JWCL187_ch07_197-233.

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Questions and Problems • 229

Characterstics Strengthening Mechanical properties of Mechanical properties

of dislocations mechanisms iron–iron carbide alloys of martensite
(Chapter 7) in metals (Chapter 10) (Chapter 10)
Iron–Carbon (Steel) (Chapter 7)
Alloys (Properties)
Solid-solution
strengthening
Slip systems

Other heat treatments are designed to recrystallize metal alloys that have been
strain hardened—to render them softer and more ductile and to develop more de-
sirable grain structures. Two such treatments are described in Section 11.7—process
annealing and, for steels, normalizing. The preceding relationships are indicated in
the following diagram.

Iron–Carbon (Steel) Recrystallization Normalizing

Alloys (Processing) (Chapter 7) (Chapter 11)

Important Terms and Concepts

cold working recovery slip system
critical resolved shear stress recrystallization solid-solution strengthening
dislocation density recrystallization temperature strain hardening
grain growth resolved shear stress
lattice strain slip

REFERENCES
Argon, A. S., Strengthening Mechanisms in Crystal Read, W. T., Jr., Dislocations in Crystals, McGraw-
Plasticity, Oxford University Press, New York, Hill, New York, 1953.
2008. Weertman, J., and J. R. Weertman, Elementary Dis-
Hirth, J. P., and J. Lothe, Theory of Dislocations, 2nd location Theory, Macmillan, New York, 1964.
edition, Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1982. Reprinted by Oxford University Press, New
Reprinted by Krieger, Melbourne, FL, 1992. York, 1992.
Hull, D., and D. J. Bacon, Introduction to Disloca-
tions, 4th edition, Butterworth-Heinemann,
Oxford, 2001.

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

Basic Concepts mm!2. Suppose that all the dislocations in
Characteristics of Dislocations 1000 mm3 (1 cm3) were somehow removed
7.1 To provide some perspective on the dimen- and linked end to end. How far (in miles)
sions of atomic defects, consider a metal spec- would this chain extend? Now suppose that
imen that has a dislocation density of 104 the density is increased to 1010 mm!2 by cold
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230 • Chapter 7 / Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms

working. What would be the chain length of where a is the unit cell edge length. Also, be-
dislocations in 1000 mm3 of material? cause the magnitudes of these Burgers vec-
7.2 Consider two edge dislocations of opposite tors may be determined from the following
sign and having slip planes that are separated equation:
by several atomic distances as indicated in the a 2
following diagram. Briefly describe the defect !b! # (u $ v2 $ w2)1/2 (7.10)
2
that results when these two dislocations be-
come aligned with each other. determine values of ! b ! for aluminum and
chromium. You may want to consult Table 3.1.
7.10 (a) In the manner of Equations 7.1a, 7.1b, and
7.1c, specify the Burgers vector for the simple
cubic crystal structure. Its unit cell is shown
in Figure 3.24. Also, simple cubic is the crys-
7.3 Is it possible for two screw dislocations of op- tal structure for the edge dislocation of Fig-
posite sign to annihilate each other? Explain ure 4.3, and for its motion as presented in
your answer. Figure 7.1. You may also want to consult the
7.4 For each of edge, screw, and mixed disloca- answer to Concept Check 7.1.
tions, cite the relationship between the direction (b) On the basis of Equation 7.10, formulate
of the applied shear stress and the direction an expression for the magnitude of the Burgers
of dislocation line motion. vector, !b!, for simple cubic.
Slip Systems Slip in Single Crystals
7.5 (a) Define a slip system. 7.11 Sometimes cos ! cos ! in Equation 7.2 is
(b) Do all metals have the same slip system? termed the Schmid factor. Determine the
Why or why not? magnitude of the Schmid factor for an FCC
single crystal oriented with its [100] direction
7.6 (a) Compare planar densities (Section 3.11
parallel to the loading axis.
and Problem 3.54) for the (100), (110), and
(111) planes for FCC. 7.12 Consider a metal single crystal oriented such
that the normal to the slip plane and the slip
(b) Compare planar densities (Problem 3.55)
direction are at angles of 43.1" and 47.9", re-
for the (100), (110), and (111) planes for BCC.
spectively, with the tensile axis. If the critical
7.7 One slip system for the BCC crystal struc- resolved shear stress is 20.7 MPa (3000 psi),
ture is {110}81119. In a manner similar to will an applied stress of 45 MPa (6500 psi)
Figure 7.6b, sketch a {110}-type plane for the cause the single crystal to yield? If not, what
BCC structure, representing atom positions stress will be necessary?
with circles. Now, using arrows, indicate two
7.13 A single crystal of aluminum is oriented for a
different 81119 slip directions within this
tensile test such that its slip plane normal
plane.
makes an angle of 28.1" with the tensile axis.
7.8 One slip system for the HCP crystal structure Three possible slip directions make angles of
is 500016H1120I. In a manner similar to Figure 62.4", 72.0", and 81.1" with the same tensile
7.6b, sketch a {0001}-type plane for the HCP axis.
structure and, using arrows, indicate three dif-
(a) Which of these three slip directions is
ferent H1120I slip directions within this plane.
most favored?
You may find Figure 3.8 helpful.
(b) If plastic deformation begins at a tensile
7.9 Equations 7.1a and 7.1b, expressions for
stress of 1.95 MPa (280 psi), determine the
Burgers vectors for FCC and BCC crystal
critical resolved shear stress for aluminum.
structures, are of the form
7.14 Consider a single crystal of silver oriented
a such that a tensile stress is applied along a
b = 8uvw9
2 [001] direction. If slip occurs on a (111) plane
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Questions and Problems • 231

and in a [101] direction, and is initiated at an thening, and strain hardening). Be sure to
applied tensile stress of 1.1 MPa (160 psi), explain how dislocations are involved in each
compute the critical resolved shear stress. of the strengthening techniques.
7.15 A single crystal of a metal that has the FCC 7.23 (a) From the plot of yield strength versus
crystal structure is oriented such that a ten- (grain diameter)!1/2 for a 70 Cu–30 Zn car-
sile stress is applied parallel to the [110] di- tridge brass, Figure 7.15, determine values for
rection. If the critical resolved shear stress for the constants s0 and ky in Equation 7.7.
this material is 1.75 MPa, calculate the mag- (b) Now predict the yield strength of this
nitude(s) of applied stress(es) necessary to alloy when the average grain diameter is
cause slip to occur on the (111) plane in each 1.0 " 10!3 mm.
of the [110], [101] and [011] directions.
7.24 The lower yield point for an iron that has an
7.16 (a) A single crystal of a metal that has the average grain diameter of 5 " 10!2 mm is 135
BCC crystal structure is oriented such that a MPa (19,500 psi). At a grain diameter of 8 "
tensile stress is applied in the [010] direction. 10!3 mm, the yield point increases to 260 MPa
If the magnitude of this stress is 2.75 MPa, (37,500 psi). At what grain diameter will the
compute the resolved shear stress in the [111] lower yield point be 205 MPa (30,000 psi)?
direction on each of the (110) and (101)
7.25 If it is assumed that the plot in Figure 7.15 is
planes.
for noncold-worked brass, determine the
(b) On the basis of these resolved shear stress val- grain size of the alloy in Figure 7.19; assume
ues, which slip system(s) is (are) most favor- its composition is the same as the alloy in Fig-
ably oriented? ure 7.15.
7.17 Consider a single crystal of some hypotheti-
cal metal that has the FCC crystal structure Solid-Solution Strengthening
and is oriented such that a tensile stress is ap- 7.26 In the manner of Figures 7.17b and 7.18b, in-
plied along a [102] direction. If slip occurs on dicate the location in the vicinity of an edge
a (111) plane and in a [101] direction, com- dislocation at which an interstitial impurity
pute the stress at which the crystal yields if its atom would be expected to be situated. Now
critical resolved shear stress is 3.42 MPa. briefly explain in terms of lattice strains why
7.18 The critical resolved shear stress for iron is 27 it would be situated at this position.
MPa (4000 psi). Determine the maximum
Strain Hardening
possible yield strength for a single crystal of
Fe pulled in tension. 7.27 (a) Show, for a tensile test, that
Deformation by Twinning !
%CW # a b " 100
7.19 List four major differences between defor- !$1
mation by twinning and deformation by slip if there is no change in specimen volume dur-
relative to mechanism, conditions of occur- ing the deformation process (i.e., A0l0 # Adld).
rence, and final result. (b) Using the result of part (a), compute the
Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction percent cold work experienced by naval brass
(the stress–strain behavior of which is shown
7.20 Briefly explain why small-angle grain bound- in Figure 6.12) when a stress of 400 MPa
aries are not as effective in interfering with (58,000 psi) is applied.
the slip process as are high-angle grain bound-
7.28 Two previously undeformed cylindrical spec-
aries.
imens of an alloy are to be strain hardened by
7.21 Briefly explain why HCP metals are typically reducing their cross-sectional areas (while
more brittle than FCC and BCC metals. maintaining their circular cross sections). For
7.22 Describe in your own words the three strength- one specimen, the initial and deformed radii
ening mechanisms discussed in this chapter are 16 mm and 11 mm, respectively. The sec-
(i.e., grain size reduction, solid-solution streng- ond specimen, with an initial radius of 12 mm,
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232 • Chapter 7 / Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms

must have the same deformed hardness as the 7.35 Explain the differences in grain structure for a
first specimen; compute the second speci- metal that has been cold worked and one that
men’s radius after deformation. has been cold worked and then recrystallized.
7.29 Two previously undeformed specimens of the 7.36 (a) What is the driving force for recrystal-
same metal are to be plastically deformed by lization?
reducing their cross-sectional areas. One has (b) For grain growth?
a circular cross section, and the other is rec-
7.37 (a) From Figure 7.25, compute the length of
tangular; during deformation the circular
time required for the average grain diameter
cross section is to remain circular, and the rec-
to increase from 0.01 to 0.1 mm at 500%C for
tangular is to remain as such. Their original
this brass material.
and deformed dimensions are as follows:
(b) Repeat the calculation at 600%C.
Circular Rectangular 7.38 The average grain diameter for a brass mate-
(diameter, mm) (mm) rial was measured as a function of time at
Original dimensions 15.2 125 " 175 650%C, which is shown in the following table
Deformed dimensions 11.4 75 " 200 at two different times:

Which of these specimens will be the hardest Time Grain Diameter

after plastic deformation, and why? (min) (mm)

7.30 A cylindrical specimen of cold-worked cop- 30 3.9 " 10!2

per has a ductility (%EL) of 25%. If its cold- 90 6.6 " 10!2
worked radius is 10 mm (0.40 in.), what was
its radius before deformation? (a) What was the original grain diameter?
7.31 (a) What is the approximate ductility (%EL) (b) What grain diameter would you predict
of a brass that has a yield strength of 275 MPa after 150 min at 650%C?
(40,000 psi)? 7.39 An undeformed specimen of some alloy has
(b) What is the approximate Brinell hardness an average grain diameter of 0.040 mm. You
of a 1040 steel having a yield strength of 690 are asked to reduce its average grain diame-
MPa (100,000 psi)? ter to 0.010 mm. Is this possible? If so, ex-
plain the procedures you would use and name
7.32 Experimentally, it has been observed for sin-
the processes involved. If it is not possible,
gle crystals of a number of metals that the crit-
explain why.
ical resolved shear stress !crss is a function of
the dislocation density "D as 7.40 Grain growth is strongly dependent on tem-
perature (i.e., rate of grain growth increases
tcrss # t0 $ A 2rD with increasing temperature), yet tempera-
where !0 and A are constants. For copper, the ture is not explicitly given as a part of Equa-
critical resolved shear stress is 2.10 MPa (305 tion 7.9.
psi) at a dislocation density of 105 mm!2. If it (a) Into which of the parameters in this ex-
is known that the value of A for copper is 6.35 pression would you expect temperature to be
" 10!3 MPa # mm (0.92 psi # mm), compute included?
tcrss at a dislocation density of 107 mm!2. (b) On the basis of your intuition, cite an ex-
plicit expression for this temperature de-
Recovery
pendence.
Recrystallization
Grain Growth 7.41 An uncold-worked brass specimen of average
grain size 0.008 mm has a yield strength of 160
7.33 Briefly cite the differences between recovery MPa (23,500 psi). Estimate the yield strength
and recrystallization processes. of this alloy after it has been heated to 600%C
7.34 Estimate the fraction of recrystallization from for 1000 s, if it is known that the value of ky
the photomicrograph in Figure 7.21c. is 12.0 MPa # mm1/2 (1740 psi # mm1/2).