FAO FOOD AND NUTRITION PAPER 10

FAO FOOD AND NUTRITION PAPER 10

recommended practices
for the

prevention of mycotoxins
in food, feed and their products

prepared by

the food and agriculture organization of the united nations

in collaboration with

the united nations environment programme

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Rome 1979
 The designations employed and the presentation of material
in this publication do not imply the expression of any
opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations and of the United Nations
Environment Programme concerning the legal status of any
country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or
concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

M-84
ISBN 92-5-100703-9

The copyright in this book is vested in the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations and in the United Nations Environment Programme. Applications for permission to
reproduce this book, in whole or in part, by any method or process, should be addressed, w i t h a
statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction desired, to the Director, Publications
Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Via delle Terme di Caracalla,
00100 Rome, Italy.

© FAO and UNEP 1979

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section Page

Foreword V
Introduction 1 1
PART I 4
Schedule of Recommended Practices 2 4
Schedule for the Control of Field Infection by Fungi of
Standing Crops 2.1 4
Schedule for Harvesting and Drying 2.2 5
Schedule for Storage of Crops 2.3 5
Schedule for Transportation 2.4 7
Schedule for Post-Harvest Processing including
Decontamination 2.5 7
PART II 8
Discussion of Factors relating to the Schedule of
Recommended Practices 3 8
Standing Crops and Control of Field Infection by Fungi.. 3.1 8
Control of Field Infection by Fungi 3.2 13
References 3.3 14
Harvesting and Drying 3.4 16
References 3.5 27
Storage 3.6 28
Transport * 3.7 35
References 3.8 36
Processing 3.9 36
Decontamination 3.10 38
Recovering Aflatoxin-free Products from Contaminated
Starting Materials 3.11 46
References 3.12 47
Utilization of Mouldy or Mycotoxin-Contamináted
Products 3.13 48
PART III 50
Needs and Aids for Implementation of the Recommended
Practices o 4 50
Data Base and Monitoring 4.1 50
Education and Extension 4-2 51
Marketing, Distribution and Incentives 4.3 51

APPENDICES
Appendix 1 - Mycotoxins formed by different fungi and their
association -with foodstuffs 53
Appendix 2 - Probable mycotoxicoses caused by rusts and smuts 56
Appendix 3 - Schedule for treatment of bag stacks under warehouse
storage for protection from damage by insects, moulds and rodents 57
Appendix 4 - Influence of moisture content on mould growth during
storage of grains at different temperatures and relative humidities 62
Appendix 5 - Moisture content equilibrium values, maximum acceptable
level for storage of produce 63
Appendix 6 - Assessment of the Aflatoxin Content in Feeds 64
Appendix 7 - List of some institutions working on mycotoxins 66
 F O R E W O R D

This publication is issued by FAO under FAO/UNEP

Project 0107-75-01, "Control of Environmental Contaminants
in Foods MYCOTOXINS". It has been prepared based on s

(a) A document ("Recommended Practices for the Prevention

of Mycotoxins in Food, Feed and their Products" 1976)
elaborated by the Central Food Technological Research
Institute (CFTRl), Mysore, India, under the guidance
of Dr. B. L. Amia, Director, and Dr. V. Sreenivasa
Murthy, Dr. S. C. Basappa and Mr. S. K. Majumder,
Senior Scientists of the Institute;

(b) A draft guideline (AGS MISC/77/7, June 1977) using

the above-mentioned document of CFTRI arrived at
during a meeting (21-25 February 1977) attended by
Dr. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and the collaborators
Dr. M. Jemmali (institut National de la Recherche
Agronomique, Service des Mycotoxines, Paris, France),
Dr. Homero Fonseca (Depto. de Technologia Rural ESA,
Luiz de Queiroz, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Piracicaba,
S.P., Brazil) and Prof. J. W. Dickens (Agricultural
Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, North
Carolina State University, U.S.A.) The collaborators
also furnished recent information on their respective
regions which was very valuable in the preparation and
finalization of this publication;

(c) The critical discussion of the above draft guideline

and the recommendations of the Joint FAO/WHO/UNEP
Conference on Mycotoxins (Nairobi, Sept. 1977)} and

(d) The final revisions undertaken by the consultant,

Dr. T. W. Coombs (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries
and Food, London, U.K.)

Within FAO, responsibility for finalizing this document

rested with the Agricultural Services Division, assisted by
the Plant Production and Protection Division and the Food Policy
and Nutrition Division. Comments and suggestions for possible
future editions of this publication should be sent to:

The Chief, Food Standards and Food Science Service

Food Policy and Nutrition Division
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
00100 Rome, Italy
1. INTRODUCTION

Mycotoxins are a group of toxic chemical compounds produced by

certain strains of a number of species of fungi when they grow under
favourable conditions on a wide variety of different substrates. As
their generic name implies, these compounds are toxic to man and
animals causing diseases collectively known as mycotoxicoses. Fungi
capable of producing such compounds are usually described as toxigenic,,

Although an examination of the early literature reveals that the

existence of mycotoxins has been known for over two centuries, it is
only since 1961, after the discovery of aflatoxins, that these compounds
have attracted considerable attention. On the basis of their target
organ or their pathological manifestations they can be recognized as
carcinogens, hepatotoxins, nephrotoxins, tremorgens, neurotoxins, etc0
With the development of sensitive methods for their detection and analysis,
widespread occurrence of such compounds in almost all foods or feeds is
becoming evident. This has led to apprehensions about the safety of the
food materials we consume daily. A list of mycotoxins found naturally
in agricultural commodities, and of mycotoxicoses caused by rusts and
smuts, is given in Appendices 1 and 2.

In developing countries, failure to conserve all food resources

may seriously aggravate the problems of hunger. In regions where
demand exceeds supply, the situation is made worse bv high food losses
due to insects, micro-organisms, rodents and birds. Climatic conditions
in many regions are suitable for agricultural production throughout the
year, but the,/ are also ideal for mould growth which can cause an
enormous amount of food spoilage. In these same regions the per capita
food consumption is low and the ravages of infections and nutritional
deficiencies are high. The limited supply of food has forced people to
avoid rejecting any material that can be used as food even if moulds have
changed its organoleptic quality. It is for this reason that safety of
foods that are liable to attack by toxigenic fungi has to be ensured.

In industrialized countries, the problem of contamination of

foodstuffs by aflatoxins and a few other mycotoxins is assuming increased
importance. Further potential toxins are coming to light as a result of
the detailed examination of foods likely to be at risk of fungal contamin-
ation. During the last twenty years, efforts have been devoted towards
the study of the origins, nature, distribution and possible hazards to
human and animal health of mycotoxins in food and feedingstuffs.

Since contamination by mycotoxins may not be completely avoided at

the present time, a number of countries throughout the world have
established limits in food and feedingstuffs for a few of the mycotoxins»
The aflatoxins, derived from toxigenic strains of Aspergillus flavus and
A. parasiticus are by far the most commonly controlled mycotoxins in this
respect. Analytical methodology is capable of detecting aflatoxins
down to levels of about 1 part per billion (l ppb or 1 microgranime per
kilogramme). Problems of sampling are recognized to be of crucial
importance in attempts to control contamination of non-homogeneous
lots of foods and feeds. Current information at national level con-
cerning limits set for aflatoxins in foods and feedingstuffs
is available from the Health or Agricultural departments of many
countries. As such limits are subject to continual review in the
light of current information no attempt is made to list them in this
guideline. The purpose of this publication is to recommend practices
for the prevention of mycotoxins in food, animal feed and their products.
It has been prepared following the discussions by the Joint FAO/WHO/UNEP
Conference on Mycotoxins (Nairobi, Kenya, 19-27 September 1977) of the
draft of a guideline prepared for PAO/UNEP by the Central Pood Technologi-
cal Research Institute, Mysore, India with the assistance of specialists
from Brazil, Prance and the United States of America. It recognizes
that effectiveness of preventive and protective practices to be adopted
throughout the food chain from the time of sowing, through cultivating,
harvesting and processing to storage and marketing depends on a thorough
understanding and rigid control of the various factors involved, if the
incidence of known important mycotoxins is to be minimized.

Other papers which provide information relevant to problems of

mycotoxins and their control are:

a) "Global Perspective on Mycotoxins" (tentative title) an edited

collection of major working papers for the Joint FAO/WHO/UKEP Conference
on Mycotoxins (see "b" below), dealing with occurence, health and toxi-
cological aspects and affects on the environment and on trade and commerce;

b) "Report of the Joint FAO/WHO/UNEP Conference on Mycotoxins",

PAO Pood and Nutrition Paper No. 2, PAO, Rome 1977 (includes recommendations);

c) "Mycotoxin Surveillance — A Guideline", PAO Pood Control Series

No. 4, PAO, Rome 1977.

The publication is intended to provide information that will be

useful to workers in extension services, agriculture, industry and trade,.
It is recognized that extension needs at the grassroots level will include
publications and audio-visual educational materials which must be tailored
to the particular audience. It is hoped that this publication will serve
as stimulus for the development and use of such extension materials.

This publication is in three parts. Part I gives a schedule of

practices recommended respectively for standing crops, for harvesting and
drying, for storage of crops, for transportation and for processing
 - 3 -

(post-harvest, including decontamination); Part II is a discussion

or explanation of factors relating to the recommended practices.
Part III focuses on needs and aids for implementation of the
recommendations.

The commodities mentioned in the discussion (Part II) are those

that form the bulk of the food and feedingstuffs in some countries.
The mycotoxins considered are those known to be important contaminants
in these commodities. Although adherence to the recommendations should
minimize the risk of mycotoxin contamination, methodologies to remove,
inactivate or destroy contaminant mycotoxins are also suggested in
order to attempt some utilization of material which would otherwise
require total rejection. References are also given to existing
practices, current trends in research, and their likely outcome in
relation to the problems posed by mycotoxins.

It is recognized that all of the recommended practices cannot be of

universal applicability. Nevertheless, they should provide (see Part III)
sufficient information for national authorities to take appropriate action,
using or improving the infrastructure and practices existing in their
country.
 PART I

2. SCHEDULE OF RECOMMENDED PRACTICES

2.1 Schedule for the Control of Field Infection by Fungi of

Standing Crops

2.1.1 Reduce insect and fungal damage by the proper use of

approved insecticides and fungicides, and other
appropriate practices integrated into a pest control
programme•

2.1.2 Use approved fungicides, as appropriate, to reduce or

prevent moulding of crops, selecting the fungicidal
treatment appropriate to the crop in hand.

2.1.3 Sow crops at the recommended spacings for the species

and/or varieties grown in order to avoid overcrowding
of plants.

2.1.4 Remove or destroy wild grasses in the vicinity of

crops to eliminate reservoirs of fungal inoculum.

2.1.5 Remove or destroy weeds during the lifespan of the

growing crop to prevent them from competing with the
crop.

2.1.6 Practise crop rotation as a routine.

2.1.7 Irrigate the entire crop evenly, ensuring that the

individual plants have an adequate supply of water.

2.1.8 Destroy or bury all dead organic matter, crop residues

and alternative host plants together with fungal
infected plant material before preparing the ground for
a new crop.

2.1.9 Sow and harvest at times which avoid, as far as is

practicable, times when mould infections are more likely
to occur.

2 . 1 . 1 0 Avoid mechanical damage to crops during cultivation.

2.1.11 Harvest crops at full maturity.

The factors relating to the above recommendations are discussed in some

detail in relation to both the control of field infection by fungi and to
individual crops in Part I I , see pages 8-16.
 - 5 -

2.2 Schedule for Harvesting and Drying

2.2.1 .Harvest crops at full maturity.

2.2.2 Avoid mechanical damage during harvesting.

2.2.3 Dry crops immediately after harvesting, particularly if

crops are harvested at high moisture levels.

2.2.4 Dry crops as rapidly as possible, bearing in mind that

sun drying in conditions of high humidity is likely to
result in mould infestation of the crop.

2.2.5 Avoid re-wetting the crop during and after the drying
process by ensuring adequate protection from rain during
sun drying, and by avoiding conditions of high humidity
induced by the use of covers upon which water vapour
condenses when the air temperature falls at night.

2.2.6 Dry crops to safe moisture levels before storage.

The factors relating to the above recommendations are discussed in some

detail in relation to the harvesting and drying practices used in various
countries for various crops in Part II, see pages 16-27 .

2.3 Schedule for Storage of Crops

2.3.1 Ensure that storage structures are dry and do not permit the
entry of water either by seepage of ground water or other
leakage.

2.3*2 Stack bagged grain on dunnage or pallets to avoid upward

movement of ground water, unless the floor incorporates a
membrane impermeable to water vapour.

2.3.3 Ensure that only high quality, mould and insect free crops,
dried to safe moisture levels for the particular crop, are
stored.

2.3«4 Control insect infestation in both storage structures and

stored bulk grain by preventive/corrective treatment with approved
insecticides. Elimination off crawling insects from grain
avoids the deposition of fungal spores and fungi, and mini-
mizes the development of "pockets" of grain with elevated
moisture levels where fungal growth invariably occurs.

2.3.5 Store at low temperature whenever possible,

as fungal growth resulting in mycotoxin contamination
is correlated directly with temperature increase.
 - 6 -

C e r t a i n Fusarium s p e c i e s a r e an e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s g e n e r a l
r u l e i n t h a t t h e y can produce mycotoxins at low tempera-
tures. In t h e s e c a s e s , s t o r a g e under n i t r o g e n may be
effective.

2.3.6 Parra S t o r a g e

(a) Fumigate and dry produce a l r e a d y i n f e c t e d in t h e

f i e l d before storage;

(b) Winnow and s i e v e out immature, d i s c o l o u r e d and

broken k e r n e l s }

(c) S t o r e t h e produce i n m o i s t u r e - p r o o f s t r u c t u r e s or
c o n t a i n e r s which a r e amenable to f u m i g a t i o n t r e a t -
ment ;

(d) I n s p e c t t h e s t o r e d produce r e g u l a r l y , u s i n g s u i t a b l e
fumigante t o c o n t r o l any i n s e c t i n f e s t a t i o n where
necessary.

2.3.7 Large-Scale Storage

(a) Avoid s t o r i n g produce of a moisture content that

e x c e e d s t h a t recommended i n Appendix 5 .

(b) Ensure t h a t t h e warehouse f l o o r i s m o i s t u r e - p r o o f

and r o d e n t - p r o o f . Use p o l y e t h y l e n e s h e e t or wooden
p a l l e t s under the s t a c k s . Ensure t h a t the warehouse
can be both p r o p e r l y v e n t i l a t e d and rendered a i r t i g h t
t o a l l o w f u m i g a t i o n as and when n e c e s s a r y .

(c) Use s u i t a b l e , approved fumigants.

(d) Reduce moisture l e v e l s i n t h e s t o r e d produce by

a e r a t i o n i f the r e l a t i v e humidity p e r m i t s .

(e) P r e v e n t c r o s s i n f e s t a t i o n of d i f f e r e n t l o t s o f
produce i n t h e warehouse by p r o p h y l a c t i c t r e a t m e n t
w i t h s u i t a b l e approved p e s t i c i d e s .

(f) P r e v e n t a c c e s s by r o d e n t s and "birds.

The f a c t o r s r e l a t i n g t o t h e above recommendations a r e d i s c u s s e d i n some

d e t a i l i n P a r t II, s e e pages 28 - 34 .
 - 7 -

2.4 Schedule for Transportation

2.4*1 Check on and correct undesirable conditions in

commodities during transport.

2.4*2 Disinfest empty transport containers and vehicles

periodically with a suitable approved fumigant or
other pesticide.

2.4*3 Avoid warehousing food shipments whose moisture

content exceeds that recommended in Appendices 4
and 5 for the appropriate commodity.

2.4*4 Avoid reabsorption of moisture during shipment or

other transportation by the use of tarpaulins, by
ballooning, or by using airtight containers as
appropriate.

2.4*5 Utilize insect-proof or insect-resistant packaging

materials, or containers rendered insect-repellent
and rodent-repellent by chemical treatment.

Some factors relating to the above recommendations are discussed

in Part II, see pages 35 - 36 .

2.5 Schedule for Post-Harvest Processing including Decontamination

2.5.1 Avoid mechanical damage to crops during threshing or decortication.

2.5*2 Protect crops during processing from any conditions

which favour fungal growth.

2.5*3 Expedite those stages of processes that necessarily

involve some rehydration of the raw material.

2.5*4 Segregate by physical means the damaged portion of any

crop before processing commences.

2.5.5 Ensure inactivation of mycotoxins by methods that will

not result in the introduction of new toxic substances
into the food or feed chain.

The factors relating to the above recommendations are discussed

in some detail in Part II, see pages 3 6 - 4 8 *
 - 8 -

PART II

3. DISCUSSION OF FACTORS BELATIWG TO THE

SCHEDULE OF RECOMMENDED PRACTICES

3.1 Standing Crops and Control of Field Infection by Fungi

3.1.1 MAIZE

Studies have shown that the aflatoxin producing fungus,

Aspergillus flavus, can infect corn before harvest (l). The
presence of the fungus and of aflatoxin in maize ears has been
associated with kernel injury caused by the European corn borer
on the standing crop (2). Other studies have provided presumptive
evidence for regional differences in A. flavus infection of field
maize with indications that maize grown in warm, humid areas is
highly susceptible (3). Examination of the factors contributing
to the problem showed that growing maize under stress conditions,
such as dense population of plants or reduced fertilization,
appeared to increase the incidence of aflatoxin contamination ( 4 ) .

Examination of maize strains for differences in suscepti-

bility to A. flavus infection could reflect simply a difference in
protection offered by the husk against insect attack which is
responsible for introducing the micro-organism into the kernel
region of the ear (5)« Insecticide treatment of developing ears
reduced insect damage, but failed to preclude A. flavus infection
and subsequent aflatoxin production (6).

Laboratory studies have presented some evidence for the

existence of groundnut varieties that resist invasion by aflatoxin
producing fungi (7). In contrast, hybrids of maize experimentally
infected with A. flavus at the late milk to early dough stag® of
kernel development aid not vary in extent of infection of A . flavus;
toxin production, however, varied significantly among the hybrids 78).
 - 9 -

Available research information does not provide an

unequivocal basis for establishment of prevention techniques
in the field. There are no known techniques to prevent contami-
nation by zearalenone or some other rçycotoxins in standing crops
of maize. Frequent mould and mycotoxin contamination of
this crop in certain regions should stimulate increased con-
cern for appropriate harvesting and storage of the commodity.

3.1.2 WHEAT, RYE, OATS AND BARLEY

Rusts and smuts are the two important fungal diseases

that affect these crops. In recent years they have been sus-
pected as causes of mycotoxicoses (9)« The methods developed
to prevent these diseases on standing crops are not adequate
and hence general good agricultural practices, such as crop
rotation and field sanitation, and the growing of resistant
varieties are recommended. So far there is no evidence of
A. flavus infection on standing crops of the above cereals.

The outstanding example of a fungal disease of cereals

causing mycotoxicosis in animals and man is ergot. As the
principal cereals vulnerable to attack by the causative fungus
Claviceps purpurea are rye and durum wheats, the disease can be
kept under control (10) by a system of rotation with the
commoner wheats, or with oats or barley which are rarely attacked.
Rotation avoiding cereals will help in the reduction of inoculum
in the field. C_. purpurea also infects other hosts which serve
as sources of inoculum to the rye crop. The prevalence of
sclerotia on such a wide range of pasture and wild grasses
makes it imperative to eradicate as far as possible all such
hosts, especially if they occur in wet, sheltered borders of
rye fields.

As the disease affects infloresence only, hay should be

cut while still green before ergots develop (ll). Since ergots
are not long lived, deep-ploughing, together with a rotation of
2 or 3 years before re-planting rye grains, is usually enough to
starve these bodies in the soil. Only seeds which do not contain
the fungus should be planted.
 10 -

3.1.3 SORGHUM

Mould often becomes established on sorghum grain before

harvest. Invasion generally begins while seeds are immature
and may continue until the seed is adequately dried after
harvest. Humid conditions during seed development greatly
enhance infection. Fungi generally associated with mouldy
grain are species of Alternarla, Curvularia, Fusarium,
Oladosporium, Pénicillium, Oidiurn, Nigrospora and Phoma (12).
The head moulds of sorghum also include Aspergillus flavus
which has been found to produce aflatoxiri on the earhead of
sorghum (13). In addition to mycotoxin development, head
moulds are of particular concern in seed production, and they
may also reduce the nutritive value of the grain.

Growing resistant varieties, seed treatment, crop ro-

tation, destruction of infected parts and field sanitation are
some of the general practices that can control the head moulds
as well as smuts and ergot.

3.1.4 PEARL MILLET (PENNISETUM THYPHOIDEUM)

The fungus Claviceps macrocephala which causes ergot

diseases of millet infects the standing crop at the inflorescence
stage. It attacks a number of Pennisetum species (14). The
conidia of the fungus retain their viability up to 13 months.
Thus the fungus can survive from year to year through the agency
of conidia. Cool, humid weather favours infection. Control
methods suggested above for rye should be followed.

3.1.5 GROUNDNUTS

Since fungi are distributed both in soil and air, the

infection of groundnuts with toxigenic fungi may occur before
groundnuts are removed from the soil or during subsequent harvest-
ing, drying, handling and storage. In many cases the entry of
Aspergillus flavus into the tissue of standing crops is facili-
tated by damage from nematodes, mites, termites and other
small animals.

It has been observed that drought conditions favour

infestation by lesser cornstalk borer (Elasmopalpus lignosellus)
 - 11 -

which damages pods and f e e d s on k e r n e l s ( 1 5 ) . A. f l a v u s

propagules may be c a r r i e d by the i n s e c t t o i d e a l s i t e s f o r
i n f e c t i o n where the kernel i s damaged. Other small animals
l i k e nematodes and mites which inhabit the s o i l may i n f e c t
the groundnuts with A. f l a v u s when they a t t a c k them f o r food
and moisture. Injury of the pods by a g r i c u l t u r a l implements
a l s o favours i n f e c t i o n .

Although groundnuts may be invaded by A. f l a v u s when

growing in moist s o i l , drought c o n d i t i o n s appear t o be more
f a v o u r a b l e both f o r i n f e c t i o n by the fungus and f o r
a f l a t o x i n production ( l 6 ) . During drought, temperature and
moisture c o n t e n t s o f the groundnuts and s o i l appear t o become
favourable f o r A. f l a v u s growth. I r r i g a t i o n o f f i e l d s at
l e a s t one month p r i o r t o harvest has been found t o reduce
a f l a t o x i n contamination in groundnuts ( 1 6 ) . This i s probably
because moist s o i l reduces a t t a c k by s o i l i n s e c t s and mould
and because groundnuts p r e v i o u s l y damaged by i n s e c t s or mould
may shed from the p l a n t s b e f o r e they are harvested. Both
f o l i a r and s o i l f u n g i c i d e s have f a i l e d to reduce A. f l a v u s
and a f l a t o x i n contamination b e f o r e harvest ( 1 7 ) « Groundnut
v a r i e t i e s r e s i s t a n t t o i n s e c t a t t a c k or i n s e c t i c i d e s may be
used to c o n t r o l the l e s s e r c o r n s t a l k b o r e r in i . o n - i r r i g a t e d
f i e l d s and s o i l fumigation may be used t o c o n t r o l nematodes ( 1 5 ) «

Since weeds compete with the growing p l a n t s o f groundnuts

and i n t e r f e r e with good h a r v e s t i n g and d r y i n g , weed c o n t r o l i s
an important p r a c t i c e t o help reduce the r i s k o f a f l a t o x i n
contamination ( l 8 ) .

Care should be taken not t o damage pods during c u l t i v a t i o n

s i n c e such damage may allow mould growth. Crop r o t a t i o n and
winter cover crops have been r e p o r t e d t o reduce A. f l a v u s
propagules in the s o i l ( l T ) « Groundnuts may be grown s a t i s -
f a c t o r i l y in r o t a t i o n with a number of c r o p s l i k e c o t t o n ,
t o b a c c o and c e r e a l s . Many experimental s t a t i o n s recommend that
groundnuts should not be grown in the same s o i l more o f t e n than
once every 3 y e a r s .

V a r i e t i e s l i k e Junagadh 11 are being t e s t e d under some

Indian c o n d i t i o n s and r e s i s t a n c e t o t o x i n e l a b o r a t i o n appears
t o be a f a i r l y s t a b l e c h a r a c t e r ( 1 9 ) « However, there i s need
f o r constant s u r v e i l l a n c e o f such r e s i s t a n t v a r i e t i e s under
different agro-ecological conditions. Attempts are being made by
s e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s in the world in order to e x p l o r e the p o s s i b i l i t i e s
o f e v o l v i n g v a r i e t i e s o f groundnuts r e s i s t a n t to A. f l a v u s growth
and t o a f l a t o x i n f o r m a t i o n .
3.1.6 COTTON

A. flavuB has been known for many years as the cause of

boll rot in the cotton plant (20). A bright greenish-yellow
fluorescence (BGY) on the lint when it is exposed to long-wave
ultraviolet light is caused by A. flavus and is symptomatic of
this boll rot. BGY is a useful presumptive indicator of the
presence of A. flavus and aflatoxin (21). Invasion of the
cottonseed boll by insects and ultimately by A. flavus generally
occurs before full boll opening and is maximal at an optimum
temperature range of 30-35°^ (22). Aflatoxin production
apparently occurs in undamaged bolls only from the time they
start to open until the seeds are dry as a consequence of
greater aeration (22). Thus the more rapidly cotton bolls
open and dry, the lower the potential for aflatoxin contamination
of the seeds.

Ashworth et_ al_. (23) have implicated the pink bollworm

(Pectinophoro gossypiella Saunder) exit hole as a major portal
by which the fungus enters the boll. Lygus (Lygus hesperus Knight)
and stink bug (Chlorachroa sayi Stal.) have been implicated as
means of A. flavus propagule dissemination into these exit holes
(24). Internal injury to locules by insects such as the pink
bollworm slow the rate of boll opening and often prevent the boll
from opening completely and the locules from fluffing fully. High
moisture conditions surrounding bolls also contribute to a slower
boll opening rate (25). The combined effect of both conditions is
to prevent locule fluffing and drying and to maintain higher moisture
levels in seeds for prolonged periods of time. This drying delay
probably increases the opportunity for seed invasion and subsequent
aflatoxin elaboration by A. flavus. Management practices like
defoliation of the lower third of cotton crop with DEP (S,S,S-tri-butyl-
phcsphorotrithionate) accompanying the 4 hy 4 skip row pattern in
order to improve aeration of the plants and lower humidity has been
found to reduce aflatoxin (26). Aflatoxin accumulation in Deltapine
16 cottonseed, grown in Arizona in a 3-year study (27) was signifi-
cantly influenced by the timing of irrigation termination and the
level of pink bollworm infestation. In 1971 and 1972, termination
of irrigation by early August resulted in significantly less
aflatoxin than in plots where two additional irrigations were
applied. Significantly less aflatoxin also was found in the 1971 and
1973 plots where low levels of pink bollworm infestations were
maintained by treating the plots with insecticides like methylazinphos
and methomyl.

Thus, the available information suggests that A. flavus

infection and aflatoxin formation in the seed of standing crops
of cotton may be prevented to a significant extent by following
controlled irrigation at boll stage to reduce humidity and by
controlling the insect infestation by the use of suitable insecticides.
 - 13 -

3.2 Control of Field Infection by Fungi

Crops such as sorghum, maize, paddy (rough-rice) and beans

are liable to internal and external pre-harvest attack by insects
and moulds in the field (29). The oviposition by storage pests
or mechanical injury by insects and other arthropods are largely
responsible for fungal infection. The preventive measures for
controlling oviposition by the insects on the kernels and pods
may be achieved by application of repellents or insecticidal
compositions (30). Pre-harvest disinfection and prophylactic
application of chemicals such as captan, thiram, zineb, propionic
acid and acetic acid have been found to reduce incidence of fungal
contamination of grains. This spraying operation, if carried out
during the milky and post-milky stages, may prevent internal
infection. Combinations of pesticides of low mammalian toxicity
such as malathion and captan at 0.3$ concentration applied with
a low-volume nozzle have given prophylactic effects on treated
panicles of paddy, sorghum, maize and legumes. A low-volume
nozzle attached to a hand 3prayer (knapsack sprayer) provides a
way to apply the low-volume spray. It is necessary to watch out
for development of resistance to pesticides.

It is quite clear that kernels which are damaged by mechanical

injury during agronomic operations are more subject to mould
infection. During post-harvest handling, particularly of the
wet crop, the prevention of mechanical injury and of attack by
fungi and storage insects are of prime importance. Pre-harvest
sanitation and post-harvest safe handling are essential to reduce
moulding of the kernels.

It may be possible to segregate A. flavus contaminated

groundnuts at the field level. Close observation of the groundnut
fields prior to digging may reveal areas of plant stress such as iso-
lated pockets of severe drought stress that are often the areas of
A. flavus infection and insect infestation. In irrigated fields
the areas missed by the irrigation system may contain high
concentrations of insect damaged and A. flavus infected groundnuts.
Harvests from such areas could be handled and processed separately
to remove the aflatoxin contaminated kernels. If A. flavus growth
is confirmed by careful examination, the groundnuts should be
diverted to non-food use or decontaminated by removal of all mouldy
kernels.

Careful examination of standing crops of grain and separate

harvesting of mouldy heads would prevent the mouldy grain from
 - 14 -

being mixed with other grain during harvesting. I f the heads are
harvested intact then the mouldy heads should be removed before
the grain is threshed. In the case of maize, the ears with
mouldy kernels should be separated before shelling to avoid mixing
the mouldy kernels with non-mouldy onesc

3.3 References to Sections 3 . 1 and 3 . 2 Standing Crops

and Control of Field Infestation by Fungi

1. Rambo, G . W . , Tuite, J . , and Crane, P„ (1975)

Phytopathology, 797.

2. Lillehoj, E . B . , Fennel, D . I . , and Kwolek, W.F.

(1976) Science, 193, 495-

3. Burnside, J . E . , Sipple, W . L . , Forgaes, J , , Carll,

W . T . , Atwood, M . B . , and Dotto E . R . ( 1 9 5 7 ) .
Am.J. Vet. Res. ¿ 8 , 8 1 7 .

4. Anderson, H . W . , Behring, E.W. and Wichsor, W.R. (1975)

J . Agr. Food Chem. 23, 775.

5. L i l l e h o j , E . B . , and Zuber, H . S . ( 1 9 7 5 ) • In proceedings

of the 13th Annual Corn and Sorghum Research
Conference. U.S.D.A.

6. tfidstrom, ÎJ.W., Sparks, A.ÎT., L i l l e h o j , EoB. and

Kwolek, W.K. (1975) J . Eco. Entomol, 6 8 , 8 5 5 .

7. Nagarajan, V . , and Bhat, R . V . (1972). J . Agr. Food

Chem. 2 0 , 9 1 1 .

8. Laparde, J . C . , and Manwiller, A 0 (1976).

Phytopathology, 66,675»

9. Martin, P . M . D . and Oilman, G . A . (1976) "A consideration

of the Kycotoxin hypothesis with special reference to
Mycoflora of maize, sorghum, wheat and groundnuts",
published by T . P . I . , London.

10. Butler, E . J . , and Jones, S . G . (1949) in "Plant Pathology"

McMillan and Co. Ltd. p. 445»

11. Sampson, K . , and Western, J . H . ( 1 9 7 1 ) Cited in

"Plantpathology" McMillan and C o . , by Butler and Jones.
 - 15 -

12. Tarr, S.A.J. ( 1 9 6 2 ) . "Diseases of Sorghum, Sudan

grass and Broom corn" published by Commonwealth
Mycological Institute, Kew, Surrey.

13c Thripathi, R.K. (1973) Ind. Expío Biol. II. 361.

14. Singh, R.S. (1968) cited in "Plant diseases" Oxford

and IBH Publishing C o c New Delhi»

15. French, J.C., and Morgan, L.W„ ( 1 9 7 2 ) . J . Amer, Peanut

Res. and Educ. Assoc. ¿,.41 •

16. Pettit, R.E., Taber, R.A., Sehraeder, H.W., and Harrison,

A.L. (1971), Appl0 Microbiol. 22,629.

17. Pettit, R.E., and Taber, R.A. (1973)0 J . Amer, Peanut,

Res. and Educ 0 Assoc 0 195»

18. Dickens, J.W. (1976) Journal Series of the North

Carolina Agr«> Ept. Sta.

19. Nagarajan, V., Bhat. R.V., and Tulpule, P . O . (1974)

Phoc. Nut. Soc. India 16,52.

20. Karsh, P.B., and Kerr, T . ( I 9 6 I ) Plant disease reporter

il, 550.

21. Ashworth, L.Jo, McMeans, J.L., Pyle. J.L., Brown, C.M.,

Osgood, J.W. and Ponton, R.E 0 ( I 9 6 8 ) . Phytopathology.
¿8,102.

22. Ashworth, L.J. McMeans, J.L., and Brown, C.M, (1969)

Phytopathology. 59» 669.

23o Ashworth, L.J., Rice, R . E . , McMeans, J.L., and Brown,

C.M. (1971). Phytopathology 61,488.

24. Stephensen, L.V., and Russel, T . E . (1974) Phytopathology,

1502.
25. Kerr, T . and Tharp, W . H . (1956) Cottongin Oil Mill Press,

26. Ashworth, L.J. (unpublished data) cited by R.W. Howell

in "Toxic Micro-organibos". Edited by M . Herzberg (1970)
proceedings by U.J.N.R. Meetings,
 - 16 -

27. Russel, T.E., Watson, T.P. and Ryan, G.P. (1976)

Appl. Environ. Microbiol» 11, 711.

28. Christensen, C.M. and Kaufmann, H.H. (1965)

¿1,711 Ann. Rev. Phytopath. ¿,69.

29. Majurader, S.K., Raghunathan, A.N. and Rangaswamy,

J.R. (1973) Ann. Technol. Agri. 22,483.

30. Majumder, S.K., Krishmamurthy, K., and Godavari

Bai. S.C. (1961) Nature (London) 192,373.

3.4 Harvesting and Drying

During the harvest and in post-harvest handling, particularly

of the wet crops, the prevention of mechanical injury is of prime
importarle». The following rescribes harvesting and drying practices
for corn, rice and ^roun^rrat* in various countries. The descriptions
are not given as recommended practices.

3.4.1 HARVESTING MAIZE

The time of harvest is fixed at the maturity of the grain. In

Prance 75 percent of the maize is combine harvested, the drying
being done by hot air (110-120 C). The 25 percent remainder is
stored on the cob (ears) in "cribs". Shelling or threshing is
done after the grain dries to 15 percent moisture content. The
practice of crib storage may result in contamination by
zearalenone and trichothecenes (1).

In Brazil, maize is usually dried on the plant before harvest.

If it is intended to be used as feed, the ears aire stored. If it
is to be sold, the grain is threshed and stored in sacks. The
major source of possible contamination is improper storage with the
possibility of getting wet by rain (2).

3.4.2 HARVESTING RICE

Rice is ordinarily harvested at moisture contents above safe

storage levels. The criteria for determining the proper harvest.
 - 17 -

time include maturity in relation to panicle colour, age of

the paddy crop and moisture content of the paddy. Moisture is
the most important factor which decides the quality of the
grain during storage.

Harvesting at a late s t a 6 e of maturity when the moisture

content is around 15-1? percent seems to be the traditional practice,
but shedding losses and heavy milling breakage have induced farmers
to harvest at 20-24 percent moisture level ( 3 ) . This moist paddy
must be dried to a safe moisture content of 14-15 percent before
storage. Machine harvested paddy usually has much higher moisture
levels which makes pre-storage drying obligatory. Likewise, rice
produced by dehusking high moisture paddy needs pre-storage drying.

Rice will readily gain or lose moisture until it is in

equilibrium with the moisture of surrounding a i r . The equilibrium
moisture content is dependent primarily on the relative humidity
of the air and depends to a lesser extent on a i r temperature ( 4 ) »
The equilibrium moisture content is different for rough r i c e ,
brown r i c e , milled rice and bran ( 4 ) . High relative humidity of
the atmosphere interferes with drying of rice to safe levels and
also favours moisture absorption by rice during storage.

3.4.3 HARVESTING GROUNDNUTS

To f a c i l i t a t e removal of groundnuts from hard soil in many

growing areas, harvesting is done during rainy months. Under
dry weather conditions it is done after soaking the soil with
flood i r r i g a t i o n . Mechanical injury to the pods by either arthropod
activity or t i l l a g e may induce fungal infection. Injury i n f l i c t e d
during harvesting is also responsible for kernel penetration by
saprophytic fungi.

In more developed countries, windrow harvesting is the

generally accepted method for groundnuts. A digger-shaker
windrowing machine is normally used to d i g the plants, shake o f f
soil from the roots and pods and invert the plants in a windrow.
Most of the pods are on top of the inverted windrow and exposed to
sunlight and aeration which aid drying. After several days, partially
dried groundnuts are picked, piled 1 . 5 m deep on perforated floors
and dried to an average moisture content of less than 10 percent
by forcing heated air up through the p i l e .
 - 18 -

In the absence of mechanical drying facilities, particularly

where farm holdings are small, suitable treatment for the con-
trol of fungal infection in moist pods is very necessary. In
certain regions of India, the pods are left intact with haulms
for a few days on the ground. This brings the moisture level down
to about 15-20 percent. After separation, the pods are further
dried by spreading on a paved floor. In other regions, stacking
the plants with pods facing outside and haulms towards the centre
is practised. In all such cases, low humidity weather conditions
help in quick drying. In humid or rainy weather, the drying
becomes difficult and there is an opportunity for growth of
Aspergillus flavus. In such situations, the pods can be pro-
tected by using fungicidal fumigants.

In Brazil the groundnut plants are left inverted so that

pods are exposed to the air and sun for drying. Since the grower
is anxious to market the crop and receive payment, the pods are
often harvested before they have dried to a safe moisture level
for storage. The pods are placed in sacks and taken to the oil
mill where they are easily marketed regardless of moisture
content since the buyer adjusts the price according to the weight
of moisture above 8 percent.

In some regions of Africa threshing is done manually and

care is taken to avoid breaking the pods. After threshing the
pods are spread on the soil in thin layers to dry. In the Sahel
Zone the groundnut varieties planted are ready for harvest after
the end of the rainy season; the groundnuts dry without moulding
and there is a low incidence of aflatoxin contamination. In the
equatorial zone, aflatoxin contamination is more prevalent
because the crop must be harvested and dried during rainy, humid
weather and moulding often occurs»

3.4.4 DRYING PRACTICES

Drying is an essential step in the preservation of grains

against fungal attack. At harvest, cereal grains or oilseeds often
contain too much moisture for safe storage. In places where har-
vesting is done in dry weather, the problem of mycotoxin
contamination does not reach alarming proportions. But it becomes
a serious problem in areas where harvesting is done in very
humid weather. In such cases, drying of the produce is an extremely
 - 19 -
important factor in solving mycotoxin problems. During drying
operations, mechanical damage must "be prevented and the temperature
and duration of exposure of the produce to heated air must not be
excessive,, or quality losses will occur.

The normal practice is to spread the commodity on a paved

floor and expose it to the heat of the sun and to natural air
currents. Frequent stirring is required to achieve uniform
drying. In most places this is done manually. Spreading the
commodity on a loosely woven material or screen suspended
above the ground will improve aeration and reduce but not
eliminate the need for stirring. In cloudy and rainy weather,
insolation is not sufficient to dry the commodity to safe
moisture levels in a reasonable time; drying by artifical
means must then be resorted to. The FAO Agricultural
Development Paper Wo $0, "Handling and Storage of Food Grains
in Tropical and Subtropical Areas" (1970) describes natural
and artificial methods of drying groundnuts to reduce the risk
of aflatoxin contamination. Normal practice is to heat air
by burning fuels, by utilizing heat supplied by internal
combustion engines, or by use of electrical-resistance heaters
and then to pass the heated air through the commodity.

3.4.5 DRIERS POR RICE (AND OTHER CROPS)

Various types of driers using forced natural air or

forced heated air are used in different countries ( 5 ) . Some
of the driers used for rice are described below:

(i) Sack drier

This is a simple unit (Figure l) wherein bags of grain

or nuts are laid flat over holes cut in the floor of a tunnel
system so that air can be forced up through the bags from an
air chamber underneath. A single layer of sacks and air at
115-120°F at a rate of 110 cfm/saok can reduce the moisture
content from 48 to 8 percent in 16 hours. It is being used
for rice drying in many countries in the tropics, e.g. in the
Philippines and in Madagascar. A drying system of this type
used in Madagascar takes 228 bags of rice at a time. The chief
disadvantages of these types of drier are high labour
cost, low drying capacity and need for close supervision.

(ii) Horizontal warm-air drier

This type of drier (Figure 2) is not often used for

drying of rice. It is manufactured mostly by Italian and French
 - 20 -

firms. These driers consist of one or more drying chambers.

Each chamber is divided by horizontal, equidistant screen-
bottom trays fitted to horizontal pivots. A control lever
on the outside swivels the trays into a horizontal position
for drying, and a vertioal position to discharge the kernels
onto the tray underneath. The moist grain or nuts are fed
to the top tray. Retention time on each tray is set equal
to the total drying time divided by the number of trays. The
hot air is fed through each tray at 95-100°'F. Units with a
capacity of 25 tons in 24 hours are available.

(iii) MixinK-type columnar drier with baffles

This drier is fitted with baffles (Figure 3) which

conduct rice downward in a zig-zag path as heated air is
forced through the descending grain. The warm air blown
into the centre of the drier penetrates into the rice through
the vents on the inner side and escapes through the outer side0
In order to dry 60 tons of damp rice in 24 hours, a drying
system should comprise four successive drying units and a
22-h.p. motor. The housing structure would cover 80-90 m^.
(iv) LSU mixing*-type drier

The Lousiana State University Drier (Figure 4) is more

complicated. It consists of a bin in which layers of air
channels are installed. Heated air is introduced at many
points in the descending material through these channels which
are inverted-V-shapedo One end of each channel is open and the
other end is closed. Alternate layers are air—inlet and
air-outlet channels. In the inlet layers the openings face the
air-inlet plenum chamber; in the outlet layers they face the
exhaust. Each layer is offset so that the top of the channels
split the streams causing mixing. The discharge at the base of
the column regulates the flow of material. In most models
heated air is supplied by a blower. The oapacity varies from
2 to 11 tons, and the drier height from 4«6 to 13 m. The number
of air channels range from 60-160 according to the size of the
drier, and power requirements from 10 to 40 h.p. Batteries of
driers oan be installed. Though large quantities can be
handled under controlled conditions, these units are complicated
and expensive.
 - 21 -

Outgo:
r
hot Perforated
air false
floor

Pig. 1
- 22 -

w
•H
 - 23 -

Mixing-type columnar drier with baffles

Pig. 3
 - 24 -

Air channels
Peed bin

Warm air
inlet

A i r leaving
outlet
channels

Duct conveying warm

air from blowe^ to Warm a i r inlet
inlet channels s

Rice
moving
downwards

Warm air
Blower outlet channels

Discharge
of rice

LSU Mixing-type drier

Pig. 4
 - 25 -

Operating costs vary with type of d r i e r , capacity and

moisture-reducing r a t e and include the following items:

— power for h a n d l i n g , conveying and

aeration equipment

— fuel (fuel o i l , natural g a s , b u t a n e ,

c o a l , w o o d ) to heat air

— labour

— repairs and maintenance

— humidity and temperature control

— amortization

— interest on c a p i t a l .

3.4.6 GROUNDNUT DRYING

A procedure for groundnut d r y i n g in some African countries
is u s u a l l y performed in two s t e p s . After digging and s h a k i n g ,
the groundnut plant is left in windrows in the f i e l d . U n d e r
favourable c o n d i t i o n s , the groundnuts w i l l dry down to a moisture
content of about 20 p e r c e n t . Sometimes the plants are stacked
in the f i e l d , u s u a l l y with the pods on the outside to expose
them directly to the s u n . The haulms may be stacked around poles
or on platforms elevated about 0.5 m above the ground (Figure 5)•
Another suitable method is that of s t a c k i n g the plants on some
type of r a c k , with the pods facing an internal cavity (Figure 6 ) .
Correct w i n d r o w i n g and improved methods of s t a c k i n g are inexpensive
improvements which would give immediate results (from Carl Bro
International a / S , C o p e n h a g e n , 1 9 7 6 ) , (6).

In the second s t e p , the pods are picked from the haulms and
brought to the f a r m h o u s e . A d d i t i o n a l d r y i n g is done at this
s t a g e . The u s u a l method is to spread the pods on a dry area of
the ground and allow to dry in the s u n , w i t h periodical t u r n i n g .
In recent y e a r s , solar energy collectors for heating air to dry
the commodity are being introduced for efficient u s e of the sun's
energy.
 - 26 -

Pig. 5

313. 6
 - 27 -

The cost of drying can be estimated in terms of

capital expenditure, labour and running costs. With
natural drying usually only labour costs have to be
considered. Quite often this is negligible in real
terms as the farmer and his family perform the operat-
ions of spreading, collecting and re-spreading. With
artificial drying, however, capital expenditure may vary
considerably, the cheapest being the in-sack drier and
the more expensive being the continuous flow driers
which require trained people to maintain them. The
cost of drying in most of these latter cases exceeded
US$3 per ton in 1976.

3.5 References to Section 3.4 Harvesting

and Drying

1. Report from Dr« Jemmali, one of the

collaborators in the preparation of this
manual.

2. Report from Dr. Homero Fonseca, one of the

collaborators in the preparation of this
manual.

3. Shiva Subrahmanian, S., Sheik Dawood, A.,

and Krishnan, R.H. (1972), Madras Agr. J.
¿2, 574-
4. Roy Adair, C. (1972) cited in "Rice Chemistry
and Technology" by American Association of
Cereal Chemists, Ed. E.E. Houstan.

5. Angladette, A. "Rice drying principles and

techniques", Informal Working Bulletin,
23, FAO of the UN.

6. Carl Bro. International A/S, Copenhagen,

Denmark, "Aflatoxin-free Groundnut Production
in Developing Countries".
3.6 Storage

BASIC PRINCIPLES

Prevention of attack by fungi and stored product insects

and other pests is of prime importance in post-harvest
storage. The basic principles of grain storage are relatively
simple. Firstly, the product to be stored should be
conditioned to a stable state in which respiration of the
seeds and of associated micro-organisms are reduced to a
minimum. This is achieved by keeping the moisture content
of the grain and the ambient humidity very low.

Secondly, the product should be placed in a container

or structure that will maintain a suitable environment and
prevent or restrict the entrance of insect and animal pests.

Lastly, the grain should be accessible throughout the

storage period for additional treatment if necessary to
maintain good condition particularly with respect to heating
and moisture absorption.

Since in many cases agricultural crops are seasonal,

they must be stored from one season to the other. In rural
areas, individual farmers have their own storage structures
in which the grains are stored. The storage structures vary
in type of construction, size and materials for construction
(l,2). Above-ground structures range from cubicles and small
rooms to large warehouses. Masonry bins, wooden cubicles,
straw and bamboo structures, and clay containers of baked and
unbaked materials are used in the developing countries,. For
commercial purposes, storage structures may be silo-like
elevators, large-scale bulk storage warehouses or bag-storage
godowns.

In order to prevent losses in quality or quantity, the

product (crop) must be protected from insects, rodents, moulds
and biochemical deterioration. Protection from moulds has
become very important due to increased awareness of the hazards
of mycotoxins to human and animal health. Temperature and
moisture control are important considerations for prevention of
moulding. Insect control is also important since insects may
cause high-moisture pockets in the stored product, create sites
for mould infection by penetrating the produot and carry mould
spores to infection sites» Processed produots such as flour,
 - 29 -

meal and groundnut cake must be protected during storage

since viable mould spores are present and if conditions
are favourable for mould growth, mycotoxins may be produced.

3.6.2 CONTROL OF MOISTURE AND TEMPERATURE

Proper drying of the product before placing it in

storage is necessary. The influence of moisture content
on mould growth during storage of grain at different
temperatures and humidities is indicated in Appendix 4« It
is important that the commodities be dried below a moisture
content that will support mould growth. Recommended
moisture contents for commodities going into storage are
listed in Appendix 5.

Recent work has shown that the measurement of water

activity (free water not bound to constituents in the produce)
rather than the equilibrium moisture content of produce is
more directly related to fungal growth. Suitable instruments
for use in the field aire now available for this measurement.
At present most moisture testers being used in developing
countries do not measure water activity.

As previously mentioned there is a large variety of

storage structures used throughout the world. Requirements
for ventilation and aeration for small bulk storages or when
the product is stored in bags or other small containers are
different than for the large bulk storages. Whenever
moulding and caking occur in these different types of struc-
tures, care should be taken to determine the cause of the
problem and corrective action should be taken. In general,
the storage structure must be constructed to prevent leaking
or diffusion of moisture through the roofs, walls or floor
of the structure.

Convection currents can produce pockets or layers of

high moisture grain even in properly dried grain when it is
stored in large bulk. Therefore, it is necessary to have
well ventilated storage warehouses to allow the warm, moist
air to escape from the warehouse rather than have the moisture
condense on interior surfaces of the building and rewet the
grain. Escape of the warm, moist air from the warehouse will
also facilitate cooling of the grain and thus reduce mould
growth and insect activity.
 - 30 -

In some cases, natural ventilation of the headspace in bulk

storage warehouses is not sufficient to prevent moisture condensation,
moulding and caking of the surface layer of grain. Aeration of the
grain by fans to exhaust the warm moist air from perforated ducts
placed underneath the bulk-stored product is then necessary. Aeration
exhausts the warm, moist air before it comes in contact with cool grain
or cool interior surfaces of the warehouse where moisture condensation
may occur. It also draws cool, dry air into the grain which cools it
and reduces mould growth and insect activity.

When weather conditions are warm and humid, ventilation or

aeration may be detrimental rather than helpful. If the relative
humidity and temperature of the air are higher than conditions within
the warehouse, ventilation or aeration may increase the moisture
content and temperatures of the grain. In warm, tropical areas where
such conditions are prevalent it may be necessary to provide ways to
avoid moisture absorption by the dry product during storage. Use of a
ballooning technique when the crop is dry will prevent moisture
penetration and absorption by the crop during the humid season.

The technique consists of placing 0.06 mm polyethylene sheet on

the floor over treated gunny-cloth dunnage, enveloping the whole stack
with another 0.06 mm polyethylene sheet from the top and sealing the
seams with clamps. Finally, the plastic envelop thus made must be
protected from rodents and is protected against insects by the application
of an insecticidal spray. Protection from mould damage is also achieved
try the ballooning technique (see Appendix 3).

3.6.3 CONTROL OF STORAGE INSECTS

The relationship between insect damage and mould activity is two

folds

(a) Even in dry grain, the metabolic activities of insects

raise moisture levels and provide a favourable environ-
ment for fungal growth (l)j

(b) The insects invariably carry with them a variety of

microflora including fungi.

These are the reasons for the common observation that invasion
by insects is almost always accompanied by some fungal infection.

Even in bulk storage, disinfestation measures for insect control

reduces fungal growth. Majurader et_ al. (3) reported an increase of
10 to 30 percent in mould growth when insects were left uncontrolled
in commodities like wheat, green gram, Bengal gram, red gram, coffee
bean, chicory and coriander, and an increase of up to 475 peroent in
sorghum.
 - 31 -
In addition to insects, mites also are responsible for
establishing populations of fungi. More than 36 genera of
mites were found to be associated with ¿1 genera of fungx
obtained from wheat, barley and oats (4)«

Some control methods for storage insects are included in

Appendix 3. Refer to PAO Agricultural Studies Uo. 79 for
more informatinn.

3.6.4 CHEMICAL CONTROL OP MOULDS

Many different chemicals have been tested for control

of mould on moist grain,. Compounds like aureofungin, thiram,
captan, orthophenyl phenate, benlate, Bordeaux mixture, and
organic acids like propionic, sorbic, lactic, acetic and
benzoic acid have given promising results (l,2). Salts of
organic acids are also suitable for seed treatments.

However, the results have shown that, for long-term

storage, these organic acids and protectants cannot inhibit the
inherent enzymatic activity of the seeds above a moisture con-
tent of 16 percent at tropical temperatures. At temperatures
below 15°C on the other hand, all of these protectants inhibited
fungi and prevented enzymatic deterioration of the grains in
long term storage (2,6).

As an adjunct to natural drying, fumigation with gaseous

sterilants has given promising results. Large-scale trials on
groundnuts have shown that the saprophytic fungi could be
controlled in the post-harvest period by using fumigante (3).

Out of the solid fumigant formulations screened, ammonia

and phosphine combinations were found to be the best (5).
Concentrations of 50 mg of phosphine together with 50 mg of
ammonia per litre provide the fungicidal action under the field
conditions. The species of sporulating bacilli present on
groundnuts could not, however, be controlled with ammonia-
phosphine combinations even at dosages of about 200 mg per
litre. However, fungal growth could be checked (l).

See Appendix 3 for more detailed instructions and

information about fumigation; also see PAO Agricultural Studies
No. 79 (9).
 - 32 -

Growth of A. flavus on maize during storage could be

effectively controlled by the use of grain preservatives like
2 percent ammonia and 1 percent propionic acid, but this may
not be economical. In a recent study (6) preservation of
high-moisture maize cobs in cribs "by dusting each layer with
lindane (0.5 percent active component) where approved has
proved very helpful in reducing storage losses by insect
damage and arresting mould growth caused by insects.

3.6.5 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES DIKING STORAGE

The two basic and guiding principles of storage are to

keep the commodity dry and to keep it free from insect, fungus
and rodent damage. Dry materials can absorb moisture from the
environment. This has to be prevented by suitable means.
Insect damage is avoided by preventing infestation of or
disinfesting the material prior to storage followed by a
continuing control programme which may need to include
periodic fumigation of the materials. Rodent damage must be
prevented by using rodent stoppage, rodenticides, removal of
harbourage and fumigating nearby rat burrows.

A number of specific recommendations relating to storage

are the following.

(a) For safe storage the maximum moisture content

(wet basis) should be as follows: 9 percent
for groundnut kernels, 13.5 percent for
maize, 13.5 percent for sorghum, 15 percent
for paddy and 15 percent for grain le jumes
(beans). If the moisture contents are above
these safe limits, drying is necessary prior
to storage (see Appendices 4 and 5).

(b) Remove chaff, immature grain, discoloured

seeds, insect frass, weed seeds, stones, grit
other refractory material by sieving and
winnowing. The maximum foreign matter and
total refractories should not exceed 4 percent
at the farm level.
 - 33 -

(c) Inspect the commodities, and i f evidence of live

insects i s found, disinfest "by fumigation.

(d) Treat the gunny bags (burlap), c l o t h or

other t e x t i l e bags f o r i n f e c t i o n and i n -
f e s t a t i o n by either fumigation or i n s e c t -
proofing with approved p e s t i c i d e s (malathion
or lindane has been used in the p a s t ) . The
l e v e l of the a c t i v e ingredients on treated
containers should not exceed 50 mg/ft^.

(e) Maintain temperature and r e l a t i v e humidity

records in the warehouse with thermohy-
grographs, wet- and dry-bulb thermometers
or other suitable instrument.

(f) Relative humidities above 70 percent cause the

moisture content of groundnuts, maize, sorghum,
paddy and grain legumes to exceed safe mois-
ture contents in storage at temperatures above
20°C. The r e l a t i v e humidity should be kept
below 70 percent by proper v e n t i l a t i o n or
aeration during favourable weather c o n d i t i o n s .
Prior t o and during the rainy months and
during continuous high humidity in the atmos-
phere the stacks should be kept in or under
p l a s t i c sheeting. (The p l a s t i c sheet
"ballooning" technique i s further described in
Appendix 3 ) .

(g) In order to control any infestation present in

either the warehouse or on/in the bag stacks,
prophylactic spraying of the structure and the
exposed bag surfaces or prophylactic cloth stack
covers impregnated with suitable and approved
pesticides may be employed. I f there are signs
of infestation within the commodities, fumigation
should be carried out with fumigants e f f e c t i v e
against a l l stages of insects (including eggs)
and harmful fungi.

(h) Por large-scale fumigation, methyl bromide or

mixtures of ethylene dibromide and methyl
 - 34 -

bromide have proved to be effective when

applied under tropical temperature conditions.
In non-airtight warehouses, fumigation sheets
made of balloon film, PVC coated aluminized
fabric, or high density polyethylene laminated
with woven nylon, are sufficient to retain these
fumigants during the exposure period. A
combination of ethylene dib^omide and methyl
bromide 1:3 at 2 lb/1000 ft3 (32 g/m5) has proven
adequate in India for complete disinfestât ion with
respect to the storage insects and harmful fungi.
Phosphine generating fumigant products are also
widely used with safety.

(i) Aerate the stack after the exposure period to

free the stack from absorbed fumigants.
Detectors should be used for verifying the
complete aeration of the stack.

(j) In non-rodent-proof warehouses, stacks should

be protected from rodents by rodent harbourage
removal, rodent stoppage techniques, rodenticidal
baits and tracking powders as appropriate. PAO
Agricultural Development Paper No. 90 has more
information (5).

(k) Fumigate rat burrows in a safe manner with a

suitable and approved fumigant; phosphine,
hydrogen cyanide and a combination of 60:40
(w/w) ethylene dibromide-methyl bromide have
been reported effective.

If appropriate techniques such as these are followed according to

approved procedures, rodents will be controlled and the terminal residues of
the fumigants and pesticides will not exceed the permissible limits prescribed
hy many countries (7).
3.7 Transport

Transport from rural areas to urban centres or to pro-

cessing plants may be carried out in carts, trucks, barges,
ships and railways.

Infestation present in the transport containers may

provide sources of contamination to the stocks which are
carried by the transport system. It is therefore necessary
to disinfest empty transport containers periodically by
spraying with approved insecticides or by appropriate fumigation.
Where approved for use, pesticides such as lindane, malathion
methylbromide and ethylene dibromide are effective in disinfesting
transport containers. Material residues from previous shipments
should first be removed from the containers.

If the transit is prolonged, fumigation of the full

transport containers on reaching the destination can be helpful
in reducing infestation.

During transit in rainy and humid weather and also

during river and ocean transportation, moisture may be
absorbed by the consignment. Therefore care should be
taken to ensure that the shipment has a safe moisture con-
tent before warehousing. Use of tarpaulins, ballooning or
air-tight containers will prevent moisture uptake during
transportation on water and also during rainy and humid
weather.

Use of packaging materials resistant to insect

penetration or which have been made insect-repellent by
application of an approved chemical treatment, together
with ballooning of the bag stacks, help overcome the
hasards of moisture absorption and prevent cross-infestations
during handling and transportation. These methods can be
used for large-scale transport, storage and distribution
systems of milled and processed sorghum, maize, rice,
groundnuts and other products (7).
 - 36 -
3.8 References to Sections 3 . 6 : Storage and

3.7: Transport

1. Majumder, S . K . and Natarajan, O.P. (1963)

World Review of Pest Control 2, 25.

2. Sinha, R . M . , and Wallace, H . A . H . (1965)

Cañad. J . Plant Sci 48.

3. Majumder, S . K . , Narasimhan, K . S . , and

Parpia, H . A . B . (1965) in "Mycotoxins in
Foodstuffs" Ed. G.H. Wogan. MIT Press.

4. Sinha, R . N . ( 1 9 6 I ) Cañad. Ent. 6O9.

5. PAO Agricultural Development Paper No. 90, (1970)

"Handling and storage of food grains in tropical
and subtropical areas" 350 pp.

6. Patel, A . U . , and Adesuyl (1975) Trop.

Stored I n s t . I n f . 22, 33»

7. Majumder, S . K . (1970) Proc. I l l Inter-

national Congress of Food S c i . and
Technol., Washington, D . C . p. 513*

8. Heiss, R. (1970) An International Guide-

Principles of Food Packaging FAO 225-269.

9. FAO Agricultural Studies No. 79» "Manual

of Fumigation for insect control". 381 pp

3.9 Processing
During processing many commodities are exposed to
conditions which may favour mould development and aflatoxin
contamination. When this happens extreme care should be
taken to eliminate or reduce the risk associated with the
practice, or other processing methods should be developed.
The following are examples of processes which increase the
risk of mycotoxin contamination.

3.9.1 RICE PADDY

Milling of rice to remove the husk and some bran is a

universal practice to enhance the eye appeal as well as the
digestibility. Since certain vitamins are associated with
bran, nutritionists advocate only partial removal of the bran.
Bran retention on rice is known to reduce the keeping quality
 - 37 -

to a marked d e g r e e . The presence of sugar in the bran

makes the unpolished or partially polished rice more hygro-
scopic than the polished r i c e . T h e r e f o r e , rice with bran
retains more moisture than does polished rice and becomes
more vulnerable to insect and fungal a t t a c k .

P a r b o i l i n g of rice is extensively practised to increase

yields of head rice and to improve c o o k i n g and nutritional
quality o In the traditional method of p a r b o i l i n g , paddy is
steeped in water for three days followed by steaming, d r y i n g
and m i l l i n g . The steeping period is long enough to permit
bacterial growth which may cause discolouration and
development of o f f - f l a v o u r s . Although there is no information
on this s u b j e c t , the possibility of the rice grains carrying
some bacterial toxins e x i s t s .

A modern method of p a r b o i l i n g involves the use of

hot water for steeping, thereby r e d u c i n g considerably the
period of s t e e p i n g and limiting opportunity for microbial
growth.

Inadequate drying of the parboiled rice to safe moisture

levels or delay in drying due to high humidity or rainy
weather allows moulds to multiply and p o s s i b l y produce t o x i n s .
In southern p a r t s of K a r n a t a k a (India), farmers preserve
parboiled rice in straw b a s k e t s and store them in the kitchen
over the h e a r t h . A recent survey carried out by the Central
Food Technological Research Institute of M y s o r e revaled that
such rice was practically free from microbial growth, w h e r e a s
parboiled rice stored in the u s u a l w a y in b o x e s , bins or bags
absorbed moisture from the atmosphere and became m o u l d y .
(Whether this storage practice involves factors other than
microbial growth which may influence human health was not
d e t e r m i n e d . ) This survey also revealed that the most common
fungi c o n t a m i n a t i n g parboiled rice w e r e species of
Aspergillus and P é n i c i l l i u m , and many of the moulded samples
contained a f l a t o x i n .

After p a r b o i l i n g , p a d d y can be spread on a paved floor

for s u n - d r y i n g . Turning of t h e paddy p e r i o d i c a l l y by manual
operations helps u n i f o r m d r y i n g . Parboiled rice should be
stored at moisture contents lower than 14 p e r c e n t .

In summary, retention of bran by under-polishing rice

favours insect and fungal damage. Inadequate drying before storage
of parboiled rice aids fungal growth and mycotoxin formation.
 3.9.2 PULSES

M i l l i n g of pulses may be done by loosening the husk by

mixing with o i l and water, sun-drying and dehusking in a m i l l .

In the processing of red gram dhal ( s p l i t gram) the

kernels are f i r s t steeped in water f o r 4--12 hours, then the
soak water i s drained o f f and the kernels are mixed with a
paste of red earth and water. The mixture i s kept heaped f o r
16 hours. This i s followed by spreading of the mixture in a
drying yard. A procedure of spreading during the day and
heaping during the night i s repeated f o r 2-4 days u n t i l the
grain i s completely dehusked. Careful handling and drying i s
necessary to avoid moulding during t h i s p r o c e s s .

More than 70 percent of the grain legumes are stored and

consumed in rural aireas where f a c i l i t i e s f o r quick drying are
inadequate. As a result they are often stored at high moisture
contents. Since fungal growth invariably occurs on such
products, millers should exercise du» care in procurement of
sound l o t s . Millers should also adopt improved methods that
ensure minimum delay in drying i f legumes are milled following
conditioning (moistening) to technologically desirable l e v e l s .

Delayed drying of legumes conditioned by moistening

p r i o r to milling may lead to spoilage by fungal growth.

3.10 Decontamination

In the preceding s e c t i o n s , f a c t o r s favouring fungal

growth on foodgrains and o i l s e e d s during c u l t i v a t i o n , storage,
handling and processing have been discussed and methods f o r
preventing microbial growth have been described.

It may not always be p o s s i b l e to protect a l l the grains

produced in a country. During storage, the grain that escapes
the usual treatment t o l i m i t fungal growth may become contaminated
 - 39 -

with aflatoxin or other mycotoxines. Such materials need

special treatment to remove, destroy or inactivate the
contaminating toxins.

A decontamination process must be technically and

economically viable. In addition, an acceptable process
must meet the following criteria. The process must:

(i) destroy, inactivate or remove the myco-

toxin;

(ii) not produce or leave toxic or carcinogenic/

mutagenic residues in the final products or
in food products obtained from animals fed
decontaminated feed;

(iii) retain the nutritive value and the

acceptability of the product;

(iv) not significantly alter important technological

properties;

and ideally must

(v) destroy fungal spores and mycelia which could,

under favourable conditions, proliferate and
form new toxin.

Methods of decontamination currently extant can be

classified as involving:

(a) physical separation of mycotoxin contaminated

materials;

(b) removal of mycotoxins; and

(c) inactivation or total degradation of

mycotoxins.

Extensive studies have been carried out on aflatoxins, but

only limited information is available on other mycotoxins.
Since aflatoxin is the most potent and widely distributed of all
these toxins so far discovered, a closer examination of the
information available on aflatoxin decontamination is attempted
in the following pages. Although none of the tested chemical
 - 40 -

and solvent treatment processes have yet proved commercially

feasible, several are under active investigation for different
commodities. Therefore, this publication will describe only
variously recommended methods of physical separation of
contaminated material and inactivation of aflatoxin by sun-
light in groundnut oil and by heat treatments.

It should, however, be noted that work is currently

proceeding at a number of centres on processes utilizing
solvent extraction (e.g. methoxymethane) or chemical
detoxification with gaseous ammonia or hydrogen peroxide.
Although solvent extraction has not so far proved successful,
particularly on economic grounds, treatment by gaseous ammonia
has been demonstrated to be efficacious for cottonseed meal,
groundnut meal and maize. Studies are still under way to
determine the safety-in-use of the detoxified products for
animal feedingstuffs.

3.10.1 PHYSICAL SEPARATION OF MYCOTOXIN

CONTAMINATED MATERIALS

Fungal infection of any seed or grain usually imparts

characteristic colour or other physical properties (see Figures
7 and 8). Hence, separation of such seeds or grains by some
means is an effective approach to minimize mycotoxin contami-
nation.

Colour sorting is widely practised for groundnuts, coffee

berries and other similar-sized materials, either by using an
electronic sorter, or by manual hand-picking (see Figure 9) o r
by using both for efficient removal.

With wheat or millet, ergot contamination is frequently

encountered and the ergot seeds are removed either by a
flotation technique (l), by suspending the grains in sodium
chloride solution, or by air classification. Since the ergot
sclerotia are lighter than sound seeds they can be removed by
any one of these methods.

In all stages of handling and processing extreme care

should be exercised to remove any unit of material that has
become mouldy or is suspected to contain mycotoxin. A bag,
clump, batch or other unit of mouldy material may be easily
set aside during storage, handling or processing, but it is
Figure 7. Groundnuts. Arrows point to off-colour kernels.
Figure 8. Groundnuts. Tops sound, kernels; Centre: affected, off-
colour kernels; Bottom: affected, discoloured kernels.
 - 43 -

very difficult to remove individual grains of this mouldy

material after it has been mixed with non-mouldy grains.
The segregated mouldy portion of the product can then be
treated separately to remove the mouldy grains, or it can be
diverted to suitable non-food use. This is much less costly
than having to treat the entire lot of material.

Figure 9 : Physical separation of mycotoxin contaminated

(discoloured) groundnut kernels by hand-picking

in an oil mill•

/
 - 44 -

Examination of stored products will indicate whether

moulding or caking has occurred. Such material should be
removed from the warehouse before it becomes mixed with
other non-mouldy material. High—moisture material should
also be set aside for drying and other special treatment.

Small, shrivelled kernels, insect-damaged kernels and

broken kernels which often contain high concentrations of
aflatoxin may be removed by sizing over screens and/or by
aspiration.

3.10.2 PHYSICAL SEPARATION OP AFLATOXIN

CONTAMINATED GROUNDNUTS

There are many steps which may be employed to help re-

move aflatoxin contaminated kernels from lots of groundnuts.
The economics of each step must be considered to see whether
the increased value of the groundnuts will justify the costs.
Since the incidence of A. flavus infection and aflatoxin
contamination is usually highest in those kernels inadvert-
ently shelled by harvesting and handling operations, it is
helpful to remove those kernels by a screening operation before
the lot goes to the sheller. Furthermore, since kernels in
damaged pods usually contain more aflatoxin, they should be
removed by sorting if it is economically feasible to do so.

After shelling and sizing operations, the shelled kernels

may be scanned with electronic sorters or hand picked to remove
discoloured and mouldy kernels. This may not be feasible if the
skin colour of good kernels is highly variable. Another method
is to remove the skin or testa by blanching and then to remove
discoloured kernels by electronic sorting or hand picking. In
this case those kernels which retain skins after the process
should also be removed by hand picking or colour sorting since
mould often makes the skin adhere to the kernel.

3.10.3 REMOVAL OF AFLATOXIN IN OIL

A major portion of the aflatoxin in crude groundnut oil is

in the suspended state and this can be separated by a suitable
 - 45 -

filter. The remaining toxin can be removed by adsorption

on a suitable adsorbent0 A filter has been developed (2)
which can easily be adopted in modern oil mills in place
of the cloth filter now being used. This new filter,
which may remove the toxin to an extent of 95-100 percent,
appears to be a simple approach to solve the problem of
aflatoxin in unrefined groundnut oil.

3.10.4 DEACTIVATION OP AFLATOXIN BY HEAT

If aflatoxin cannot be completely removed, the next best

approach is to inactivate it, either by irreversible modifi-
cation of the compound chemically, or by alteration of the
active groups in the molecule.

In recent studies at the Central Pood Technological

Research Institute, Mysore, India, destruction of nearly
70 percent of aflatoxin was recorded upon cooking of rice
under steam pressure (3). Cooking at atmospheric pressure
can destroy about 50 percent of the toxin. Pressure cookers
are now being extensively used for cooking food, particularly
in urban households. This can help to minimize the hazards
of this toxin to an appreciable degree.

Dry roasting and oil roasting of groundnuts reduces

aflatoxin levels to a significant degree0. About 65 peroent
reduction in aflatoxin Bi level by oil roasting and about
69 percent reduction by dry roasting has been reported (4)»
In a subsequent study, dry roasting was found to reduce by
4O-5O percent the aflatoxin Bi content originally present (5)«
A serious threat remains, however, from foods which even after
cooking contain high concentrations of aflatoxin and from those
foods which are frequently contaminated with aflatoxin and are
not subjected to proper heat treatment.

3.10.5 INACTIVATIOS- OP AFLATOXIN BY LIGHT

Light has been successfully employed to destroy aflatoxin

in unrefined groundnut oil. Recent studies (5) have shown that
visible light is more effective than either ultraviolet or
infrared light and that sunlight is by far the best agent for
total destruction of aflatoxin. Trials carried out at the
 - 46 -

Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, India

show that oil in small clear bottles exposed to direct sunlight
for an hour will be decontaminated. The photodegraded afla-
toxin was not regenerated even after a long storage period
judging from absence of toxicity of treated groundnut oil in
animal t e s t s . Large-scale t r i a l s have not been done. However,
commercial f e a s i b i l i t y of detoxification depends on necessary
arrangements for maximum exposure of the oil to sunlight for at
least one hour. It also depends on the intensity of the sunlight.
Exposure for one hour during the brightest part of the day when the
lux units will be in the order of 50»000 should be adequate for
total destruction. Finally, commercial f e a s i b i l i t y may also
depend on avoidance of adverse changes in flavour.

In summing up the practical methods to decontaminate

infected foods, it can be stated that physical separation of
grains or oilseeds is an efficient and feasible method of
minimizing mycotoxin contamination. This is effected either
by manual operation or with the help of an electronic sorter.
Cooking rice under steam pressure, roasting groundnuts,
photodegradation of the aflatoxin in groundnut oil and
f i l t r a t i o n of the oil through a special adsorbent f i l t e r are
some of the practicable approaches towards minimizing
aflatoxin contamination in these products.

3.11 Recovering Aflatoxin-free Products from

Contaminated Starting Materials

3.11.1 MAIZE

A study has been reported of the distribution of aflatoxin

among various product fractions when the toxin contaminated maize
is milled ( 7 ) . Grits contained only one-tenth of the aflatoxin
concentration in the lot of whole kernels from which they were
produced. Aflatoxin B^ level of meal was 13-16 percent of that
in whole maize, and for flour the level was about 30-70 percent
depending on i n i t i a l aflatoxin concentration.
 - 47 -

Wet-milling of maize is used to produce starch, oil and

other products. Studies on aflatoxin contamination during
processing show that the starch, oil and most other products
are aflatoxin-free and that 8O-9O percent of the aflatoxin is
concentrated in the gluten feed fraction (steepwater, fibre
and spent grain) which must be discarded or diverted to suitable
uses ( 8 ) .

3.11.2 GROUNDNUTS

When oil is expressed from groundnuts, about 85 percent

of the aflatoxin will remain in the presscake ( 9 ) . Proper
r e f i n i n g leads to groundnut oil in which aflatoxin is not
detectable. In section 3 . 1 0 . 3 on decontamination, a method
is described for removing aflatoxin contamination from un-
refined groundnut oil by a f i l t e r i n g process, and another
method for destroying it by exposure to sunlight. The
aflatoxin-contaminated presscake may be used for animal feed
i f the final feed product has acceptably low levels. Presscake
with very high levels of aflatoxin contamination should be used
for f e r t i l i s e r . Detoxification methods ( 1 0 , 1 1 ) may also be
employed for meal, but they are not widely practised at present
because of cost.

3.12 References to Sections 3 . 1 0 and 3 . 1 1 $

Decontamination and Recovering aflatoxin-free

products from Contaminated Starting Materials

1. Singh, R . S . (1968) in "Plant diseases" p . 168

Oxford and IBM Publishing C o . , New Delhi.

2. Basappa, S . C . and Sreenivasa Murthy, V .

(unpublished data - Central Pood
Technological Research Institute, Mysore,
India).

3. Pa8iha Rehania and Sreenivasa Murthy, V.

(unpublished data - Central Pood Technological
Research Institute, Mysore, India)
 - 48 -

4. Eschor, F . E . , Koehler, P . E . and Ayers,

J . C . ( 1 9 7 3 ) J . Food S c i . 38, 8 8 9 .

5. Waltking, A . E . (1971) J . AOAC 533-

6. Shantha, T . , and Sreenivasa Murthy, V.

( 1 9 7 7 ) Ind. J . Techn. (in p r e s s . )

7. Brekke, O . L . , Paplinski, A . J . , Nelson,

G . E . N . , and G r i f f i n , E . L . (1975)
Cereal Chem. ¿ 2 , 205.

8. Yabl, K . R . , Watson, S. A . , Smith, R . J .

and Barabolok, R ( l 9 7 l ) , Cereal Chem.
385.

9. Basappa, S . C . , and Sreenivasa Murthy, V

( 1 9 7 4 ) , J . Food S c i . and Teohnol. 1 1 , 1 9 6 .

10. Sreenivasa Murthy, V . , Parpia, H.A.B.

Srikanta, S . and Shankar Murbi (1967)
J . A . O . A . C . ¿ 0 , 35O.

11. Hann, G . E . , Codifer, L . P . , Gardner,

H . K . , Koltum, S . P . and Dollear, F . G .
(I970) J . Amer, Oil Chem. Soc. 173.

3.13 U t i l i z a t i o n of Mouldy or Mycotoxin-Contaminated

Products

Since it is not always possible to prevent moulding or

mycotoxin contamination in agricultural products, it is extremely
important to provide alternative uses for contaminated products
in order to reduce economic loss to the producer and to encourage
diversion of these products to acceptable u s e s . Traditional
processing produces mycotoxin-free components from some commodities.
Traditional milling and blending operation used for animal feed
will also reduce mycotoxin concentration to acceptable levels for
selected animals. However, the production efficiency for some
animals may be reduced by even a low concentration of mycotoxins
and there is a risk that mycotoxin contamination may be transferred
to some animal products used as food. These problems and approaches
to solutions are also discussed in some detail in the publication
"Mycotoxin Surveillance — A G u i d e l i n e " , FAO Food Control Series, No.
 - 49 -

There is very little knowledge about the effects of

low concentrations of mycotoxins on the susceptibility of
animals to diseases and the efficiency of their production
of meat, milk or work. It has been demonstrated that some
of the ingested mycotoxins may be transmitted to animal
tissue and to milk. Cows may transmit up to 3 percent of
ingested aflatoxin to their milk as aflatoxin M^. Although
this is a low percentage, the risk is increased because
milk is often consumed by children or young animals who
are known or suspected to be more susceptible to the
effects of the toxin than are adults or older animals. It
is therefore essential that the aflatoxin levels in animal
feeds should be kept low.

Proper proportions of the contaminated material in

the ration will lower the concentration of mycotoxin by
dilution. Different tolerances for mycotoxins in the ration
should be set according to the animal species, animal age
and end use of the animal products. An example of such
blending practice based on effects on animal health or
productivity is given in Appendix 6, but it should be
emphasized that this is only an example. Regulations in
relation to such practices exist in many countries. Such
regulations as allow admixture in this way have been developed
in the light of up-to-date research and toxicological inter-
pretation in relation to the total food chain. If blending
practices are contemplated in any situation, information on
current regulatory requirements is essential.

In summary, blending of toxin-contaminated material with

toxin-free material reduces the effective level of mycotoxin.
Whereas in maize processing most of the aflatoxin is
concentrated in the gluten feed fraction, in groundnut expeller
processing 15 percent of the total aflatoxin resides in the oil
and the remaining 85 percent in the meal. Aflatoxin-contaminated
groundnut meal can be used in animal feeds, provided that in the
final mix aflatoxin levels are within permissible limits, e.g«
for cattle and poultry. Groundnut oil on the other hand can be
either refined or passed through an adsorbent-coated filter or
the aflatoxin photodegraded by exposure of the oil to sunlight
for one hour.
 - 50 -

PART III

4. NEEDS AND AIDS FOR IMPLEMENTATION

OF THE RECOMMENDED PRACTICES

4.1 Data Base and Monitoring

The most important prerequisite for any action programme

i s to know which of the commodities grown in any region are
susceptible to fungal damage, and at what stage or stages they
are vulnerable to fungal infection leading to mycotoxin
formation. Such information is only obtained by comprehensive
survey programmes designed to identify

(a) high risk crops and commodities, and

(b) high risk regions.

To these parameters must be added, with particular reference

to those areas of the world in which significant proportions
of susceptible crops are consumed by the indigenous population,
the identification of

(c) high risk populations and age groups.

Comprehensive survey programmes to establish data deemed

reliable to effect judgements in these three areas would include
analysis of the food and feedingstuffs for mycotoxins at all
stages in the food chain from growth, through harvesting, drying,
storage, transportation and post^-harvest processing, including
decontamination if necessary, together with a knowledge of
household uses of both raw materials and products.

The reliable identification of the "high risk" parameters

would enable appropriate channeling of both effort and resources
to those links in the food chain where maximum effect could be
achieved. In the case of high risk populations and age groups,
education and the encouragement of improved food and (child)
 - 51 -

feeding habite would require the provision, in some oases,

of nutritionally adequate and acceptable alternative diets.

Any studies of the effectiveness of action along these

lines will require continuing programmes of surveillance of
foodstuffs, diets, and the health status of population, perhaps
over long periods of time. These aspects are discussed in
FAO Pood Control Paper No. 4' "Mycotoxin Surveillance —
A Guideline."

4.2 Education and Extension

The identification of high risk commodities, high risk

regions and high risk populations carries with it an obligation
to inform populations of the risks involved in the consumption
of mould-infected foods»

Farming communities should be encouraged to adopt changes

in agricultural practices designed to eliminate or drastically
reduce the occurrence of situations in which fungal growth is
favoured. The role of the extension worker is vital to this
part of any educational programme, since he or she is the means
by which information is relayed to farmers, traders, public
health workers and the consumers. The full panoply of the
modern 'communications industry' should be utilized by the
extension worker as appropriate or available, including talks
at all levels, local-language pamphlets, audio-visual aids and
demonstrations.

4»3 Marketing, Distribution and Incentives

It must be recognized that different types of marketing

systems exist throughout the world for crops and commodities
liable to mycotoxin contamination. Thus, in some countries,
small farmers produce a limited number of commodities, mainly
for their own consumption, or for local sale« It is also not
uncommon for just that part of a crop which is surplus to •
family or even village requirements to be offered for sale in
the larger market. This part would not necessarily be subjeot
to quality control procedures or appraisal suited to a national
or international market.
 - 52 -

On a larger scale marketing boards may operate

particularly for some commodities such as groundnuts for
which a wider national and international demand exists-
Such marketing boards have over a period of time developed
systems or grading and quality control. These practices,
developed largely in response to the stipulations of
importing countries based on public health and quality
criteria, have resulted in improved and more stable prices
for producers and exporters o

It is therefore clear that one incentive for the

development of improved marketing and distribution systems,
— in addition to appropriate adoption of the various
recommendations in Part I of this publication — exists when a
higher price can be obtained for better quality and
uncontaminated produce.

In those situations where the government of a country

initiates or controls the bulk of the trade in crops and
commodities liable to mycotoxin contamination, there is merit
in the provision of adequate price incentives for product
conforming to criteria of cultivation, harvest, handling,
storage and transportation, designed to ensure that only
high quality, uncontaminated produce appears in world trade.

APPENDIXES 1 to 7

APPEAR Cfisi THE FOLLOWING PAGES

 - 53 -
®
as O ®
S •H bo
o O © E a5
o rH O rH © E Vi
c O •í-t
* aS C 1 a! O
CD O o Vi X¡ E •rl O T3
-P fH •H O •P O
•p •rt -p a]
O 03 -P aS C M as fH S
O) O a5 c P aS C P, ® O
Vi ¡>» fn o
,© •ri >» t3 -o -p •rl ® ¡> -p
Vi 10 CD C c •rl •a rH W •H as
0) © Vt -P rH •P a) aS aS O c X> rH P.
(3 oí aS aS c •rl aS E >» ®
O T3 fn S fH x) rH H ® -p T> xl
•rl •H -P -H •H aS as O C fH •H c
M M rH C C M •H •rl -P aS -p O aS C
O •h as •rH p E •H •H
-p T3 Vi 73 O o c T3 M © K
c C Vi a) C fH fH © O ® O •rl O
0) © •H O S es a> O <D O •H -P C -P m 0}
E ¡>» ^ O
-p -P •H O •rl rH •H o O rH
O U fn aS S -H E as O aS fH fH -p aS
CO ® -P (D as > fn
® •H S •H E •rl •P ® x¡ as E
> -P > P. -P •P E H © > P. Pt-rl
•H aS -H © •H V C -p
o C aS o •H ® ® a
V r-H W O -a! E E-< A fe W as

®
O ~
•H CD-p
fH © a
-d ®s ca
Vi
•a ~ © ja Vi
® © m ? ® 3
•p -p © -P
o
® o - 0) CD
3 _ •P ® Tí
v Td a3 xi O
v.
ce
O
fH CDo
oB O
Vi
P< -p o »
03 OM fn
®
Vi C O rH
<H a •rl XI
3 as fH - E -P
•p a> CD O
M a> xi T3 -
T> -p ®
® -pCQ Tí
o g C
o tQ 3 œ a> © © CD aS
(i. TJ C C rH rH rH rH rH ®
C O aS aS aS © ©
3 -P ® ® © ® © ® ® ®
O ® ®
O -P ® fn fn fH fH fH •rl O O O
fH O fH ® © © © ® a) •H •rt •H
« •rl
«
O O -P O O u u O S3 « «
02
•P
c
fH © có
00 © 3 C
3 ja rH •>H
> -p rH E
aS
aS o •H
rH m 6£ -P
G V 3 fH T3 fH E a
S3 O O © C © a 3 o
•H a> •H rH 3 © P O o
C 3 -p O © © S •H •rl
rH •H o o © © <«! m o T3 73
rH Oj •rl aS 3 3 3 rH G C as
fH •rl as CQ fH > ? Vi > OS aS fn
O tí fH fH .c as © O © al S) 3
fH aS ® o rH rH rH rH -p
® P t» o «H V • Vi 2 aS
P P< V c
® e
<E
<\ <\
•
<< «1 <51 Cl 00 <ül PH P. Oh| PH| 03
aS
él
c ti
®
•rt
H •p
T) O o
®
-rl -P
* O c -p
®
* 1 © O * l © O c •#H
© O c •H •O o •H •H H T>
C -p •H rH •rl fH O c fH c 1 c o
•rl © M rH O •P •H © >> •H © •rl -p CD
K a *
bD c
o •rl
t»
© •rl O
c C
3© m
o
c C©
•H •H T3
•H C
•rl
O -p fH
-P •rl -rl © fH o 1 © O o r-H fH © H C H
M © fH -P fH ® Tí •H © ft E © 3 o •P -P © O
-p
o rH © © ja P.-H •o -p O © -p So rH C Pt rH
fH V -P >3 o ©O o ® fH fH 3 3 X! O © OD o
<< to O o <«! © P< ÊH e O O Pt W o
• • • • • • • • • • •
rH OJ m r- 00 CTs O rH
rH rH
 - 54 -
aS ©
•H 3 s
© © ©
as m rH
«M © >> Fi © •H P
O M U E
© © <H © p += CO
© o •o S) O© a) as •H
•H > 73 S «H u
•>iH s •H 09
00 p O E © •H m ni
© aS - a aS aS œ
p p rH •H © CO M rH O •rH X) B «H X
+>!
o © H bO as m O M tj Fi o
© C
P4 «H O O •a E . - t •H O ©
i O«
3
«H O O P m E • E •H © o >> •n TJ &
Vt U ta Op •H œ as E rH rH © •H O
œ xi •H C p as O p «S •H P P. o
h as E © fe
o
•H
P.
©
C
©
>»
rH
o
•H
-f3
£ft E
h
aS
O
(H ©
©
x¡
B
c
©
O ^
O
•H B
TJ
B
aS © © I
M aS aS •H E rH aS Fi P H « 3 XI 3
O rH Fi Fi rH rH •H Pi <D O Ü O E © P o «in
P as aS p aS o aS © B XI
p XI>» H
H P •H m O
© •H O, rH •H •H •H © aS T3 M «H ©
X> •H fit B XI E E S © o J3 O >» B O O fe c
E O C «H O © o O •H •rH O EH Fh a5 F* S o
O M aS S FH 60 h •H o P •e a5 a) O ©
m o m •H •H ro O O O œ mm p •H C P rH p © © © •H ©
•H f-t rH p •H B •H p rH c P as CO © B rH E p © p
E tri ta >» aS S •H E «S 3 o Ü aS © aS © O aS XI
o a E P Fi •H O •H FH > •H •H S S S S E Fi Fh Fi •H
P -H E P P M P B m M FH •H -H •ri Ü XI
3 c ai aS CM B aS E E o © O © a rH B M E © «H c
<< © ï& fe O o! O o! •H o rH TJ <«5 aS CO •H te O

TJ
<D
P
O
as
«H «H
«N
«H Vi
© 00 3 ©
•s
00
<w
TS
<D
©
P
co
-O
£ ©
»
«H fe o p © •H ©
3 © o c© p © aJ ©
-P as p E as
G0 o rH
p<
© © Fh
TJ TJ XI o
©
S)
O c Í*
«s rH ©
as
£
© © © £© »© «
© rH
© p ©
as N
© 3
o «
« © H rH M TJ ©
©
o O •H P. •H O I—I M P FH © -H Fh o
©
P © •H
«
•H •H
K S
aS Pi
«t
ai
S3
£
O CO
a] as
O W
XI as
* S
©
O fe «
©
P
C
Pi as
TJ PI
B
S © •H
© Ë
S © cd
© 3 Fi © P
T J •H P © C
•H rH © T) O
FH rH •H S O
S •H •H B S © © O p
CO E > O B 3 >i E •H
3
£
©
•H 3 1 •H •H •H Fi © XI o ©
e E O E oQ P E O p E O c U
aS © © a O •H •H O Fi E •H •H 3
p
x>
•rt
M © <u rH P P © 3 Fi O
FH FH P i
U P P X> PJ x> O O O >i P •H P •H ai
O •H •H FH g M
®
>5 M Fi X2 rH Fi O
pu
b
O ©
O XI a O © © O © © Fi
rH rH © Fi O CQ
©
• • O -Cp P
° CO O côi (2 © fe|&,| fe|
Pi Pli O ¿ I Pul CO t©
3
P
O
®
B O o
•H •H oo c« -P
©
TJ © E £
•H B O O I * * * rH TJ
* Fi •H •H H © p >>H c rH aS
B •H H rH © E O K o •H O > œ
•H • O a H •H © XI X o c© M C H C
B O P •H •H Pi rH p 0 (P B •H
rH po p
•H © O* O a i ? E © Pi M
po
©
Fi Fh U 3 •H T) rH TJ u O H o h
-P p Xi p E •H Ü H as M *< a) -h CM g S
M •H •H 3 © © O >» o
o
a p o Ei •H O 1 > O o
O O O fi Ph PH © O © P. CO p P 00 Eh • H
te O® o
• • • • • • •
CM rO ITi VO C— oo ON o CM m
rH rH rH rH iH rH rH CM CM CM CM
 - 55 -

m S T ) Cfl
-p >» C E m T3
o co Cfl •H rH C
03 C Cfl cfl
CH c CD cfl E
tu •H rH • H 03
Q) 0) -P C C rH
•P -P •H cfl -p
O O Cfl -p
•H fH O O Cfl
M P . •rH O O
O © C C
-P «H O •H co a> cfl c
O -ri •H M E • H
<D E -P co o 03
e C O o h CQ Î5Û
o O C o FH -p O G
CQ •H - « H CH O 03 0/ • H CD
-P a> 03 C
•H 03 a) c 1 r-l 0 00 03
,£> H (H Cfl ¿i a)
3
•H 03 o i-t CD •H i l 03 fe
.£2 CD m •H Pi O O fH C

M
C Sí
-P fe
o Cfl
-P £ fi rH
W
O
Xi O
cfl

T3 • O
a> 03
-p m 03
o rH
0) Cfl
Ch 03 «N
fc >»
cfl 03 03
m O rH
CO rH u M
Cfl •N cfl 03
tH 03 03 pp i»
3 fH 3 o
-P 03 o •N rH
CQ

o
Ü

-O fe
CO
03
w
% O

o s 03 03
cfl •V u «
03 03 3
03 N N -p •N
O • H •iH m
•H Cfl C? cfl cfl Cfl
« S W S PH W

co
-p
as C
rH a!
o C
o •H
S •H E
3 C 03
C •H -P
aS E C
• P 3 O
U S O

i
E aS 03
s 3 S3 rH
GO u O cfl
•H as as ÍH
C 03 CO •H 3
-p
a <D 03 C 03 C co
rH rH •H O o P- cfl
f-t as cfl E -p CD C
o > > cfl s o O
m
•rH
C
•rH
C
h
S
o
sí
o
«
•iH
> Cfl
-p • H aS
• • • • H S3 rH t 3
fel P M Ph PÍ O a>
-p
o
a)
-p
* 02
03 C Cfl œ
03 03 C • H •H «CS
C 73 O E C
O • H c 03 O m
c rH 03 03 -p c
03 O rH T3 o • H
«
fH C Cfl • H o C -P
Cfl 03 U fH N •iH O
M 03 -P Cfl O • i H !-! S ) -P
O
Eh £ £ N
03
CO
p. S3 O
« •P s
o
c

• • • • •
LP\ \o r — C O a-\
CM CM CM CM CM CM
 - 56 -

Appendix 2

Probable mycotoxicoses caused by rusts and smut

Country Organism Animal Symptoms

England Tilletia tritioi Dog Epileptiform convulsions and

acute cerebral meningitis

England T. tritici Chickens Lesions on comb, wattles

and mucous membrane

USA Ustilago zeae Humans Toxicosis

Rumania Puocinia graminis Horses Fatal intoxication,

salivation and stomatitis

Russia Smut Pigs Conjunctivitis, irritation

of upper respiratory tract,
edema of lungs

Egypt Puccinia sp. Buffalo, Stimulation of uterine

Sheep, Rats muscles

Russia Ustilago hordei Pigs Conjunctivitis icterus of

mucous membranes and skins,
pulmonary edema (acute form),
encephalitis (chronic form),
blood alteration

Russia Ustilago hordei Cattle Toxicosis as above

Russia Tilletia laevia Mice Toxicity and death

Rats No effect

Ustilago hordei Rats No effect

1/ Martin, P . M . D . , and Gilman, G . A . ( 1 9 7 6 ) . A consideration of the

mycotoxin hypothesis with special reference to the mycoflora of
maize, sorghum, wheat and groundnuts. Tropical Products Institute,
London.
 - 57 -

Appendix 3

Schedule for treatment of "bag stacks under warehouse storage for

protection from damage by insects, moulds and rodents

The satisfactory storage of commodities under warehouse con-

ditions requires a two-pronged approach:

(a) to eradicate a resident or initial infestation, and

(b) to prevent cross-infestation from outside sources.

This means that both curative and prophylactic measures are

required for sound storage of the commodities. The curative
measures such as fumigation or heat disinfestation as well as
the protective treatments are to be employed in situ in the
warehouse. The code of practice for safe handling is as follows:

(1) The bag stacks should be built on moisture-proof and

insect-proof dunnage leaving enough alleyways and space
between the stacks and walls and among stacks. •

Stacks should meet criteria such as stability,

optimum utilization of space and consideration for the
bearing capacity of the loweBt layer of the bag stack.

Prior to stacking, dunnage should be treated with

an appropriate pesticidal composition (e.g. based on
lindane or malathion) in high viscosity oil. Approved
usage rates of most such insecticides would result in
application of the active ingredients at 50 mg/ft2 of
the surface area. This treatment can exert lethal
effects on crawling insects and mites and prevent termite
attack from the soil.

Rodents are responsible for polluting stored

materials with their excreta and hair. Many harmful
species of micro-or,<*anisms are carried and dispersed by
insects and rodents.

(2) Hodent control measures include removal of rodent

harbourage, rodent stoppage, premise sanitation, prudent
use of rodenticide tracking, powders, traps, application
of poison bait in bait containers and fumigation of rat
burrows in a safe manner.

The burrowing habits of many rodents, such as Ban dicota»

Tatera and Milardia, are well know. Rattus rattus and Mus
muBculus reside within the precints of the storage structures,
 - 58 -

and c o n t r o l measures f o r these rodents depend on the

a p p l i c a t i o n of a t t r a c t i v e poison bait or e f f i c i e n t
t r a p s . Mice may complete a l i f e c y c l e without
leaving a stack, making them a d i f f i c u l t pest t o
control.

The storage structure i t s e l f could be made more

rodent-proof by proper design of the p l i n t h . "Rodent-
p r o o f i n g of the warehouse may be improved by providing
a f u n c t i o n a l ramp s l i g h t l y away from the main b u i l d i n g .
The gap may e a s i l y be bridged whenever necessary by
providing a s u i t a b l e plank. The building wall should
be smooth, the f l o o r should be damp-proof, doors and
windows capable of being made gas-tight and the r o o f
s u i t a b l e f o r fumigation.

(3) Risk of product d e t e r i o r a t i o n occurs during t r a n s -

port and d i s t r i b u t i o n and when products stored in
warehouses are subjected t o c r o s s - i n f e s t a t i o n by stored
product i n s e c t s and by rodents.

None of the packaging materials such as jute bags,

cotton c l o t h bags, plastic-laminated thin-walled c o n -
t a i n e r s , paper bags and t h e i r laminates seem t o answer
a l l the f u n c t i o n a l requirement f o r safe transport and
d i s t r i b u t i o n . A l l of these are l i a b l e t o succumb t o
attack by moulds, rodents or i n s e c t s . Suitable chemical
treatment t o increase r e s i s t a n c e t o attack by i n s e c t s
i s o f t e n r e q u i r e d . Since, e . g . malathion and other
p e s t i c i d e s can be s t a b i l i z e d in appropriate o i l s and
these compositions do not pose a problem of t r a n s f e r
from the t r e a t e d surface t o the commodities stored in
the bags, the outer surfaces of the stack can r e a d i l y
be made more nearly i n s e c t - p r o o f by prophylactic spraying.

For l a r g e - s c a l e treatments of empty bags, a machine

has been designed. A spray emulsion, containing e . g .
lindane i s d i l u t e d with water and sprayed on the bags.
With a s k i l l e d operator about 2500-3000 bags can be
t r e a t e d in 8 hours using the p e s t - p r o o f i n g machine.
Drying i s quite rapid as the moisture increase of the
bag immediately a f t e r spraying does not exceed 2 t o 3
p e r c e n t . The cost of i n s e c t - p r o o f i n g empty gunny bags
worked out t o about 25 (Indian) paise or 3(US) c e n t s ,
some years ago. The t r a n s f e r or migration of residues
 - 59 -

to grains stored in these bags does not exceed customary

tolerance limits.

In most cases insecticide treatment of bags of

foodstuffs is required during storage in the warehouse.
This is usually done with insecticide formulations that
are water emulsifiable or wettable powders. To spray
the interior of the loaded warehouse with a water-
dispersible composition at times of extremely high
relative humidity may invite the danger of moisture
increase and fungal growth. Dusting with residual
pesticidal formulations also may be difficult to carry
out without increasing food contamination hazards.

The following technique of an in situ prophylactic

spray treatment, using an oil-based formulation, has
been developed for stacks of packed commodities in
conjunction with a fumigation treatment.

It has been reported that a combination of ground-

nut oil, a high-viscosity mineral oil and batching oil
considerably increased the toxicity of some insecticides
and their stability on the treated surface. The prevention
of cross-infestation has been stated to be achieved by
careful selection of solvents, synergists and pesticides,
and by proper application of formulations on the outer
surfaces of the stacks.

The web clearances of the sack materials should be

considered before direct spraying on the bag stack;
impinging droplets of spray should not readily infiltrate
through the bags. Direct spraying can be carried out
safely on A-twill, B-twill and DW types of bag f i l l e d with
commodities. The bags with higher web clearance should be
protected ty spreading over the stacks a prophylactic
cloth impregnated by chemical treatment using, e . g .
lindane and malatkion in hi^i viscosity o i l . Lightweight
unbleached muslin has been reported to serve well as a
protective covering,treated or untreated.

(4) The absorption of moisture during storage in atmos-

pheric conditions may create certain problems. Groundnut,
coffee and rice stored in coastal areas and also in humid
weather in other parts of a country during the rainy season
can be fumigated, e . g . with methyl bromide or ammonia-
 - 60 -

phosphine (1:1.6) mixtures, and protected during subsequent

storage by the ballooning technique. The ballooning tech-
nique prevents absorption of moisture from the atmosphere.
It also renders the stack resistant to cross-infestation by
insects. Ballooning has proved extremely useful under the
existing facilities of storage in coastal and other humid
areas. Huge capital investment for the construction of
costly warehouses,with humidity control of silós and ele-
vators, can be avoided with the application of this appropriate
technology. Caution must be observed, however, that conden-
sation and resulting localized moisture problems do not occur.

When weather conditions prevented proper drying, this

fumigation technique has been successfully applied to freshly-
harvested groundnuts in India. Freshly harvested groundnut
pods containing moisture below 35 percent were enclosed in
two polyethylene sheets (250 gauge, 0.06 mm) and after
measuring the volume of the heap, required amounts of reaction
mixtures or fumigañts were placed beneath the sheet at
different points (see Figure 10). The exposure period varied
between 36 and 72 hours depending on the climatic conditions.
In situ generation of the fumigant within the polyethylene
enclosure led to partial sterilization of the pods, which were
subsequently sun-dried. The gas mask(s) fitted with the
appropriate canister(s) must always be used as directed during
such fumigations.

It must be cautioned that phosphine is highly toxic to

human beings and the permissible limit of the gas in the
atmosphere is of the order of 0.05 ppm. This technique
should therefore not be conducted in a closed building
without appropriate precautions; a shed with proper
ventilation may be suitable. During aeration the desorption
of phosphine is relatively rapid, while ammonia shows some
lingering action. The traces of ammonia usually disappear
during drying. Ammonia, however, does not present known
toxicological hazards to consumers when present on groundnut
pods. For more information on fumigation refer to FAO
Agricultural Studies No. 79, "Manual of Fumigation for
Insect Control" 1969, 381 pp.
Figure 10: Fumigation of wet groundnut pods
under polyethylene sheets
 - 6 2 -

Appendix 4

Influence of moisture content on mould growth during storage of grains at

different temperatures and relative humidities

Relative Humidity
Temp. 3C# 80$ 90$
50£ 70$
Commodity range
°C
Moisture content (wet basis)

Rioe-polished 28-31 9.0 10.6 12.6 16.0* 23.0*

10-11 9.9 11.0 12.4 13.2 22.5

Rice-parboiled 28-31 9-2 10.9 13.6 15.1 22.8*

10-11 8.3 11.3 13.9 14.5 20.5*
Wheat 28-31 8.6 10.5 13.2 18.0* 20.4*
10-11 8.4 11.0 13.2 14.1 23.0*
Sorghum 28-31 8.9 11.0 13.6 17.5* 21.6*
10-11 8.3 10.7 13.5 14.2 22.1*

Bengal gram 28-31 5.1 9.6 14.0 22.7* 26.8*

10-11 6.6 10.1 11.2 16.4* 25.0*

Green gram 28-31 6.2 9.3 11.8 14.7* 26.3*

10-11 7.5 9.2 11.0 13.9 31.6*
Horse gram 28-31 6.6 9.1 11.6 16.6* 25.3*
10-11 7.0 9.3 10.7 14.0 26.0
Groundnut
kernel 28-31 3.0 4.8 6.6 10.3* 18.0*
10-11 3.7 4.2 5.9 8.4 16.8*
Cumin 28-31 9.9 11.6 14.0 22.0* 30.0*
10-11 6.8 7.0 9.2 21.8* 28.0*

Coriander 28-31 9-7 11.4 16.9 24.5* 30.0*

10-11 7.2 8.3 10.2 22.0* 29.6*
Coffee bean 28-31 5.5 7.6 9.0 14.5 20.0*
10-11 6.0 7.2 8.8 14.0 18.2*
* Visible mould growth
Prom Majumder et a l . , 1965 in "Hycotoxins in Foodstuffs"
5 d . O . H . tfogan, MIT ^ e f m , Cambridge Mass. USA.
 - 63 -

Appendix 5

Moisture content equilibrium values (at a temperature

of about 27°C) for a range of produce at 70 percent
relative humidity, the maximum acceptable level for
storage for any sample (l)

Equilibrium
moisture content
at 70 percent RH

Maize 13.5

Wheat 13.5

Sorghum 13.5

Millet 16.0

Paddy 15.0

Rice 13.0

Cowpeas .. 15.0

Beans 15*0

Groundnuts (shelled) "].0

Cottonseed 10.0

Cocoa beans "J.O

Copra 7.0

Palm kernels .. .. 5.0

(l) Prom FAO Agricultural Development Paper

W o . 9 0 , I97O, on "Handling and Storage
of Pood Grains in Tropical and Sub-
tropical areas", p . 53*
 - 64 -

ÉH
©
c 1 ft
•rl Vi
«
O
o cd •P TJ
S ©
-P o rH © © to U tO/—.
cd •H S cd -p Vi tobos g a u t« M to to to
rH rH o -p c E S S s s a s a
Vl M o o TJ m m m
<< «H -p o © m m r— t— m m meo oo co m m
ft H o o o o O rH CM CM r n
o • o o•
rO
o o
t— t—
o o
V © •n s c •ri o o o o o o • • • • •
o PÍ © •rl S
©
-p
o
s
•rl
«
o
to o o o o o o o o o o o o
o o o o o o o

s n
•p ©
3
M -P M
cd cd
s rH
« Tí
•H © • •
a
-5 a
fH cd a
O s •H m
© CH H -p
rH © o c
X> © O p ©
•H TJ cd C TJ
ra cd «s rH O ©
an S rH Vl ft © © © © © A> <D
•rl © cd S Vi k u ¡h h h
s * •H o
u © ^ «H o © 2 5 -P P 5
© a O Xi K K K H K X
ft o •s to -p •H -H H H -H -H m m m m• m r— • •t— •t— • m
• m
•
H © © c s e s e e s . . . m m
s +s • p CVJ CVJ r<-| m r o r—
h •ri o <*3T?x)x)'cJT3mmr—c—r—rHrH
oS 3 3 C -P cd cd cd cd cd cd

ssa a a a s iüliii
- o -P -P •H
c •H
© H cd O o o o o o ..
•P •H -P c c c c c c e s e s s s e
S © S C
S c TJ o
o M < o
T J o©
a Xi <J\
a « O Vû
fH CT\ TJ
©
CT\ ©Cd rH T©J © TJ
© TÍ
© ©
•73 VO
a> a - TJ © VL © © © «
TÍ
© ON œ = » VL <H © <H «
« to © TJ to TJ V. .
© . to
c x) V TJ © to a tO
© © C H C © 60 C to ©
s T J -H œ
•H s h © u © Vl •H VL FL -H Fi ©
m cd © © Vl Xi •H X •H V
«H .d m .tí „
- p TJ p p to ca 00 ©
C © rH - p ¡o c TJ © -H
Vl h © •rl •H C "TI
© © cd aS TJ c •rl a T©J -- p
•P
-P
O
TJ -P © •H © tí -H O p TJ
©
® •H VI . ©
a Ci © © © h cd T©J VI © Vi TJ VI cd «
o
o T3 © TJ
© s s
ft V
© Vi cd ©
© fH © © ©
VL
>s ©
h ©
© ffi ©
0 <H

M •H aS
c •H U
£ © M
X M o
h
x>
fcrH
M H
VL ÍH
© - p >> ft
fH ©
© rH Vi fi rH
+»
•H G © h o U •H to e M > » - p •H © •H ©
H ft © 3 •H cd u o •H cd cd cd xi 1 *
O O J 5 -p
-p -p w -p
a £O ft l-l
£ m
ft t-P O o co ^ pp ¿ .3 O P OT

«
1-t © rH S
VI as
** c u -p
© 3 m *
© c -p fl -P ©
xi o rH
2JP
© c© > to
• p ft 3 •H
•H X
s O TJ -p •rl"
V o •rH © c •H TO
o u C o O S a
ft o œ s
o o -p a
-p t o * * •rl o o
c c -P ft rH ft •
c
© •H cd •H >»o
s c S rH
-© >» O
© •H
œ a a5
& o
u
H
o
-P
-P O
P -H
g J f *
© -p S VI cd tO
m c U c iH © O t-
© o © M •H ft U fc •
Vl i—t 3 O P O
< o o r C 03 w * «o ^
 - 65 -

u> ® -
a m H Vl >,
Oí O C
e a)
t¡ as as >» S
® fc M -P U
m 60 ® h ®
ra o > a
S -P <H
p. H O O
® S m
M
as T3 O
IT\ O H
® CNJ•tí fH r H
fi I < D Pi fi
IT\ -P
O rH TJ P4
-P c a)
® aJ «
œ î>
s o XI
o fi P aS
O aJ rH h
aJ ©
m m ®
te -p jd ®
x¡ a ® ® Pu
®
-H -P fip
c a p
®o
P o
c
O T3 a h
O c o
a]
C
C -P
H S •H S ®
O u
P ® t-t
+» (l) 60 b
S O •rt
® CO 8
•H as •H C!
X)
® M O tJO
O c
ms
^t ctí •o
ci C c
® ai P<
P<
T3 as
T3 O® •p o
® C H m
® ®S as
<M o
® C
®
® o «pH a¡ ®
rH 0 u
oH X! H -
•P T®J as C r as
® 60 n p
OJ ® •H 3
O Vi rH rH P ®
fi >> M m a¡ x>
>» P. as rH -p
p O m <H\ o
•H ® a) 60 - O - Ho
a] xj h S © <>Ha
« 03 1 œ P H
C— rH ® -P
•o C
CD •h œ
s a h X! §
aS c ü
h oœ m
* , » t¿
•p 60 a
s M p fc
® O fi® g)•
® \ o
4? 60 B bû -O ®
C >» s M C®
O r-t om fi
O 60 O <d rH cd • >
C •H fi w ®
C o eg U o rH O
•H uœ O c > -»
H •P > o P e •
O œ -h -p CM •H œ rH•H
-p
as
rH
•p _
>> H O h
fH O • ® S haJ oc rt o
«H ® O rH
< > P«-— £
 - 66 -

Appendix 7

List of some institutions working on mycotoxins

The following is a short list of some of the institutes known to

be actively working on various aspects of mycotoxins. Others working
in this field are invited to provide brief information on their myco-
toxin related activities for possible inclusion in updated versions of
this publication or others as appropriate. Send advice tos Food Science,
Control and Consumer Protection Group, Pood Standards and Food Science
Service, Food Policy and Nutrition Division, FAO, 00100, Rome, Italy.

Brazil 1. Universidade de Sao Paulo

Depto. De Tecnologia Rural
E.S.A. Luiz de Queiroz
13.400-Piracicaba, S.P.

a} Aflatoxin
b) Ochratoxin

2é Instituto Adolfo Lutz

Av. Dr. Arnaldo
Sao Paulo, S.P.

(a.) Aflatoxin
(b) Ochratoxin

Canada Health and Welfare Canada

1. Health Protection Branch

Ottawa, Ont. K1A

a} Analysis of mycotoxins
b) Toxicology of pénicillium toxins

2. Health of Animals Branch

Animal Pathology Division
115 Veterinary Road
Saskatoon, Sask. S7N 2R3

a) Analysis of mycotoxins
b) Toxicology of mycotoxins
Institute of Hygiene and
Microbiology,
Royal Veterinary and Agricultural
University
Copenhagen

(a) Pathology of mycotoxins

Federal Centre for Meat Research

Oscar-von-Miller Strasse 20
8650 Kulmbach

a} Pénicillium toxins
b) Fusarium toxins

Federal Health Office

Max Von Pettenkofer-Institute
Thielallee 88/92
D1000 Berlin 33

a) Analysis of mycotoxins
b) Toxicology of mycotoxins

Institut National de la Recherche

Agronomique
Service des Mycotoxines
16 rue Nicolas Fortin 75014
Paris

(a) Analysis of myootoxins

National Institute of Nutrition

Hyderabad, A.P.

(a.) Toxioology of mycotoxins

(b) Epidemiological surveys
(c) Resistant varieties of seeds

Vallabh Bai Patel Chest Institute

New Delhi

(a) Biosynthesis of aflatoxin

 - 68 -

India (continued) 3, Central Food Technological

Research Institute
Mysore

(a) Analysis, prevention, control

and detoxification
(b) Isolation, characterization and
metabolism of fungi
(o) Toxicology
d} Epidemiological studies
e) Insect infestation control

4* The Overseas Merchandise Inspection Co.

Dr. A. B. Road
Worley
Bombay-25

(a) Analysis of aflatoxin

Israel The Hebrew University

Department of Botany
Laboratory of Mycology and Mycotoxicology
Jerusalem

(a) Toxicology of mycotoxins

Japan 1. The Institute of Medical Science

University of Tokyo
Takanawa
Tokyo

(a) Pénicillium Toxins

2. Pood Research Institute

Ministry of Agrioulture and Forestry
Tokyo

(a) Toxigenic fungi on stored foods

 - 69 -

The Netherlands National Institute of Public Health

P.O. Box 1, Bilthoven

(a.) Microbiological aspects of mycotoxins

(b) Analysis
(c) Toxicology
Toxins: aflatoxins, ochratoxin A,
patulin, penicillic acid,
sterigmatocystin, citrinin

Sri Lanka University of Sri Lanka

Department of Bacteriology
Peradeniya

a} Analysis
b) Detoxification of aflatoxin

United Kingdom 1. Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd»

Central Toxicology Laboratory
Alderley Park, Cheshire

(a) Toxicology of mycotoxins

2. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Pood

Pood Science Division
Great Westminster House
Horseferry Road, London, SW1P 2AE

(a) Surveillance work

3o Tropical Products Institute

56/62 Gray's Inn Road
London, WC1X 8LU

a) Analysis of mycotoxins
b) Stored product protection

United States United States Department of Agriculture, Science

and Education Administration

1. Agricultural Experiment Station

North Carolina State University
P.O. Box 5906
Raleigh, NC 27607
 - 70 -

United States a) Control of mycotoxins

(continued) b) Analysis of aflatoxin
c) Extension to farmers

Southern Regional Research Centre

P . O . Box 19687
New Orleans, LA 70179

( a ) Analysis
(b) Detoxification and control

Northern Regional Research Center

Peoria, I L 61604

( a ) Microbiological and entomological

aspects of mycotoxins
(b^ Control of aflatoxin
( c ) Detoxification of aflatoxin
( d ) Analysis

Agricultural Experiment Station

P . O . Drawer ED
College Station, TX 77840

( a ) Microbiological aspects of mycotoxins

5. University of Minnesota
Department of Plant Pathology
Minneapolis, Minn.

( a ) Fusarium toxins
( b ) Grain microbiology

6. Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Department of Nutrition and Pood Science
Cambridge, Mass.

(a) Toxicology of mycotoxins

Auburn University and Agricultural

Experiment Station
Botany and Plant Pathology Department
Auburn, AL 36830

( a ) Microbiological aspects of mycotoxins

 - 71 -

United States 8. United States Department of Health,

(continued) Education and Welfare
Food and Drug Administration
(various Divisions, v i z . Chemistry
and Physics, Toxicology)
200 C Street, SW
Washington, DC 20204

(a^ Analysis
fb) Toxicology
(c) Mycology
•
r
THE FAO TECHNICAL PAPERS
FAO PLANT PRODUCTION A N D PROTECTION PAPERS:
1. Horticulture: a select bibliography, 1976 (E*)
2. Cotton specialists and research institutions in selected countries, 1976 (E*)
3. Food legumes: distribution, adaptability and biology of yield, 1977 (E* F * * * S*)
4. Soybean production in the tropics, 1977 (E* F* S*)
5. Les systèmes pastoraux sahéliens, 1977 (F*)
6. Pest resistance to pesticides and crop loss assessment — 1, 1977 (E* F* S*)
7. Rodent pest biology and control - Bibliography 1970-74, 1977 (E*)
8. Tropical pasture seed production, 1978 (E* F* S*)
9. Improvement and production of food legume crops, 1977 (E*)
10. Rev. Pesticide residues in food 1977 - Report, 1978 (E* F * * * S*)
10. Sup. Pesticide residues in food 1977 - Evaluations, 1978 (E*)
11. Pesticide residues in food 1965-77 — Index and summary, 1978 (E* F * * * S * * * )
12. Crop calendars, 1978 (E/F/S*)
13. The use of FAO specifications for plant protection products, 1979 (E*)

FAO A N I M A L PRODUCTION A N D H E A L T H PAPERS:

1. Animal breeding: selected articles from World Animal Review, 1977 (C* E* F* S*)
2. Eradication of hog cholera and African swine fever, 1976 (E* F* S*)
3. Insecticides and application equipment for tsetse control, 1977 (E* F*)
4. New feed resources, 1977 (E/F/S*)
5. Bibliography of the criollo cattle of the Americas, 1977 (Bi. E/S*>
6. Mediterranean cattle and sheep in crossbreeding, 1977 (E* F*)
7. Environmental impact of tsetse chemical control, 1977 (E* F*)
8. Declining breeds of Mediterranean sheep, 1978 (E* F * )
9. Slaughterhouse and slaughterslab design and construction, 1978 (E* F * * * S * * * )
10. Treating straw for animal feeding, 1978 (E* F * * * S*)
11. Packaging, storage and distribution of processed milk. 1978 (E*)
12. Ruminant nutrition: selected articles from World Animal Review, 1978 ( E * * * F * * * S * * * )

FAO CONSERVATION GUIDES:

1. Guidelines for watershed management, 1977 (E* F* S*)
2. Hydrological techniques for upstream conservation, 1976 (E* F* S*)
3. Conservation in arid and semi-arid zones, 1977 (E* A r * F*)
4. Special readings in conservation techniques (E* F * * * S*)

FAO FORESTRY PAPERS:

1. Forest utilization contracts on public land, 1977 (E* F* S*)
2. Planning forest roads and harvesting systems, 1977 (E* S*)
3. World list of forestry schools, 1977 (E/F/S*)
4. World pulp and paper demand, supply and trade. Vol. 1, 1977 (E* F* S*)
Vol. 2, 1978 (E* F* S*)
5. The marketing of tropical wood in South America, 1978 (E* S*)
6. National parks planning, 1978 (E* F * * * S * * * )
7. Forestry for local community development, 1978 (E* F* S*)
8. Establishment techniques for forest plantations, 1978 (E* F * * * S*)
9. Wood chips, 1978 (E* S*)
10. Assessment of logging costs from forest inventories in the tropics, 1978
1. Principles and methodology (E* F * * * S * * * )
2. Data collection and calculations (E* F * * * S * * * )
11. Savanna afforestation in Africa, 1978 (E*)
12. China: forestry support for agriculture, 1978 (E*)
13. Forest products prices, 1979 (E/F/S*)
FAO FOOD A N D N U T R I T I O N PAPERS:
1. Review of food consumption surveys, 1977
Vol. 1 - Europe, North America, Oceania, 1977 (E*)
2. Report of the joint FAO/WHO/UNEP conference on mycotoxins, 1977 (E* F * S*)
3. Report of the joint FAO/WHO expert consultation on the rôle of dietary fats and oils
in human nutrition, 1977 (E* F* S*)
4. JECFA specifications for the identity and purity of thickening agents, anticaking agents,
antimicrobials, antioxidants and emulsifiers, 1978 (E*)
5. Guide to JECFA specifications, 1978 (E*)
6. The feeding of workers in developing countries, 1978 (E* S*)
7. JECFA specifications for identity and purity of food colours, enzime preparations and
other food additives, 1978 (E*)
8. Women in food production, food handling and nutrition, 1978 (E* F* S*)
9. Methods of analysis for arsenic and tin in foods, 1978 (E*)

FAO A G R I C U L T U R A L SERVICES BULLETINS: 35 titles published

FAO I R R I G A T I O N A N D DRAINAGE PAPERS: 32 titles published

FAO SOILS BULLETINS: 41 titles published

A v a i l a b i l i t y : January 1979

Ar — Arabic F — French Available

C - Chinese S — Spanish O u t of p r i n t
E — English Bi.— Bilingual In preparation

The FAO Technical Papers are available through the autorized

M-84
FAO Sales Agents or directly from Distribution and Sales Section,
FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.
ISBN 92-5-100703-9