UDK 669.187.56-046:621.745:66.

02 ISSN 1580-2949
Original scientific article/Izvirni znanstveni ~lanek MTAEC9, 50(6)971(2016)

B. ARH et al.: ELECTROSLAG REMELTING: A PROCESS OVERVIEW

971–979

ELECTROSLAG REMELTING: A PROCESS OVERVIEW

ELEKTROPRETALJEVANJE POD @LINDRO – PREGLED PROCESA

Bo{tjan Arh, Bojan Podgornik, Jaka Burja

Institute of Metals and Technology, Lepi pot 11, Ljubljana, Slovenia
bostjan.arh@imt.si

Prejem rokopisa – received: 2016-06-15; sprejem za objavo – accepted for publication: 2016-09-02

doi:10.17222/mit.2016.108

The electroslag remelting process (ESR) is important because it provides better control of the solidification microstructure and
chemical homogeneity; it also enables greater cleanliness and better mechanical properties. The manufactured high-alloyed
steels and other alloys with a controlled chemical composition are used in aerospace, in thermal- and nuclear-power plants, in
chemical engineering, for military equipment, special tools, etc. An overview and the basics of the ESR process are presented in
this paper.
Keywords: electroslag remelting, solidified microstructure, chemical homogeneity, clean steel

Postopek elektropretaljevanja kvalitetnih jekel pod `lindro (EP@) ima velik pomen zaradi sposobnosti nadzora strjevalne
strukture in kemijske homogenosti saj postopek omogo~a doseganje ve~je ~istosti jekla in bolj{e mehanske lastnosti. Tako
izdelana visokolegirana jekla, in zlitine z garantirano kemijsko sestavo in lastnostmi, se namensko uporabljajo v letalstvu,
termoelektrarnah in jedrskih elektrarnah, v kemi~ni industriji, v medicini, za voja{ko opremo, za specialna orodja, itd. V pri-
spevku so opisane osnove tehnologije pretaljevanja zlitin pod `lindro.
Klju~ne besede: elektropretaljevanje pod `lindro, strjevalna struktura, kemijska homogenost, ~isto jeklo

1 INTRODUCTION ESR is a continuous process, where during the

remelting of the consumable electrode, refining and
Nowadays, steelmaking technology enables the pro- solidification of the steel occur simultaneously. Cast,
duction of high-purity steel melts. However, during ingot rolled or forged ingots can be used as a consumable
casting the reoxidation of the melt occurs, thus increas- electrode.
ing the inclusion content. Segregations on the macro and The ESR process is based on an electrical current
micro scales are also characteristic for ingot casting. running via an electrode through the molten slag and
These cause anisotropy in the mechanical properties of ingot. Due to the high electrical resistance of the slag,
the steel. The ESR process almost completely removes the slag heats up and melts. The consumable electrode is
the macro-segregation phenomenon in heavy steel immersed in the liquid slag where the slag heat gradually
ingots, thus ensuring a more homogeneous chemical melts the tip of the electrode. Liquefied steel is dripping
composition and a finer microstructure with fewer and
more evenly distributed non-metallic inclusions than in
cast ingots.1 The influence of ESR on remelted steel is
shown in Figure 1.2 This is why the ESR process is
essential for heavy steel ingots that are used for the
manufacturing of large generator and turbine shafts.3
The ESR process is suitable for high-quality ma-
terials such as:
• steel ball bearings, steel rollers, tool steels, wear-
resistant steels for low and high working temperatu-
res, high-speed steels for high performance,
• highly alloyed stainless steels, corrosion- and acid-
resistant steels and steels for high-temperature
applications,
• steels for aviation and aerospace technology, for
medical, pharmaceutical and chemical industries,
• Ni superalloys, Ti and Zr alloys for aerospace, medi-
cal and chemical industry, components,
• off-shore, power and aerospace engineering, reactor Figure 1: Effect of ESR on the properties of remelted steels2
comp. Slika 1: Vpliv ESR na lastnosti pretaljenih jekel2

Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 50 (2016) 6, 971–979 971

B. ARH et al.: ELECTROSLAG REMELTING: A PROCESS OVERVIEW

the melt. Dissolved gases such as hydrogen and nitrogen

are removed, and the remelted metal is protected from
oxidation. The process is suitable for the remelting of
superalloys and titanium alloys.

3 PROCESS PARAMETERS

The heat required to run the ESR process is generated

by the Joule effect in the slag bath. The electrical
characteristics, heat balance and electrode/ingot
Figure 2: Schematic representation of the ESR unit: a) retracting diameter, influence the quality of the remelted ingot.7,9
ingot, b) rising mould5,6
Slika 2: Shematski prikaz ESR naprave: a) navzdol vle~en ingot, An energy input of between 1000 kwh/t and 1500 kwh/t
b) dvigajo~a kokila5,6 of steel is usually required for ESR. The slag bath is
considered to be a variable resistor, whose resistance is
determined by the electrode distance, the effective slag
from the electrode tip and is refined when passing resistivity and by the electrical current path. The usual
through the liquid slag, with oxides and sulphur being slag depth is of the order of 100 mm.
bound in the slag. After passing through the slag, the
The shape of the liquid pool is influenced by the heat
steel cools down and solidifies again into a remelted
input in the process.10,11 The greater the distance between
ingot.3,4 The whole remelting process takes place in a
the consumable electrode and the remelted ingot, the
water-cooled copper mould, which allows the remelted
smoother the heat distribution in the slag. When
ingot to solidify quickly and very uniformly.
determining the electrode distance, it is important to take
The mould with the slag pool is moving upwards as into consideration that a shorter current path means a
the new ingot is formed. The design of the mould can be higher current with concentrated heat generation under
in the form of fixed long moulds or collar-type moulds. the electrode tip and an undesirable deepening of the
The use of collar-type moulds with movable moulds or a metal pool. On the other hand, a longer current path
movable base plate, gives the possibility of producing demands a high voltage, which causes more even heat
ingots of any required length (Figure 2).5,6 Furthermore, generation and a flatter, more favourable pool profile.
the ESR enables the production of ingots with the ESR operating voltages are usually in the region of 40 V
desired shape, i.e., round, square, rectangular. or less.
In Slovenia, among other steelmaking processes, A choice of AC versus DC circuit ESR9 is possible.
ESR technology is used in the Metal Ravne steelworks. For ingots of 20 cm in diameter or more, single phase
AC gives optimum refinement and melt rate. The
2 ATMOSPHERE CONTROL DC-ESR requires a lower melt rate for metal refinement.
However, when the metal refinement is not the main
Due to the ever-increasing demands for material criterion, the DC-ESR provides the highest melting rates
properties, different variations of the ESR process were per unit of power consumption. The present practice is to
developed to ensure these demands.6–8 utilize a single-phase AC power supply and low
IESR (electroslag remelting under a protective electrode/ingot diameter ratio (0.4 to 0.7).11 Typically, a
atmosphere of inert gas at atmospheric pressure) is a frequency of 50 Hz or 60 Hz is used in AC operation.
variation of the ESR where an inert gas (argon) protects However, for the largest ingots, where reactivity be-
the slag and metal from oxidation and the absorption of comes more important, it is better to use low-frequency
nitrogen and hydrogen from the air. The oxidation of the power (5-10 Hz) for improved efficiency.
electrode is almost entirely avoided, thus providing Optimum melting rates and energy inputs depend on
better cleanliness of the ingot. However, due to the ab- the ingot diameter. A. S. Ballantyne and A. Mitchell12
sence of oxygen in the furnace atmosphere, desulphuri- considered the optimum conditions for the maximum
zation is not optimal. permissible melt rate at the lowest possible power with
PESR (electroslag remelting under increased the Equation (1):
pressure) is a variation of the ESR with an increased
Melt rate = constant × power × fill ratio (area) ×
pressure of nitrogen and the melt solidifies under
× mould area / electrode distance (1)
pressure. In this way a large amount of nitrogen can be
introduced into the steel melt. The pressure depends on Many operators considered melt rate as proportional
the alloy composition and the desired nitrogen content in to the ingot diameter, which is obtained at a melt rate of
the remelted ingot. the order of 0.004 kg/min/mm.7 The relationships
VAC-ESR (electroslag remelting under vacuum) is a between the melt rate, current and voltage for a 240-mm
variation of the ESR that provides vacuum degassing of diameter ingot are shown in Figure 3. For a given

972 Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 50 (2016) 6, 971–979

 B. ARH et al.: ELECTROSLAG REMELTING: A PROCESS OVERVIEW

the precipitation of high-melting-point phases and the

reaction in the ESR process.14 The changes in composi-
tion affect the slag’s metallurgical properties and even-
tually affect the quality of the final product. The quantity
of consumed slag steel depends on the remelted ingot
diameter.6
Table 1: Composition of some ESR slags, in mass fractions (w/%)7
Tabela 1: Sestava nekaterih ESR `linder, v masnih odstotkih (w/%)7

CaF2 CaO MgO Al2O3 SiO2 Comments

Electrically inefficient,
100 use where oxides are not
permissible
Difficult starting, high
conductivity, use where
70 30
Al not allowed, risk of
Figure 3: Effect of current and voltage on melt rates7 H2 pick-up
Slika 3: Vpliv toka in napetosti na hitrost taljenja7 70 20 10 Good all-round slags,
70 15 0 15 medium resistivity
current and ingot size there is an optional voltage that Good all-round slag,
50 20 30
higher resistivity
corresponds to a maximum melt rate.7
Some risk of Al pick-up,
The ESR process can be controlled by a computer: good for avoidance of H2
70 30
from melt initiation, through power build-up, steady melt pick-up, higher resisti-
rate period, reduced melt rate period to maintain pool vity
profile, hot-tapping sequences and melting termination.13 40 30 30 Good general-purpose
60 20 20 slags
Moderate resistivity,
80 10 10
4 SLAG relatively inert
60 10 10 10 10 Low melting point,
The slag plays an important role in the ESR process; "long" slag
it generates Joule heat for the melting of the electrode, Difficult starting,
50 50
efficient electrically
refines the liquid metal through the absorption of
non-metallic inclusions, desulphurization, protects the
metal from contamination, provides lubrication for the Many of the slags used in ESR can be described with
copper mould/solidifying steel shell interface, and the ternary fluorspar-lime-alumina system.7 The phase
controls the horizontal heat transfer between solidifying diagram shown in Figure 4 has been extensively investi-
metal and mould. gated and defined by K. Mills.15 The main feature is an
Slags for ESR are usually based on calcium fluoride eutectic corresponding to compositions with roughly
(CaF2), lime (CaO) and alumina (Al2O3). Silica (SiO2),
magnesia (MgO) and titania (TiO2) may be present,
depending on the alloy to be remelted and refined. The
CaF2 content increases the solubility of basic components
in the slag (CaO and MgO) and thus increases the
effective sulphide capacity of the slag.7 In order to per-
form its intended functions, the slag must have some
well-defined properties, which are:
• its melting point must be lower than that of the metal
to be remelted,
• it must be electrically efficient,
• its composition must ensure the desired chemical
reactions,
• it must have suitable viscosity at the remelting
temperature.
As presented in Table 1 the concentrations of cal-
cium fluoride may vary from 0 % to 100 % of mass frac-
tions.7 The remaining slag constituents are mostly used
for decreasing the basicity. Figure 4: Phase diagram of the CaF2-Al2O3-CaO system according to
The slag chemical composition is changed during the K. Mills15
ESR process, due to the formation of volatile fluoride, Slika 4: Fazni diagram sistema CaF2-Al2O3-CaO po K. Millsu15

Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 50 (2016) 6, 971–979 973

B. ARH et al.: ELECTROSLAG REMELTING: A PROCESS OVERVIEW

Table 2: Phase diagram of the CaF2-Al2O3-CaO system and the where a high degree of desulphurization is required.
physical properties of slag at 1600 °C, according to K. Mills19
However, its disadvantage is having a low resistivity.
Tabela 2: Fazni diagram sistema CaF 2-Al2O3-CaO in fizikalne
lastnosti `lindre pri 1600 °C, po K. Millsu19 High lime contents also increase the risk of moisture
retention or hydrogen pick-up.
According to the tendency to reduce CaF2 in slags,
the investigations of the slag S 2015 (Wacker Cheime)
with 30 % CaF2 were performed. The results also
showed that tested slags with 4.7 % CaF2 can be satis-
factorily applied in the ESR-process of UTOP Mo6
steel.16
A certain amount of SiO2 addition into the ESR slag
in the case of the drawing-ingot-type ESR process is
important for improving the lubrication performance,
controlling silicon and aluminium content in the liquid
steel and modifying oxide-type inclusions.17 Further-
more, the addition of SiO2 suppresses the crystallization
Electrical Total temperature of CaF2-Al2O3-CaO slags. Furthermore, the
conduc- Viscosity Density Surface normal MgO and SiO2 in fluoride-containing slags affect the
tension
tivity emissivity slag’s surface tension.18
Contour kcm
(W–1 h (10–1 r ss eTN
–1) Ns m–1) (g cm–3) (mN m–1) Although CaF2 is a crucial component in any ESR
A 6 0.15 2.47 285 slag and it greatly decreases the melting temperature of
B 5 0.2 2.48 300 0.96 the slag systems, it is insoluble in oxide phases. An
C 4 0.25 2.49 310 example of an ESR slag microstructure is shown in
D 3.5 0.3 2.5 320 Figure 5, where the lighter dendrite-like phase is a stable
0.9 CaO-Al2O3 phase, the darker phase is fluorspar, and the
E 3 0.4 2.55 335
F 2.5 0.6 2.6 350 small white dots the undissolved magnesia particles. The
0.85
G 2 0.8 2.7 400 fluorspar phase contains only calcium and fluoride and is
H 1 1.0 2.8 450 0.81 not dissolved in other microstructural constituents.
Slag properties, such as electrical conductivity, ther-
mal conductivity, density, viscosity and surface tension
equal proportions of lime and alumina. This identifies play an important role in effective melting and metal
the slags with liquidus temperatures in the range refining. K. Mills19 has produced a table of the physical
1350–1500 °C, which make them suitable for melting of
properties of slags for practical purposes (Table 2). Slag
a wide range of alloys, including steels and super alloys.
resistivity affects the operating characteristics and eco-
In the case of slag with 70 % fluoride and 30 % alumina
nomics of ESR. Alumina increases the resistivity of the
the lime is excluded as much as possible in order to pre-
slag and promotes good heat generation, thus enabling a
vent hydrogen pick-up, while there are no problems with
reduction of the slag bulk content, which also reduces
the presence of the two liquids. The binary lime-alumina
the heat loss due to the reduced area of contact between
system on the other hand, has only a limited range of
the slag and the mould wall.
slags with suitable melting characteristics, while the
L. A. Kamenski et al.20 refer to "long" and "short"
binary calcium fluoride-lime system is used in cases
slags when discussing slag viscosity. Long slags remain
fluid over a wide range of temperatures and are likely to
give thin slag skins and therefore good ingot surfaces.
Short slags rapidly become viscous on cooling and are
likely to give thick slag skins and poor ingot surfaces.
High calcium fluoride contents promote short slags,
whereas silica and magnesia favour long slags.
The slag plays an important role in ESR, from the
control-of-inclusions point of view.21 The chemical and
physical properties of slag also have a great effect on the
removal of inclusions.

5 THERMODYNAMICS

In the case of ESR of steel in an air atmosphere,

Figure 5: Microstructure of ESR slag chemical reactions take place and change the chemical
Slika 5: Mikrostruktura ESR `lindre composition of the as-cast ingot.22 The levels of some

974 Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 50 (2016) 6, 971–979

 B. ARH et al.: ELECTROSLAG REMELTING: A PROCESS OVERVIEW

elements, such as Co, Ni, Cr, Mo, W, C remain un- content in the remelted ingot depends on the content of
changed after remelting. However, the content of Si, O, Al2O3 in the slag and the content of silicon in the
and S can be changed from 10 % to 80 %, while the electrode, temperature and chemical composition of the
content of Al and Ti can vary depending on the melting steel.7,25 The content of Al in the remelted ingot de-
conditions (decrease or increase). Therefore, some creases when CaF2-Al2O3-CaO slags with increased SiO2
measures need to be taken to prevent the losses of content are used. When aluminium is used for
elements. This can be achieved by using special ESR deoxidation, up to 15 % of added Al is transferred to the
variations as discussed before. Another way is control of molten steel. The content of titanium in the remelted
the slag composition and regular additions to the slag, steel will depend on the content of Al and Ti in the
which is desirable due to steady melting conditions. The consumable electrode, the content of Al2O3 and TiO2 in
oxidation of the elements can be prevented by deoxida- the slag and the oxygen potential in the gas phase above
tion of the slag during the melting process by additions the slag (Figure 6).26 The equilibrium between the Al
of aluminium. and Ti content in the electrode at different TiO2 contents
The oxygen potential of the slag determines the is presented in Figure 6.
chemistry of the ESR process.7 It affects the non-metallic For the content of Al in electrode, the titanium loss
inclusions and sulphur removal. Oxygen reacts with can be minimized by the addition of TiO2 to the slag. At
some elements in the metal and suppresses hydrogen high contents of Al, aluminium reduces TiO2 in the slag
pick up. In the slag oxygen is mostly bound as FeO, and also regulates the ratio of Ti:TiO2.
MnO and SiO2. To estimate the oxygen content in the In the early stages of ESR development, the removal
steel it is necessary to find the relationship between FeO of sulphur was considered as one of the major objectives.
in the slag and oxygen in the remelted ingot.22,23 How- The rate of desulphurization increases with the basicity
ever, due to the very low solubility of FeO in CaF2 slags, of the slag. Sulphur transfer takes place mainly at two
its activity is extremely high. The oxygen content can be interfaces, according to the following two reactions:23
estimated by thermodynamic analyses of the reactions
between active components and oxygen. Silicon and Slag/metal reaction: [S] + (O2–) = (S2-) + [O] (2)
manganese are elements that can react with the oxygen Gas/slag reaction: (S ) + 3/2 {O2} = {SO2} + (O ) (3)
2– 2
present in the steel and from the slag.23,24 When silicon is
the strongest deoxidizer, the oxygen content of the steel A thermodynamic analysis of the reactions shows
is determined by the Si content.23 At constant tempe- that the desulphurisation is related to the concentration
rature and Si content in the steel, the oxygen content of of O2– ions in the slag, the partial pressure of oxygen in
the metal is higher at higher activity of the SiO2 in the the gas phase and the chemical composition of the
slag, or by lowering the basicity of the slag. steel.27 The transfer of sulphur from the metal to the slag
Aluminium losses in the remelted ingot are small, is promoted by the high slag basicity and low concen-
especially at high alumina content in the slag. On the tration of oxygen in the metal. On the other hand, the
other hand, the presence of Al2O3 in the slag reduces the sulphur transfer from slag to gas is promoted by a high
oxidation of silicon. The reaction between the silicon in partial pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere and the low
the electrode and Al2O3 in the slag also controls the basicity of the slag. The ability of the slag to take sul-
oxidation of aluminium in the remelted ingot.25 Thus, Al phur is defined in terms of its sulphur capacity. The sul-
phur capacity for the fluorspar-lime-alumina system
increases as the CaF2 content is increased and by in-
creasing the amount of lime to the saturation point.28
In the case of ESR under inert gas, the sulphur
remains in the slag and builds up there as the process
continues. In such cases the sulphur capacity is the ruling
factor, and the slag bulk must be adjusted in order to
continue its desulphurising action to the end of the pro-
cess, i.e., the slag/metal ratio assumes greater import-
ance.7

6 SOLIDIFICATION AND STRUCTURE

The solidification structure of an ESR ingot is a func-

tion of the local solidification time and the temperature
gradient at the liquid/solid interface.4,7 To achieve a
Figure 6: Effect of Al:Ti ratio in the electrode on TiO2 content in the
slag26
directed dendrite primary structure, a relatively high
Slika 6: Vpliv odvisnosti Al:Ti v elektrodi na vsebnost TiO2 v temperature gradient at the solidification front must be
`lindri26 maintained during the entire remelting period.

Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 50 (2016) 6, 971–979 975

B. ARH et al.: ELECTROSLAG REMELTING: A PROCESS OVERVIEW

Figure 8 presents the predicted grain structures for

different melting rates up to 600 kg/h.30 Increasing the
melting rate causes a finer grain structure and changes
the growth direction of the columnar structure from the
axial to radial growth and deeper liquid pool at very high
melting rates. Increasing the molten slag temperature
also results in a coarser columnar grain structure and a
reduced thickness of the refined equiaxed grain layer,
both at the surface and the bottom of the ESR ingot.
In spite of directional dendritic solidification, defects
such as tree-ring patterns, freckles and white spots can
occur in a remolten ingot.4,7,31 Macro-segregation and
Figure 7: The ingot grain growth at a melting rate of: a) 0.9 kg/min porosity structures in the middle of the ingot are very un-
and b) 1.2 kg/min32 common for ESR ingots.
Slika 7: Rast zrna v ingotu pri hitrostih taljenja: a) 0,9 kg/min in
b) 1,2 kg/min34 A major attribute of ESR is its ability to produce ma-
terial with reduced micro-segregation. This is linked with
the local solidification time and dendrite-arm spacing.7
Macrostructure of the ESR ingots is different from
ESR material normally freezes in a columnar manner,
the macrostructure of conventionally cast ingots due to
which gives less micro-segregation than equiaxed struc-
the different heat transfer and heat removal. The growth
tures. The greater the temperature gradient, the smaller is
direction of the dendrites is a function of the metal pool
the distance between the dendritic arm spacing and the
during solidification. Thus, the gradient of dendrites with
lower is the chemical heterogeneity in the micro areas. In
respect to the ingot axis increases with melting rate. In
ESR, temperature gradients are greater than for conven-
extreme cases the growth of directed dendrites can come
tional casting. Therefore, the secondary dendrite-arm
to a stop. The ingot core then solidifies non-directionally
spacing will be smaller in ESR than in conventional
in equiaxed grains, which leads to segregation and micro
shrinkage. Even in the case of directional dendritic soli-
dification, the micro segregation increases with the den-
drite arm spacing. A solidification structure with
dendrites parallel to the ingot axis yields optimal results.
However, this is not always possible. A good ingot sur-
face requires a minimum energy input and accordingly a
minimum melting rate.
Increasing the melting rate increases the difference
between the gradient of the solidus and liquidus iso-
therms and leads to increased pool depth.29 Hence, grains
grow in radial direction instead of vertical direction.
Figure 7 shows the direction of the grain growth depen-
dent on the melting rate, which affects the pool depth.

Figure 8: The predicted grain structure of ESR ingot30 for different Figure 9: Segregations in the hot-work tool steel: a) consumable elec-
melting rates; a) 136 kg/h, b) 271 kg/h, c) 407 kg/h and d) 542 kg/h trode, b) remelted ingot
Slika 8: Napovedana zrnatost ESR-ingota30 pri razli~nih hitrostih Slika 9: Izceje v orodnem jeklu za delo v vro~em: a) elektroda pred
taljenja: a) 136 kg/h, b) 271 kg/h, c) 407 kg/h in d) 542 kg/h pretaljevanjem, b) pretaljen ingot

976 Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 50 (2016) 6, 971–979

 B. ARH et al.: ELECTROSLAG REMELTING: A PROCESS OVERVIEW

cracks at the inclusion/steel interface, which can be the

origin of fatigue fracture or other defects. Also, ESR
steel is not an exception.34 Many factors influence the
formation of non-metallic inclusions in ESR steel,
including furnace atmosphere, content of inclusions in
the consumable electrode, slag amount and its compo-
sition, power input, melting rate, filling ratio, etc. Most
non-metallic inclusions occur due to the reactions bet-
ween oxygen and elements such as manganese, silicon
and aluminium.35 Deoxidization of the slag during
electroslag remelting36 has an important influence on the
Figure 10: Microstructures of ingots of ESR nickel alloy 718, with non-metallic inclusions formation in the ESR ingot. The
dendrite-arm spacing at different cooling rates: a) slower cooling, results of the experimental work show that the lowest
b) faster cooling and c) fastest cooling32
Slika 10: Mikrostruktura EP@ ingota nikljeve zlitine 718 in razdalj
number of inclusions is attained in ESR with the lowest
med dendritnimi vejami: a) po~asnej{e ohlajanje, b) hitrej{e ohlajanje viscosity and the highest interfacial tension.37 However,
in c) najhitrej{e ohlajanje 32 the absence of large inclusions is typical for ESR, as
shown in Figure 11.38
ingots. The effect of decreasing the segregation effect is The removal of non-metallic inclusions during ESR
shown in Figure 9, where a comparison of microstruc- takes place at the tip of the electrode, where mainly
tures before (Figure 9a) and after (Figure 9b) ESR pro- absorption and dissolution of non-metallic inclusions in
cessing was made for a hot-work tool steel. The micro- the slag take place.6,39 As the electrode tip is heated
structure in both cases is tempered martensite. The towards its melting point, the inclusions in the electrode
difference in segregation bands is obvious. While the are re-dissolved before the metal melts. Any other in-
segregations are evident in the consumable electrode clusions, such as larger exogenous inclusions in the
(Figure 9a) they are almost completely eliminated in the electrode, are not dissolved in the solid metal and will be
remelted ingot (Figure 9b). exposed to the slag when the electrode tip becomes
Figure 10 shows the effect of local solidification molten. If the slag composition is suitable, the tempe-
time on the dendrite spacing.32 The dendrite-arm spacing rature is high enough and the dwell time is long enough
is decreased as the cooling rate is increased. the non-metallic inclusions will dissolve in the slag.40
Besides a more homogeneous composition and com- However, at this point there may be further reactions due
pact solidification structure, the removal of non-metallic to the difference in equilibrium constants, as well as the
inclusions is an important characteristic of ESR.33 possibility of the flotation of large inclusions. The metal
Normally, inclusions easily initiate micro-voids and at this point is free from non-metallic inclusions, but
may have in solution elements that produce inclusions by
reaction during the freezing time (sulphur removal reac-
tion).41,42 The removal efficiency of inclusions increases
with the reduced melting speed.43
The research work of Y.-W. Dong et al.44 was focused
on the impact of fluoride-containing slag and interac-
tions at the slag-metal interface on the non-metallic
inclusions in steel. Results indicate that a multi-compo-
nent slag (CaF2, CaO, Al2O3, SiO2, MgO) has a better
capacity for controlling the amount of inclusions. Most
non-metallic inclusions for multi-component slag are
MgO-Al2O3 inclusions, while mainly Al2O3 inclusions
exist when using conventional 70 % CaF2 – 30 % Al2O3
slag. Furthermore, the maximum inclusion size for
multi-component slags was found to be smaller than for
conventional binary slag.

7 CONCLUSION

The main purpose of the remelting process is to

control the non-metallic inclusions in the steel, remove
Figure 11: Inclusion size and frequency for inclusions >2.5 μm in
air-melted and ESR with 3 % Cr-Mo-V steels38 segregations and shrinkage, and produce more homoge-
Slika 11: Velikost in {tevilo vklju~kov > 2,5 μm po ESR-pretaljevanju nous ingots. The low speed of remelting, combined with
in pretaljevanju na zraku jekla 3 % Cr-Mo-V38 the water-cooled mould, ensures a particularly homoge-

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