) is
Available restraining force from a lashing
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R = F1 + F2 + Ffric
• If the total transverse force on the port side is FTP, then R must be greater than FTP for the lashing
design to be adequate.
FTP < F1 + F2 + Ffric
Such sliding check shall be done for sliding in all the four directions
Tipping check
The cargo is also prone to tipping at the edges. To demonstrate sufficient restraint against
tipping, the levers of the lashing forces are also taken into account and it is to be demonstrated
that the total restraining torque available from the lashings is more than the total tipping moment
caused by external forces. The self-weight of the Cargo also provides restraining torque against
tipping. Generally, tipping is critical only in the transverse direction if the cargo is oriented
longitudinally. The figure below demonstrates this
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Following the above method based on IMO CSS, we can design a simple four-point lashing
system for simple cargoes. For any failure in the lashings, the design parameters and/or lashing
sizes can be changed to arrive at a design which is adequate.
References
1. “Guidelines for the Preparation of the Cargo Securing Manual” (IMO MSC/Circ.745)
2. “Amendments to the Code of Safe Practice for Cargo Stowage and Securing (IMO
MSC/Circ.1026)”.
Page | 139
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Page | 140
Cargo Stoppers – why they are critical and how to design them
Introduction
A cargo transported on the deck of a ship is subject to many forces. These forces comprise of the
inertial forces due to the ship motions – the three translations and three rotations – and the
environmental force of wind.
Due to the combined effect of these forces, the cargo, if left unfastened on the deck of the vessel
may not remain static at one location but may move around. To avoid this, it is critical that the
cargo is restrained from movement. The design of all accessories to restrain the cargo is called
Seafastening design.
A typical and simplest seafastening may comprise of lashing ropes (or wires) fastened to pad-
eyes welded on deck of the vessel. However, for some heavy cargoes this may not be enough,
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and additional arrangements may be required for preventing both translational and rotational
motion of the cargo on deck.
A Stopper is a simple structure which is welded to the deck of the vessel to prevent the cargo
from sliding (i.e., the translational motion).
The very simplest stopper which can be imagined is simply a metal plate which is welded to the
deck, and against which the cargo rests. The below figure should be able to provide a starting
point.
The simplest stopper comprising of a steel bar
Types of Stoppers
Stoppers can be of many types. The choice of the right stopper depends on the geometry of the
cargo, on the weight distribution of the cargo and on forces experienced by the cargo during the
voyage. Stoppers can range from simple plate bars to complex H-beams (called Stanchions on
ships).
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Some of them are shown below:
Types of Stoppers
For example, the H-beam stoppers (also called stanchions) are mostly used for restraining pipes
being transported. A box shaped cargo with most weight near its base will use a flat plate stopper
(with or without face plate).
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H-beam stoppers (stanchions) used for restraining pipes
The height of the stopper will depend upon the height where the cargo needs to be supported. For
example, in the above pic showing stoppers for pipe transport, the stanchions need to be of a
height more than the diameter of the pipe to secure the whole pipe bay adequately. Similarly, box
shaped cargo like containers may find the simple steel bar stopper (or one with face plate)
enough for restraining.
Structural Design of a Stopper
Whatever the shape and type of stopper selected, it should be structurally sound to perform its
job – preventing the sliding of cargo, i.e., it should be able to overcome the forces which make
the cargo slide. What are these forces?
he two forces which may lead to cargo sliding are:
• Transverse force, or the force which makes the cargo slide athwartship, i.e., Port and Starboard.
This force arises due to sway and roll motion of the ship
• Longitudinal force, or the force which makes the cargo slide forward/aft. This force arises due to
the surge and pitch motions of the ship.
The figure below demonstrates the two sliding forces.
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To understand the structural design of a Stopper, let’s take an example of a box shaped cargo
being restrained by a flat steel stopper with a face plate.
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Stopper with a Face Plate
This kind of stopper has two components – a web plate and a face plate which are welded to each
other. The face plate is what the cargo rests against, while the web plate is welded to the deck of
ship. The details of the weld and configuration of the plate can be seen in the figures above.
Since the vessel experiences forces both in longitudinal and transverse directions, stoppers need
to be installed on both longitudinal and transverse faces of the cargo. Taking a simple box
shaped cargo as an example, a typical plan showing the stoppers is shown below. We can see
that three stoppers on each side (Port/Stbd) are restraining the total Transverse force (FT), while
two stoppers on each side (Fwd/Aft) are restraining the Longitudinal force (F L). The forces can
be obtained from a motions analysis of the vessel, or using some empirical formulae (check out
our products for calculating accelerations)
From the figure above, we can see that each transverse stopper takes one third of the total
transverse force, while each longitudinal stopper takes one-half of the total longitudinal force.
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Total force on each transverse stopper = FT / 3
Total force on each longitudinal stopper = FL /2
Zooming down to a single stopper (whether transverse or longitudinal), it will experience a force
which is FT / 3 for transverse stoppers and FL /2 for longitudinal stoppers. Let’s call the force as
Fd (Design Force). The design force acts on the face plate of the stopper. The location on the face
plate where the force acts can vary depending on how the face plate is in contact with the cargo,
but for simplification, we consider that the force is a point force acting at mid-height of the face
plate. The figure below depicts this.
The force on the Face Plate is effectively transmitted to the web plate which is welded to the
deck. This leads to a shear force on the web plate. Further, the force, acting at a height of H/2
(where H is height of face plate) leads to a turning moment which is transmitted to the base of
the web plate, where the web plate is welded to the deck.
Thus, we need to analyze the web plate for:
• Shear Stress due to force Fd

• Bending Stress due to moment Fd x H/2
Weld Strength Check
Since the weld is what affixes the web plate to the deck, the stresses in the weld are equally
important to be evaluated.
Usually the weld type for welding the web to the deck is a fillet weld (two-sided). The weld
profile for the stopper with face plate is shown below:
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The force Fd and the resulting moment M are transmitted to the weld which is analyzed for:
• Shear stress on the weld

• Bending stress on the weld
• Total (combined) stress on the weld
With the above two types of checks (web plate strength check and weld strength check)
performed, the stopper’s structural design is considered enough.
Similar principles can be applied to the design of other types of stoppers (H-beam stoppers or
Stanchions).
To wrap up, stoppers are small structural items but play a vital role in retraining cargo during
transport. Thus, their design should be done with due diligence and care to ensure a successful
marine operation.
Page | 148
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Page | 149
Steel coils loading – its challenges and ways to overcome
by
Mr. Spiros Malliaroudakis
(Founder & Managing Director, S.A. Malliaroudakis Maritime (UK) Ltd)
The loads derived from steel coils loading are very concentrated, leading to higher stresses in the
double bottom than would be expected. Calculation of steel coils loading conditions, which
reflect actual loading is essential to maintain the required level of safety.
Loading manuals of many ships used in the steel trade that carry coils, contain limited
information:
either
• The Max. Tank Top Strength (MT/m2) for uniform loading which however is not advisable
criterion for Steel Coils Loading.
or
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• In the cases where there is some information from the Builders in the Loading Manual, this is
usually the bare minimum, e.g. Covers only the case of 2 Tiers of 15t coils, supported by 3 rows
of dunnage.
Most operators have adopted the following calculation formula of maximum tonnage per hold on
the basis of:
[area of tank top (m2) x permissible loading tonnes per m2]
Whilst this is the correct calculation when dealing with homogeneous bulk cargoes, which exert
a uniform load on the tanktop, it is incorrect for steel coils because the load, which they exert,
is not uniform. The crossing point of the coils and the dunnage will give rise to a point load on
the double bottom structure. This loading is very different from the uniform loading and will
give rise to higher stresses in the tanktop plating as well as the inner bottom longitudinals.
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The dominant regulations are CSR-2010 (Common Structural Rules), which consist of the most
common method for such calculation adopted by all IACS Members. Nonetheless, the non-CSR
built vessels may be regulated by other Class-specific Rules, which do not consider wastage
factor in the relevant calculations.
Generally, Class requirements could be considered conservative, as the spirit of the Class
requirement is based on the fact that the calculation depends on the worst relative position of
coils to the ship’s floors. In this respect, the actual Loading of Coils on the entire Tank Top Area
may or may not reach the maximum stresses, as allowed by the Regulation.
Weight Distribution Example for 1.5 Tier of 15tons Coils
Weight of the top coil is shared equally between the coils lied on Tank Top or 22.5tons Steel
Coils Weight
(Average of the Stack)
Concerning the loading of mixed weight / size of coils in each row and/or tier, the involved
checks for Steel Coils Loading shall be performed in two levels at first from local strength aspect
taking into consideration the Double Bottom Structure & secondly from complete ship loading
aspect through specialized Loading Programs covering Longitudinal Strength, Trim, Draughts,
Stability, Hold Flooding URS17 etc.) using sophisticated tools with printout, as the one indicated
below.
Therefore, provided that the lowest/first tier of Steel Coils is the one that matters in terms of
local strength, the Ship Operator usually checks the entire stack of Coils based on the
Dimensions of the lowest/first tier Coil (Length & Diameter), using as Coil Weight the average
of the stack. Attention should be drawn to the applicable Common Structural Rules that apply
officially taking into consideration one type of Coil for the entire .
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Specialist software available for pre-stow plan assessment with steel products
used in conjunction with the ship’s loading instrument
In case of multiple types of Coils, it is, usually, sufficient for Ship Operator to randomly check
the heaviest/shortest coil to arrive at safe operational day-to-day decisions. Following this check
(Local Strength Aspects), the Ship Operator may proceed with the entire Pre-Stow Plan check as
General Cargo using the vessel’s approved Loading Program.
When loaded in a ship’s hold, steel coils are placed on dunnage. Dunnage has two functions, to
spread the steel’s load uniformly in relation to the ship’s structure and to provide frictional
resistance. One inch thick softwood dunnage is often used with steel coils. Dunnage can be a
mixture of imperial and metric measurements, with 8 inch by 1 inch planks used with steel coils.
60mm by 80mm is used with steel plate and bars, and 6 inch by 4 inch is used with heavy steel.
Page | 153
Last but not least, compliance with stowage, securing and lashing principles should be, always,
assured.
To conclude with, when carrying steel products by sea, it is essential to ensure that neither the
steel nor the ship suﬀers damage. Its weight presents substantial challenges with overstresses,
stowage and securing. The ship must be fit with the appropriate tools to check receivability of
the cargo and the safety best practices of stowage, securing and lashing plans.
opinions expressed during series are solely those of the author and do not necessarily represent
Author Profile:
Experienced Naval Architect and Marine Engineer (BSc. MSc. (SNAME M)), who has been
involved with Marine Operation-Oriented Projects & Software Development (Loading Program
Manufacturer) since 1986 and his work distinguished him amongst the significant Marine
Consultants and Software Provider in Maritime Industry. He studied in University of Newcastle-
upon-Tyne in 1979 being holder of Master’s Degree in Naval Architecture and Marine
Engineering. He descends from Oinousses-Chios, the origin of an unusual cluster of successful
ship-owning families, continuing his legacy as derived from his Masters Mariners generation.
Throughout his professional path, he developed collaborations with well-known Corporations
(ie. Herbert-ABS in U.S.A.) for evolving projects.
“S. A. MALLIAROUDAKIS MARITIME (UK) Ltd. is an in-house Marine Software and Maritime
Consultancy Company that consists of qualified Naval Architects and Marine Engineers and
Software & Electrical Engineers providing a wide range of software products and maritime
studies & services for day-to-day operations of numerous Shipping Companies.”
Page | 154
TheNavalArch’s Apps for Seafastening Design
TheNavalArch has its own apps to help in various aspects of transportation analysis. Do check
them out below:
Cargo Forces & DNV Ship Motion Lashing Design (4

Accelerations Calculator Point Lashing, IMO
Rated3.00out of 5 Rated4.00out of 5 CSS)
Dog Plate Design Smit Bracket Design Stopper Design

Spreadsheet Spreadsheet Spreadsheet
Bolt Check
Pad-Eye Design Spreadsheet (based
Spreadsheet Stanchion Design on Eurocode 3)
Rated5.00out of 5 Spreadsheet
Page | 155
SECTION 4 – LIFTING AND LOADOUT
Page | 156
Marine Lifting – Engineering and Planning
Ever since the offshore industry has expanded to deeper waters, one topic of broad and current
interest, that has dominated the industry, is the weight of topsides lifted offshore. Installation
contractors advertise engineering feats accomplished by successfully lifting the large topsides
using heavy lift vessels (HLVs) offshore. I believe they have every reason to be proud, as marine
lifting operation requires complex engineering and planning and the complexity of operation
increases further with the size and weight of the topside. One of the prime reasons for this race to
lift the heaviest deck offshore and the innovation in this field is because it is cost effective to
fabricate and install a topside in one block than multiple blocks thus significantly saving offshore
hook-up, commissioning and transportation time.
I am a big proponent of keeping things simple, and therefore in this article, I will break down the
complex engineering that goes behind a marine lifting operation. The article is intended for
fellow Naval Architects, Engineers, Project Managers and anyone interested in learning about
the field.
In general, a marine lifting operation involves lifting of any structure by a crane vessel in the
offshore environment. Some of the examples are listed below:
The lifting of topsides by crane barges to set-up on Jacket structures.
Lift and removal of offshore assets in de-commissioning phase.
The lifting of Jackets from transportation barges, to set on the sea bed.
The lifting of pipelines, subsea assets, modules, etc. for subsea installations.
Page | 157
Transfer of cargo/passenger between vessels.
It can be seen from above that the mass and geometry of lifted load varies depending on the
operation. Irrespective of the size, the fundamental principles of lifting remain the same.
Let us look at the dynamics of a marine lift through the lens of physics. A offshore lift operation
in its simplest form is equivalent to a combination of spring-mass system and pendulum, coupled
together by a crane boom. The lift vessel in the sea acts as a spring mass, and the lifted load
behaves like a pendulum as described in Figure 1. Besides, the problem involves forced
oscillations where the vessel is oscillated by sea waves, and the motion of the lifted mass is
affected by the motion of the crane boom tip. Note that I have simplified the problem for better
understanding and in actuality, the analysis is more complicated due to solving a multibody
system with coupled degrees of freedom.
Figure 2 shows the isometric view of the stern lift configuration with coupled degrees of freedom.
In Table-1, I have attempted to further simplify the problem by evaluating the degrees of freedom of each
body individually.
Page | 158
Page | 159
Lift Classification
Typically, marine lifting operations are divided into two categories depending on the weight as presented
in Table-2:
Page | 160
Operational Constraints
Now that we have understood the physical nature of marine lift operation, our next step is to look at the
operational constraints that need to be considered during the engineering and planning phase. As an
engineer, it is imperative to understand the risks associated with the offshore operation and be well versed
with the industry guidelines/ lessons learned for safe execution of the job. Although every lift operation is
different and may have unique operational constraints that need to be addressed, I have listed the main
things that must be considered.
Resonance (Pendulum Instability)

Remember, when you were a kid, and to start swinging, you would move back and forth on the swing seat
in just the right frequency such that swing would oscillate with larger amplitudes. In simplest terms when
a system is oscillated at or close to its natural frequency, it will exhibit the phenomenon of resonance, and
the oscillations will become wild and in some cases undesirable. Similarly, in a marine lifting operation,
we have a hanging mass (just like the swing) which is forced to oscillate (in the horizontal plane) due to
Page | 161
the crane tip motion which in turn is governed by the motion of the lifting vessel in sea waves. In this
scenario, large oscillations due to resonance may occur if the frequency of the crane tip motion gets close
to the natural frequency of oscillation of hanging mass.
The large motion of lifted load is not acceptable mainly due to the risk of collision with the crane boom,
crane vessel or nearby structures. Therefore, it is crucial to analyze a marine lift operation for a range of
wave periods representing the environmental conditions at the lift location. As per London Offshore
Consultant guidelines for marine lifting operations, a minimum clearance of 3m between lifted object and
crane boom should be maintained at all times. Another thing that needs to be kept in mind when dealing
with resonance is that the natural frequency of simple pendulum changes with the suspended length of
mass as per below equation:
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In the case of marine lifting, the distance between the boom tip and center of gravity of lifted load varies
throughout the operation. The mass may be lifted off the material barge to required elevation and then
lowered onto the jacket in case of deck lift or lowered to the seabed in case of subsea lift. Therefore it is
crucial to analyze the system at different operational stages to capture maximum motions due to
resonance.
Dynamic Amplification Factor
As we know that a floating body at sea is exposed to dynamic loads due to waves and therefore any part
of the body is in constant motion. The lifted mass is connected to the crane boom by a set of slings and
moves due to the motion of the crane boom. Therefore, the maximum hook load is the sum of gravitation
force and the force due to the maximum acceleration of the lifted mass as given by the equation below:
Page | 163
Dynamic Amplification Factor (DAF) by definition is the ratio of Dynamic Hook Load and Static Hook
Load as given below:
It is important to note that the maximum dynamic hook loads should be considered when designing
rigging for marine lift operation.
Table 3 summarizes the DAF values to be used in the absence of dynamic response analysis as per LOC
marine lifting guidelines. Note that DAF values are lower in the case of inshore (sheltered waters) due to
reduced wave loads. In addition, the motion response of a semi-submersible is lower compared to a
monohull, and consequently, it has reduced DAFs. It is also interesting to note that DAF values are
typically lower for heavier decks for the same sea-states. This can be attributed to the fact that heavier
decks have greater mass (inertia) and therefore lesser acceleration for the same wave loads.
Page | 164
Crane Cross Angles
The crane cross angle is defined as the angle between the hook load line and the vertical plane of the
boom. For a lift fixed over the stern of a derrick barge, the cross angle is primarily caused by the vessel
roll motion whereas, for lifts over the side of a derrick barge, the cross-angle results from the barge pitch.
Typically for an over the stern, fixed (highest capacity) lift, the crane cross angle would be limited to 1.0
degree (single amplitude maximum value) and for an over the side, or over the stern, revolving capacity
lift, this would be limited to 3.0 degrees (single amplitude maximum value). However, the limiting cross
angles do vary between cranes, based on the crane sheave design and the limiting lateral loading capacity
on the crane boom and therefore, the crane charts should be used to check the ultimate lift
capacity. Figure 5 shows the effect of vessel roll on the lift capacity of the crane.
Page | 165
Marine Lifting Case Study
Now that we have understood the operational constraints involved in a lift operation let’s analyze a simple
scenario of a crane barge lifting a deck module. I will use Bentley’s MOSES software as the prime tool
due to its flexibility in dealing with a multi-body problem involving mechanical and hydrodynamic
coupling. I will get into the detail of inputs and outputs for a clear understanding. Like in my previous
article I’ll re-emphasize that MOSES is a great tool; however, the engineer using it should have a clear
understanding of the theory behind the problem at hand and not just blindly feed inputs to get results.
Lift Configuration and Setup
A typical rectangular shaped crane barge has been considered for the case study. Properties of the lift
barge and the lifted module are summarised in Table 4. As mentioned before, a typical offshore heavy lift
operation can be treated as a single lift operation involving a two-body system comprising a crane vessel
and lifted module. The side and stern view of the lift operation are shown in Figure 6. The initial
clearance between the derrick barge and topside is 6.0 m.
The barge is moored using an eight (8) point mooring system as shown in Figure 7. It is to be noted that
crane tip motions vary with lift radius and therefore the crane radius directly impacts the dynamics of lift
operation. To maintain sufficient clearance between the derrick barge and the topside, and achieve
sufficient lift capacity, a lift radius of 40 m is used in the analysis.
Page | 166
Page | 167
Page | 168
Numerical Modeling In Moses
A hydrodynamic model of the rectangular barge is generated in MOSES software. The model of the Deck
Module is input as a truss using beam elements and created with all lift points. The deck module is
connected to the crane boom of the derrick barge using hoisting wire, ignoring the stiffness of the crane to
simplify the modeling. MOSES has simplified the modeling of the crane lift sling system using a ‘tip-
hook’ function which defines the sling assembly in the model. All bodies are connected to form one
integrated dynamic system to account for mechanical coupling of the system. Lift barge is kept in position
using the mooring pattern as shown in Figure 7. MOSES considers steady-state loading from current,
wind and wave drift and oscillatory loading from waves and low-frequency components of wave/wind
drift. The required hydrodynamic database is generated using the ‘3-D diffraction theory’. The analysis is
performed in the time domain using ISSC (International Ship Structures Congress) spectra for
environmental parameters as shown in Table 5. MOSES coordinate system is provided in Figure 8.
Page | 169
Dynamic Amplification Factor (DAF) on the crane hook is evaluated from dynamic load acting on the
hook which is calculated by MOSES for different sea state and headings. The operational limitations due
to restrictions imposed by crane cross angle, the minimum required clearances, and dynamic
amplification factors have been captured from the analysis for each wave heading and period.
Results and Discussion
Predicted maximum crane cross angles have been extracted from the time domain simulations and plotted
for the environmental parameters (refer Table 5) as shown in Figure 9. The maximum allowable cross
angle for stern lift configuration is 1 deg. It is no surprise that the barge roll motion and therefore the
crane cross angle is maximum for beam seas. Note that in this case the cross angles exceed the maximum
allowable (1 deg.) for beam sea configuration and therefore the lift operation is weather dependent (in
beam seas) and may only be feasible in lower sea-states corresponding to lower significant wave heights.
Page | 170
The DAF for 1.0 m Hs has been plotted for various wave periods and headings as shown in Figure 10.
DAF for all the wave periods is less than 10 percent of the static lift weight.
Page | 171
The dynamic clearance between the deck and the barge for 1.0 m Hs has been plotted for various wave
periods and headings as shown in Figure 11. It can be seen that a minimum clearance requirement of 3 m
(between the barge and deck) is met for all peak periods except 12 seconds. As expected, the clearance
between barge and deck is less for head and stern seas compared to beam seas.
Page | 172
In the end, I would like to say that every marine lift operation is unique and may have special constraints.
Engineers should methodically understand every aspect of the lift operation and perform engineering
analysis keeping in mind the unique constraints of the operation. Due diligence saves time, money and
lives.
Feel free to share this article and post comments if any. I would also like to have suggestions for topic of
my next article.
Until next time, have a great day.
Page | 173
Author Profile:
Mr. Rahul Kanotra is a Consultant Naval Architect and Hydrodynamic Expert with extensive experience
in large offshore projects, front-end design, and other aspects of installation engineering. He holds a
Master’s and Bachelor’s degree in Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering from Indian Institute of
Technology, Madras. He has worked on multiple Research & Development projects and published and
presented technical research papers in esteemed international conferences. Mr. Kanotra has extensive
experience in numerical and experimental analysis of floating and fixed offshore platforms. He has
provided his engineering expertise for multiple Offshore installations across the globe. To contact Mr
Kanotra, please write to info@thenavalarch.com
Page | 174
TheNavalArch’s Apps for Lifting Operations
Please do take some time out to check the products of TheNavalArch related to lifting
engineering.
Pad-Eye Design Four point (single Spreader Beam

Spreadsheet hook) lift design (as Design Spreadsheet
per DNV)
Two point (single Two point (two Two Point Two Hook
hook) lift design (as hook) lift design (as Spreader Bar Lift
per DNV) per DNV) App
Rated5.00out of 5
Single Point Lift

2-Hook Lift Factors
Design Spreadsheet & Lift Point Loads
Page | 175
Preliminary Rigging Arrangement Design OF 4-point, Single Hook

Lifts for Non-Specialists
by Michael Harwood, PE, PMP
Overview
Lifting by crane is a basic construction operation that dates back to at least Sixth Century BC
(ancient Greece for example) and the lifting operation itself dates back much further. It is a very
common operation in present-day construction so the design of lift rigging is of much interest.
This article is intended to provide guidance to non-specialists (including knowledgeable

designers) in developing slightly conservative preliminary lift rigging designs. It is still
recommended (and may indeed be required) that an engineer take responsibility for the final
design and indeed is a requirement in many jurisdictions.
Two rigging arrangement options for 4-point, single hook lifts are considered here, namely with
and without a spreader bar. Items being lifted are referred to as lift packages. The packages
considered here are light to medium weight as the design of heavy lifts is definitely best left to
specialists.
Examples lifts utilizing these rigging types are presented below.
Page | 176
Four point lift without spreader
Four point lift with Spreader
Page | 177
Preliminary Rigging Design Summary
Preliminary rigging design as described here is summarized in the table below and further
described in notes following the table.
Notes on the above Rigging Design Process

1. Re: step #1, one needs to obtain/calculate a best estimate of the Package weight at the time of the
planned lift operation. The package weight estimate should include all contingencies and weight
allowances. These “uncertainty factors” are necessarily larger at the beginning stages of Package
design than at the end of Package construction.
2. Also re: step #1, one should obtain/calculate a best estimate of the expected centre-of-gravity
(CoG) of the Package. If a formal and rigorous weight control program is not in place, there may
be significant uncertainty in the CoG location so variations of this parameter could be considered
eg “CoG shift” with respect to the best-estimate CoG location.
3. Re: Step #2, Lift Points for the Package need to be defined. These are generally offset from
strong points in the lift package and are taken as the basis working-points (WPs) for the setting-
out of the rigging arrangement. These can be the centre of the pad-eye pinholes or intersections of
sling line and trunnion centre-line depending on the selected lift point attachment design concept.
These are illustrated in the following figure depicting a horizontal slice of the package.
Page | 178
Defining the lift points of the package
4. Re: Step #3, the (crane) hook point location needs to be worked out based on rigging system
constraints for the planned lift along with the key work points of the spreader bar if applicable.
These are based on rigging system constraints eg minimum sling angle, sufficient clearance
between rigging system and lifted package components above the lift points and noting that the
lift package will orient itself such that the hook point is directly above the CoG of the combined
package and rigging system once the package is lifted off the ground. Rigging systems for “With
Spreader Bar” and “NO spreader bar” options are presented in the following figure.
Page | 179
Rigging System with ‘no spreader bar’
Page | 180
Rigging System ‘with Spreader bar’
5. Re: Step #4, estimation of the nominal sling forces can proceed as follows.
o The first step in estimating the nominal sling tension forces is to redistribute the lift
weight to the 4 lift points noting that the solution is statically indeterminate. An algorithm
based on preserving static equilibrium can be employed which yields an exact solution
(though not unique) for a rigid Package when the following three conditions hold: The 4
lift points are coplanar; The 4 lift points form a rectangle and; The Package CoG is
located in the same plane as the lift points. The latter condition almost never occurs while
the first two are quite common. However, each of the three conditions may be relaxed
and the difference between the estimated 4-Tributary weight solution and the single
Package weight solution may be compared. Then a decision can be made as to whether to
Page | 181
accept the estimated results. For typical cases, it has been observed that the difference is
less than 1%.
o The second step is to utilize the four estimated tributary weights to calculate the forces in
the slings noting that the rigging system is a pin-jointed lattice similar to a 3D truss
structure.
6. Also re: Step #4, design of rigging components requires an estimate of the peak sling loads which
may occur during the initial lift off the ground. These are subject to uncertainty so the estimated
nominal sling loads (due to package weight alone) are typically “factored-up”. In the present
method, a “preliminary design lift load factor” (PDLLF) is introduced as a simplification. This
factor is a function of Dynamic Amplification Factor, Consequence Factor and Rigging
Component Safety Factor as described in various lift design guidelines/codes such as DNVGL-
ST-N001. It is noted that the definitions of these factors is not 100% consistent across the
various codes/guidelines. Suggested (conservative) choices of PDLLF for preliminary rigging
components design are presented in the following table:
Lift Load Factors for different environments
It is noted that the above PDLLF choices are suitable for preliminary design. for final rigging
component selection, the governing project lift design code/guideline should be followed where
the various factors are applied to the nominal sling loads.
Page | 182
Screenshots of rigging arrangement drawings generated in AutoCA
7. Re: Step #5, the calculated WPs may be “exported” for input into a AutoCAD 3D “starter
model”. This model is to be further detailed by AutoCAD designers to become a proper rigging
arrangement drawing. Main advantage of this approach is that the WP locations are “pre-
checked” by the engineer or lead designer who produces the exported WPs. The following figure
is composed of AutoCAD screen-shots where the rigging system is represented by lines whose
end points are the WPs generated in Step #4.
8. Re: Step #6, one can build the input for a Rigging System sub-model to be incorporated into a
Lift Structural analysis and export it to an input file readable by a structural analysis program (eg
SACS, Staad Pro) It is noted that the slides presented with Steps #3 and #4 were produced from
SACS models.
indicated, and may not be copied or distributed without permission.The views, information, or
Page | 183
Author Profile
INTRODUCTION:
Forward looking, project-oriented engineer and manager with over 30 years design, analysis and
work management/coordination experience mainly in the offshore oil and gas industry. Present
focus is on providing customers/employers with designs that are optimized for weight and
constructability within cost and schedule constraints. Rapid delivery of these is achieved by
automating calculation processes as much as possible, particularly when dealing with interface
data from mechanical and piping disciplines. Refer to my recent LinkedIn articles for examples.
About the Author:
Michael Harwood, PE, PMP
Career overview: Began as a structural engineering analyst out of university and moved up into
hands-on management positions both in operations and projects. Acquired overall knowledge of
oil and gas production facilities and gained both US and international experience along the way.
Familiar with both owner’s and contractor’s interests so can work as Owner’s Engineer or EPC
Contractor PMT member. Became an independent consultant in 2008 working and work through
MCHTM Inc or as a contract engineer depending upon what works best for my client. Along the
way, have worked on approximately 50 projects and 20 tenders of various durations and
produced over 1000 report, drawing, and specification deliverables of varying scope.
Specialties: Structural engineering subject matter expert. Expert user of structural analysis
computer programs and offshore and ship design codes. Also familiar with subsea equipment
structures and installation aids as well as offshore pipeline installation equipment and aids.
Brown field and newbuild. Structural engineering planning and management.
Design aid software developer to advance design automation, design work methods planner,
construction engineering support. Coach/mentor of junior engineers.
General experience with hull and mooring systems and topsides production facilities on the
following offshore platform types: FPSOs; CPTs, Spars; Production Semis; TLPs, MODUs;
MOPUs and Fixed Base as well as the following ship types: Drilling, S-lay Pipelay; Naval.
Page | 184
Please do take some time out to check the products of TheNavalArch related to lifting
engineering.
Pad-Eye Design Four point (single Spreader Beam

Spreadsheet hook) lift design (as Design Spreadsheet
per DNV)
Two point (single Two point (two Two Point Two Hook
hook) lift design (as hook) lift design (as Spreader Bar Lift
per DNV) per DNV) App
Rated5.00out of 5
Single Point Lift

2-Hook Lift Factors
Design Spreadsheet & Lift Point Loads
Page | 185
Loadouts – An introduction
Loadout is a term oft heard of in the marine/offshore industry parlance. Loadout is generally
referred to the operation of transferring a Cargo or a Structure from the place of fabrication to a
sea-borne vessel, to be further transported on the vessel to the final destination. The Cargo or
Structure can be as varied as a jacket, plant modules, steel structures, trusses or building
structures, or even pipes etc. The place of fabrication can be a Yard, or a storage facility with
access to sea. The vessel used can be a ship or a barge, depending on the demands of the
transportation operation.
Types of Loadouts
Loadouts can be of different types:
A. Lifted Loadouts – In these kind of loadouts, the cargo to be loaded is simply lifted by a crane
and placed in the right position on the vessel
Page | 186
Lifted Loadouts (source: www.gspoffshore.com)
B. Skidded Loadouts – In this loadout, skid beams/rails are constructed on the vessel. During the
operation, the cargo is pulled onto the vessel using winches and it ‘skids’ to the vessel from the
quay side.
Page | 187
Skidded Loadout (Source: Flickr)
C. SPMT Trailer loadouts – In this type of loadout, the Cargo is loaded onto a SPMT trailer. The
SPMT trailer then moves from quayside to the vessel using link bridges (which are ramps
connecting the Quay to the vessel).
Page | 188
SPMT Trailer Loadout (Source: www.flickr.com)
The selection of the right loadout method depends on the Cargo dimensions and weight, the
limitations of the Quay side structure and cost effectiveness.
Generally, skidded/SPMT loadouts are done longitudinally, i.e., the Cargo is moved along the
length of the vessel. However, in some cases, transverse loadouts are also carried out (cargo
moving along the width of the vessel) – when longitudinal strength of the vessel may be a
concern.
Transverse Loadout (Source www.coscoht.com)
Challenges
Skidded/SPMT loadouts are generally done in steps, and are calibrated exercises. The Cargo
gradually moves from Quay side to the vessel, thus transferring the load. As the load transfers to
the vessel, the vessel sinks and trims. The challenge is to maintain the vessel’s even keel and to
keep it level with the quayside. This is done by calibrating the ballast in the tanks at each stage to
maintain the vessel’s position. The longitudinal strength of the vessel too has to be maintained
within limits throughout the exercise. Another layer of challenge is accounting for tidal
Page | 189
variations during the loadout. The ballasting sequence has to take into account the rise/fall in
tidal levels during the loadout operation itself.
Engineering for loadouts
Following engineering aspects are important for loadouts
• Study of Quay side structure – Involves study of tidal patterns and draft availability
• Vessel selection – depends on cargo size, quay side water depth
• Loadout Ballast Engineering – This is done by Naval Architects in consultation with the vessel
master. It provides the patterns of ballast for different stages of loadout as the Cargo moves from
the Quay side to the vessel in steps. The purpose is to maintain the vessel on level with quay, and
on even keel, while ensuring longitudinal strength is within limits. The stability parameters too
need to be checked and be within limits.
• SPMT Trailer selection and stability check – for SPMT loadouts
• Bridge plate/Ramp design – for SPMT and Skidded loadouts
Loadout engineering is an iterative process which takes multiple factors into account while
arriving at the optimum design and ballasting pattern for a specific Cargo. Despite the best of
engineering efforts, surprises during the actual operation are not unexpected, and the engineering
team works closely with the operations team to ensure a successful loadout operation.
Page | 190
Please do take some time out to check the products of TheNavalArch related to loadout
engineering.
SPMT Loadout Ramp Trailer Transport

Design Spreadsheet System Support Reaction
Calculator
Page | 191
Loadout Ramps – design and analysis of the simplest flat plate ramp
Loadouts are a complicated exercise and require intricate engineering calculations to ensure
success of the operation. Right from selecting the suitable vessel with adequate ballasting
capability, to performing ballasting and stability calculations, selection of the loadout method
(skidded/SMPT/lifted) down to the selection of the loadout ramp, each activity carries an equal
significance.
In this article, we’ll discuss the significance, and design aspects of loadout ramps. Loadout
ramps are structures which are used to cover the gap between the quayside and the vessel (for
skidded/SPMT loadouts). The cargo is transferred from Quay to Vessel as it is skidded over the
Ramp or when a SMPT trailer carrying the cargo moves over the ramp.
We can sense that during the loadout operation, the ramp must stay horizontal to avoid any
unwanted scenarios of the load tilting or the vessel suffering from strength issues. This is ensured
by a carefully monitored ballasting operation which keeps the vessel on even keel and level with
the quay even during tidal variations.
The picture below depicts a loadout operation using a SPMT trailer. We can see the ramps at the
left-hand bottom corner of the picture.
Page | 192
A loadout using a SPMT trailer (source: www.nesoffshore.com)
These ramps appear to be rectangular, but wedge shaped. We can also notice that there are four
files of SPMT trailers and there is one ramp placed for each file (only two ramps are fully
visible, while the third is partially visible).
Looking at these ramps and imagining the SPMT going over the ramp, we can gauge the kind
and distribution of forces the Ramp will be undertaking during the operation.
• As the wheels of the SPMT leave the quay side and get on to the ramp, load starts getting
transferred to the ramp.
• When the first wheel moves in, the ramp will experience the quantum of load which the first
wheel of the SPMT carries.
• Generally, the load of the cargo is spread onto the wheels of the SPMT and it can be considered
that each wheel/axle carries a uniform load which equals the weight of cargo divided by the
number of axles.
• The load from each wheel/axle can be considered as a point load on the ramp as a simplification
• The load distribution on the ramp will depend upon
o Length of gap between SPMT and vessel
o The distance between the axles/wheels of SPMT.
• Depending on the above factors, there can be different cases of loading on the ramp
o One wheel at the center of the ramp
o Two wheels equidistant from the sides of the gap
o Three, four or more wheels, depending on relative difference between the length of gap
and distance between two wheels/axles.
Page | 193
The Ramp should be analyzed for all such scenarios in which different configuration of wheels
can be conceived.
The simplest ramp – the flat plate
The simplest form of ramp can be just a rectangular flat plate over which the SMPT trailer
passes. The figure below depicts the scenario in which an axle of the SPMT is at the center of the
ramp. The ramp will have to be analyzed for its strength for this load case. There can be another
case in which there are two wheels on the ramp, and so on. Strength check needs to be done for
all these cases.
Figure depicting a SMPT loadout trailer on a flat plate ramp
Example calculations
To demonstrate the different load scenarios, lets take an example of a scenario of loadout with
the following parameters:
• Length of gap = 3000 mm

• Distance between two axle lines = 1600 mm
• Load per axle = 16 MT
• Plate dimensions = 6000 mm x 2000 mm x 50 mm THK
The distance between two axle lines is 1600 mm, which is less than the gap length. Also, if we
divide the gap length by axle distance, the result is less than 2. Thus, there will be two loading
cases:
Page | 194
• Case 1 – one wheel on ramp

• Case 2 – two wheels on ramp
Case 1 is depicted below. We can see that the wheel has moved 1600 mm from the side of the
gap, and the next wheel is just about to leave the quay side. The resulting shear force and
bending moment calculations/graph are also shown.
Case 2 is also depicted below. We can see that now there are two wheels equidistant from each
end of the gap. Each wheel carries a load of 16 MT, and the resulting bending moment and shear
force curves are also shown.
Page | 195
We can see that in this case, there can’t be three wheels on the ramp, since there is not enough
gap length to accommodate three wheels.
The above methodology can be employed to design and deploy a simple rectangular flat plate as
a link plate/ramp for a loadout operation.
Page | 196
TheNavalArch has its own simple spreadsheet to design/evaluate rectangular flat plate ramps for
loadouts. It automatically generates and evaluates the load cases in excel after the user provides
the basic inputs like gap length, axle spacing, plate dimensions, load etc.
You can check it out from the link below.
SPMT Loadout Ramp

Design Spreadsheet
Page | 197

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What are the different types of marine operations covered in the guide?

What are the different types of marine operations covered in the guide?

What are the different methods for calculating bollard pull?

What are the different methods for calculating bollard pull?

www.thenavalarch.

Mooring System Fundamentals...................................................................................................... 53

Transportation Analysis for deck cargo – complete breakdown........................................................ 124

Preliminary Rigging Design Summary ........................................................................................... 178

Bollard Pull Calculations – an Introduction (Part I)

Bollard Pull Calculations for Towing Operations – an Introduction

Part I – Calculating the required Bollard Pull (BP)

• A bigger vessel will require higher force for towing

Concept – Bollard Pull of a Tug

Bollard Pull Test

Concept – Towing Efficiency and available pulling force at zero speed

Available Pulling force of the tug = BP x ƞ

Concept – Required Towing Force

Concept – Environmental forces

• Wind Speed – 20 m/s (roughly 40 knots)

• Wind Speed – 15 m/s (roughly 30 knots)

• Step 1 – Determine the environmental parameters (Open Ocean or Benign)

Minimum Required BP > FTOT/ ƞ

Now we will discuss the calculation methods in detail.

Calculation methods in detail

Calculating the transverse windage area

Force = ½ x air density x (wind speed)2 x Transverse Windage Area

• Bureau Veritas – Towage at Sea of Vessels or Floating Units

If the vessel is a barge, sometimes a simplification is adopted, subject to acceptance by MWS.

Source: DNV-RP-H103 Modelling and Analysis of Marine Operations

How do we get towing efficiency?

Source: ND-0030 Guidelines for Marine Transportations

Calculation of Required Bollard Pull

FTOT = FWIND + FWAVE + FCURRENT

Then the required Bollard Pull can be calculated as

The role of Marine Warranty Surveyor (MWS)

• Disagreement over environmental criteria adopted

• Disagreement over the condition of the tug

(Click here for Part II)

1. DNV RP-H103 Modelling and Analysis of Marine Operations

Bollard Pull Calculations for Barge

Bollard Pull Calculations – an Introduction (Part II) –maximum

(To read Part I, please click here)

Concept – Available pull of the tug at non zero-speed

BPavailable = BPmax – Ftug

Let’s now see each step in detail

Step 1 – Get the environmental parameters

Step 2 – Get the tug particulars

Step 3 – Plot the tug performance curve

Veffective = Vtow + Vwind

Step 6 – Finding the limiting towing speed

1. DNV RP-H103 Modelling and Analysis of Marine Operations

Bollard Pull Calculator with Limiting

The effect of Environment on tug size

Current 0.5 m/s

Wave (Significant Height) 5 m

DNV-ST-N001 Environmental Criteria for Bollard Pull Calculation – Standard

Some scenarios which can come up and possible actions are:

To summarize, it is critical to establish the right environment (Standard or Benign) before

Bollard Pull Calculations for Barge