Ancient Kalinga Maritime Exploits

Journal of the Indo Nordic Author’s Collective
KALINGA Maritime history

Dr Uday Dokras Ph D SWEDEN
Introduction: Impact of Indian society on cultural history of Suvarnabhumi “modern day
South East Asia”
Kalinga is a historical region of India. It is generally defined as the eastern coastal

region between the Mahanadi and the Godavari rivers, although its boundaries have fluctuated
with the territory of its rulers. The core territory of Kalinga now encompasses a large part
of Odisha and northern part of Andhra Pradesh. At its widest extent, the Kalinga region also
included a part of present-day Chhattisgarh.
The Kalingas have been mentioned as a major tribe in the legendary text Mahabharata. In the
3rd century BCE, the region came under Mauryan control as a result of the Kalinga War. It was
subsequently ruled by several regional dynasties whose rulers bore the
title Kalingadhipati ("Lord of Kalinga"); these dynasties
included Mahameghavahana, Vasishtha, Mathara, Pitrbhakta, Shailodbhava, Somavamshi,
and Eastern Ganga. The last two dynasties to rule over Kalinga were the Gajapati
dynasty and Suryavansh of Nandapur.
One of the unique aspects of India’s Cultural Heritage is that we have persevered our traditions
and customs through our evolution since ages without a break to the present day. The unbroken
thread of our ancient civilization and its preservation has also startled scholars from far and wide.
We Indians have always felt a sense of pride in our rich cultural heritage but somewhere in our
march towards adopting the glittering aspects of Western ethos we have somewhat lost touch
with the actual glory of our past and do not give due regards to the cultural identity, historical
continuity and significance to many of our long standing cultural traditions and the lasting
impressions they left on faraway lands.
The Kalinga War (ended c. 265 BCE) was fought in ancient India between the Maurya
Empire under Ashoka and the state of Kalinga, an independent feudal kingdom located on the
east coast, in the present-day state of Odisha and north parts of Andhra Pradesh. The Kalinga
War included one of the largest and deadliest battles in Indian history. Kalinga did not have a
king as it was culturally run without any.
This is the only major war Ashoka fought after his accession to the throne. In fact this war marks
the close of empire building and military conquests of ancient India that began with Maurya king
Bindusara.The bloodshed of this war is said to have prompted Ashoka to adopt Buddhism with
them.
BACKGROUND OF KALINGA WAR:
The Kalinga War was fought between the Maurya Empire with Ashoka and the state of Kalinga,
a feudal republic located on the coast of the present-day Indian state of Odisha and northern parts
of Andhra Pradesh. The main reasons for invading Kalinga were both political and economic.
Kalinga is then said to be a glorious and prosperous region consisting of freedom loving and
artistic skilled people. The Kalinga Kingdom, also known as the “Utkala” were the first from the
Bharata (present day India) who traveled offshore to South East for Trade.They use to follow
open culture and uniform civil code. Since the time of Ashoka’s father, King Bindusara, the
Mauryan Empire based in Magadha was following a policy of territorial expansion. Kalinga was
under Magadha control during the Nanda rule, but regained independence with the beginning of
the rule of the Mauryas. That was considered a great setback for the traditional policy of
territorial expansion of the Magadhan emperors and was considered to be a loss of political
prestige for the Mauryas merely imperative to reduce Kalinga to complete subjection. To this
task Ashoka must have set himself as soon as he felt he was securely established on the throne.
Kalinga (adjacent Bay of Bengal) and Maurya Empire (blue) before the invasion of Ashoka
The reasons for invading Kalinga were both political and economic. Kalinga was a prosperous
region consisting of peaceful and artistically skilled people. Known as the Utkala,[9] they were
the first from the region who traveled offshore to the southeast for trade. For that reason, Kalinga
had important ports and a powerful navy. They had an open culture and used a uniform civil
code.
Kalinga was under the rule of the Nanda Empire until the empire's fall in 321 BCE. Ashoka's
grandfather Chandragupta Maurya had previously attempted to conquer Kalinga, but had been
repulsed. Ashoka set himself to the task of conquering the newly independent empire as soon as
he felt he was securely established on the throne.[10] Kalinga was a strategic threat to the Maurya
empire. It could interrupt communications between Maurya capital Pataliputra and Maurya
possessions in central Indian peninsula. Kalinga also controlled the coastline for the trade in bay
of Bengal.
A view of the banks of the Daya River, the supposed battlefield of Kalinga from atop Dhauli
hills, Bhubaneswar, Odisha State
No war in the history of India as important either for its intensity or for its results as the Kalinga
war of Ashoka. No wars in the annals of the human history has changed the heart of the victor
from one of wanton cruelty to that of an exemplary piety as this one. From its fathomless womb
the history of the world may find out only a few wars to its credit which may be equal to this war
and not a single one that would be greater than this. The political history of mankind is really a
history of wars and no war has ended with so successful a mission of the peace for the entire
war-torn humanity as the war of Kalinga.
— Ramesh Prasad Mohapatra, Military History of Orissa
The war was completed in the eighth year of Ashoka's reign, according to his own Edicts of
Ashoka, probably in 262 BCE.[1] After a bloody battle for the throne following the death of his
father, Ashoka was successful in conquering Kalinga – but the consequences of the savagery
changed Ashoka's views on war and led him to pledge to never again wage a war of conquest.
According to Megasthenes, the Greek historian at the court of Chandragupta Maurya, the ruler of
Kalinga had a powerful army comprising infantry, cavalry and elephants.
Ashoka had seen the bloodshed and felt that he was the cause of the destruction. The whole area
of Kalinga was plundered and destroyed. Some of Ashoka's later edicts state that about 150,000
people died on the Kalinga side and an almost equal number of Ashoka's army, though legends
among the Odia people – descendants of Kalinga's natives – claim that these figures were highly
exaggerated by Ashoka. As per the legends, Kalinga armies caused twice the amount of
destruction they suffered. Thousands of men and women were deported from Kalinga and forced
to work on clearing wastelands for future settlement.
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Priyadarsi, conquered the Kalingas eight years after his coronation. One
hundred and fifty thousand were deported, one hundred thousand were killed and many more died (from
other causes). After the Kalingas had been conquered, Beloved-of-the-Gods came to feel a strong
inclination towards the Dharma, a love for the Dharma and for instruction in Dharma. Now Beloved-of-
the-Gods feels deep remorse for having conquered the Kalingas.
— Ashoka, Rock Edict No. 13
Ashoka's response to the Kalinga War is recorded in the Edicts of Ashoka. The Kalinga War
prompted Ashoka, already a non-engaged Buddhist, to devote the rest of his life to ahimsa (non-
violence) and to dharma-vijaya (victory through dharma). Following the conquest of Kalinga,
Ashoka ended the military expansion of the empire and began an era of more than 40 years of
relative peace, harmony, and prosperity.
Transoceanic trade relations with Thailand and far east

The Early Historical Period saw India forge transoceanic trade relations with Thailand, Malaysia
and islands of Java and Bali (Indonesia). Suvarnabhumi and Suvarnadvipa has many references
in our ancient Indian literature and scriptures which refers to present day “South East Asia” and
“Indonesia”, respectively
Chanakya’s Arthasashtra also has references on how Ashoka of Mauryan dynasty had set
proselytizing missions to Ceylon (modern day SriLanka) as well South East Asia. The
Mahaniddesa work also has detailed references on hazards of voyages to foreign known-
unknown lands including Suvarnabhumi. Some ancient scriptures also suggest that an important
role was played by Brahmanas (invited by local rulers) in spreading Indian Cultural Heritage in
Suvarnabhumi. These seafarers, merchants and traders who went on oceanic voyages were
pioneers in spreading Indian Cultural Heritage in Suvarnabhumi
While we will mostly touch on the aspect of how political voyages from Kalinga, merchants and
traders of Kalinga were influential in spreading Indian Culture in Suvarnabhumi. This article will
focus on the cultural interactions and try to regain the lost glory from the prism of rich ancient
Maritime Trade of Kalinga (ancient Odisha). Maritime activities of Kalinga forms one of the
interesting facets of Indian History. B’coz of these trade activities cultural heritage, customs,
beliefs, language, ideas, scriptures, Sanatana Dharma’s finer aspects of Kalinga got popularized
and accepted in those habitations in other countries where settlements were established by
Kalinga’s merchants, traders and political voyagers Kalinga’s Role in South East Asia
Kalinga was instrumental in shaping the history and culture of South East Asia especially in the
Malayo-Indonesian World. As per some of the scholars of history, Kaundinya (founder of the
kingdom of Funan) was either from Kalinga or Vidarbha or Krishna Valley. The Kaundinya and
the Kalingans were settled in the upper part of Malay Peninsula. The Kaundinya’s were
associated with the Funan and Borne royal dynasties. The Kalingan’s were mostly settled in
Malaya and Java whereas Indians from lower Krishna valley (the Cholas, the Pandyas, the
Malayalese, and Kannadiga’s) were settled in Sumatra Also the historical records of Sui Dynasty
(581-618 A.D.) and other Chinese texts mention about king’s courts of that time period had
several hundred Brahmins sitting in rows facing each other on both sides. Presence of so many
Brahmins in inhabitations dominated by Kalingans also hints that the script referred by Chinese
as K’un-Lun must have been scripts of KalingansMany of the Chinese scriptures and texts speak
of K’-un-Lun people, K’-un-Lun scripts, K’-un-Lun merchants and traders. K’un-Lun can also
be pronounced as Ku-lung. Ku-lung was used by Chinese scriptures to designate an ethno-
linguistic entity. Indonesian linguistics permits changing ‘u’ to ‘i’ or ‘e’, so K’un-Lun / Ku-lung
is also referred as Keling. Keling i.e. Kalinga has been referred in many Indonesian scriptures in
the most glorious periods of Indo-Southeast Asian Cultural Countries
Apart from this people of Kalinga also played a greater role in Java as compared to other regions
of South East Asia from 8 th century A.D. onwards. The Aryamanjusrimulakalpa (composed in
Sanskrit between 700-800 A.D.) refers to some regions of South East Asia in verses 636-649.
The verses are “unrasandhisu” (the confluence of the seas) and “ambhodheh kuksitiranta” (in the
bays of the seas of their coasts). In verses 884-894, the author has given direction about the
worship of Tara in the east, southern India and the islands of the sea. The author refers modern
Java seas as Kalinga seas and it can be implied that he refers the most important part of Java as
Kalinga
In Old-Javanese epigraphy Kling i.e. Kalinga appears in the inscription from 840 A.D. During
the reign of King Airlangga (1019-42 A.D.), scriptures has mention about the
countries/kingdoms from where traders used to come their kingdom like “Kling, Aryya,
Singhala, Pandikira, Dravida, Campa, Kmir, Rmen…” Kling refers to Kalinga and Aryya refers
to lower Krishna Valley. Also, in some inscriptions of East Java reference of King Girindra
Vardhana as Bharat Kling i.e. King of Kalinga and his queen Kamalavarnadevi as queen of
Kalingapura
Kalinga’s maritime relations with SriLanka

Kalinga, the prosperous kingdom of East Coast of India was an active center of trade, commerce
and culture as per Ceylonese Chronicles “Mahavamsa”, “Dathavamsa”, “Chulavamsa”, etc.
Kalinga had close maritime contacts with ancient Sinhala (modern day SriLanka) since
5th Century BCE. The Ceylonese Chronicles “Mahavamsa”, “Dipavamsha”, “Dathavamsa”,
“Chulavamsa” mentions of travelers like Fa-Hien, Hiuen Tsang, the discovery of coins of Ceylon
from Kalinga and various inscriptions and art specimens of that era. Traders of Kalingans
travelled maximum to the Ceylon as compared to voyagers from Indian sub-continent
The famous Lanka of the Ramayana has generally been identified by scholars 6 as Sinhala /
Ceylon or modem Sri Lanka. The island of Sri Lanka has a continuous record of settled and
civilized life for over two millennia. It is believed that the major ethnicity settled and religions
followed has been adopted from the Indian subcontinent. Sinhala’s two major ethnic group’s i. e.
The Sinhalese and the Tamils, and two dominant religions, Buddhism and Hinduism made their
way from India.
As per earliest recorded scriptures of Sinhalese tradition (the Mahavamsha), prince Vijaya and
his 700 followers were the first immigrants who reached from India. Vijaya and his followers
founded the Sinhalese dynasty. As per the Mahavamsha, prince Vijaya, son of king Sinhabahu of
Sinhapura, went to Ceylon and became the first king of the island. It is recorded that Vijaya’s
great-grandmother Susima was a Kalingan princess and had married the king of Vanga (Bengal).
Her daughter was carried away by a lion when wandering in Lala on the road from Vanga to
Magadha and the lion begot her a son whose name was Sinhabahu, the father of Vijaya.
Sinhabahu, consequently slaying his Sinha (lion) father became the king at Sinhapura. Sinhapura
was a historical city of Kalinga from pre-Christian centuries till the period of Ganga kings. The
early Ganga kings issued some of their copperplate grants from Sinhapura.
Scene of Vijay’s landing in Ceylon, Paintings of Ajanta Cave
As per, ancient traditions it is believed that Sinhabahu of Sinhapura banished his son Vijaya and
his 700 companions for their misconduct, and set them afloat on a ship. After a long voyage,
Vijaya with his companions landed near the present site of Puttalam on the north-west coast of
Sinhala and set the business of colonizing the island. The scene of Vijaya’s landing in Ceylon
can be seen in the paintings of Ajanta cave as shown here. This has been considered as the
beginning of the story of man in Sri Lanka. As per to Mahavamsha”, prince Vijaya landed in Sri
Lanka in the region called Tambapanni on the day that Tathagata (Lord Buddha) lay down
between the two twin-like sala-trees to pass into nibbana (niruana). The newly conquered island
was called Sinhala or Sinhala Dvipa after the name of Sinhabahu and Sinhapura, the father of
Vijaya and the capital of Vijaya’s father, respectively
The association of Sinhala with Kalinga was so deeprooted that later Ceylonese rulers mentioned
themselves as descendants of Kalinga ChakravartiVamsha. King Nissanka Malla of Ceylon says
in his inscription12 that he was the son of Sri Jaya Gopa of Kalinga Chakravartin dynasty, then
ruling at Sinhapura, who were descended from the race of king Vijaya.
The matrimonial relations between the royal dynasties of the two kingdoms played an important
role in Kalinga-Sri Lanka contact during the historical period. Matrimonial relations led to direct
political developments. The Sinhalese king Mahendra IV Srisangabodhi, who ruled over Sinhala
from c. 953 CE to c. 969 CE, had a Kalingan princess as his queen whose son succeeded him on
the throne.. The relatives of this Kalingan princess emerged as a strong force in the Sinhalese
court politics.
The Ceylonese chronicle Chulavamsha states that king Vijayabahu I of Ceylon (c. 1054CE to c.
1109 CE) married Trilokasundari, princess of the royal family of Kalinga. Vijayabahu I’s
marriage with a princess of Kalinga seems to have been dictated bypolitical considerations 15. He
was a contemporary of Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva of the Ganga dynasty, whose period
has been considered as the golden age in the history of Kalinga. Trilokasundari was the mother
of Vikramabahu who played a prominent, though difficult role in the Sinhalese politics
The son of Vikramabahu and Sundaramahadevi was Gajabahu II (c. 1137 CE to c. 1153CE) who,
according to the Mahauamsha, is said to have been a scion of the Kalinga royal family. However,
GajabahuII had no son of his own and is said to have invited Kalinga princess of Ganga dynasty
(finds mention in Mahauamsha)16. However, GajabahuII was defeated and overpowered by his
envious cousin Parakramabahu (Parakramabahu I). He was the grandson of Trilokasundari and
ruled over Sinhala from c. 1153 CE to c. 1186 CE)
Next important ruler was Nissanka Malla of the Ganga dynasty of Kalinga. He ruled from c.
1187 CE to c. 1196 CE. Nissanka Malla, in his inscription, has styled himself as Kirtinissanka
and was the first historical monarch of Sinhala belonging to a pure Kalinga dynasty. His era has
been referred as Golden Era of Ceylon, with records of activity and constructive achievements in
administration, economic rehabilitation, religion and culture. The inscriptions of
Polonnaruvacontain vivid accounts of his achievements. NissankaMalla was a great builder. The
RankotVihara at Polonnaruva, the cave temple of Dambulla, the Tooth Relic Temple, the
NissankalataMandapaya, and even the Nissankeswara temple at Rameswara (in India) were some
ofthe evidences to his constructive genius. However, of all the architectural monumentsattributed
to the reign of NissankaMalla, the most unforgettable was the collection of temples and viharas
in the so-called Great Quadrangle, which has been described as themost beautiful and satisfying
proportioned buildings in the entire Indian subcontinent
After NissankaMalla, there was little political instability and seeing this as an opportunity,
Parakrama Pandya, an invader from the Pandya kingdom of India, captured the throne in c. 1211
CE17. After abrief interval, Ceylon was once again passed into the hands of another Kalingan
prince named Magha. Prince Magha led his expedition towards Ceylon with about 2400 soldiers
in c. 1214 CE and successfully established his rule over Sinhala. Magha ruled over Sinhala for
21 years (c. 1214 CE to c. 1235 CE) and as a very strongman, gave Sinhala a better government.
Infighting among the Kalinga people led to decline of their influence over Sinhala after Magha
Wall Painting at Kelaniya Temple of princess Hemamala and her husband prince Danta
Kumar. It is portrayed that Hemamala is crying Gautam Buddha’s tooth relic hidden in
her hair to Sri Lanka
Besides political relations, religious and cultural interaction between the two kingdoms was
brisk. In the history of Sinhalese Buddhism, Kalinga had a major role to play. According to the
Sinhalese tradition, Buddhism first reached Sinhala by a mission sent out under the Mahinda
(Mahendra) by Mauryan Emporer Ashoka during the rule of Sinhalese king Devanampiya
Tissa19
King Tissa granted the royal park mahamagha as a residence and it’s said that with the beginning
of mahavihara, Buddhism started in Sri Lanka. The prathama stupa (first stupa) was also built on
the soil of Sinhala with the entry of Mahendra into the capital. Withina short time of Mahendra’s
mission, Buddhism emerged as one of the established religions of that land. The
Samantapasadika reveals that Emperor Ashoka had sent a sapling ofthe Bodhi Tree in the
custody of his daughter Sanghamitra
Eight families from Kalinga were sent to Sinhala to set up the Theravada, school of Buddhism in
the island. The Buddhist text Dathauamsha 21 describes in detail the event of the dispatch of the
sacred tooth relic of Buddha from Dantapura in Kalinga to Sinhala during the rule of Sri Lankan
king Shri Meghavama (c. 304 CE to c. 352 CE). The tooth relic of Buddha was brought to
kalinga after his parinibbana (pariniruana) by a Buddhist saint named Khemathera and was given
to the Kalingan king Brahmadatta who built astupa at Dantapura (identified with modern Palur in
the Ganjam district of Odisha) to preserve the relic. Centuries late Guhasiva, the then king of
Kalinga faced difficulty in protecting the relic from being attacked by the kings of other religions
and decided to send the same to the Sinhalese king through the safe hands of his daughter
Hemamala and son-in-law, Dantakumar (a prince of Ujjain) (as shown in above image). The
sacred tooth relic was received with great honour by the Sinhalese king and since then, it
continues to be considered as the most sacred national treasure of Ceylon and is still
worshipped at Kandy (images of the temple as shown below)
Front View of the Temple of the Sacred Tooth Relic (Sri Dalada Maligawa) at Kandy, Sri Lanka
Inner View of the Temple of the Sacred Tooth Relic (Sri Dalada Maligawa) at Kandy, Sri Lanka
The relic, since ancient times, is playing an important role in the local politics because it is
believed that whoever holds the relic, holds the governance of the country. However, an
interesting aspect can’t be overlooked i.e. the shifting f the tooth relic from Kalinga to Sri Lanka
indicates the fact that Kalinga was then having an efficient and well-managed naval power
otherwise king Guhasiva could not have trusted or thought to send the most precious tooth-relic
of lord buddha via sea route to Ceylon in the hands of his daughter and son-in-law
The Kalinga-Sri Lanka religious relations through Buddhism operated in other forms also. The
Chulauamsha states that during the reign of Ceylonese king AggabodhiII (c. 592 CE to c. 602
CE), the king of Kalinga, and his wife visited Sinhala to listen to the preaching’s of the Buddhist
monk Jotipala. Another significant aspect of Kalinga’s contact with Sinhala is the influence of
the language of Kalinga on that of Sinhala. Oldenberg in his studies states that Pali went to
Sinhala from Kalinga. He compared the Pali of Sinhala with the dialect of Kharavela’s
inscription (Hathigumpha Inscription) at Khandagiri and Udaigiri. Also, the Ashokan
inscriptions in Eastern India, especially that of Dhauli (near Bhubaneswar), establish the fact of
good cultural contacts between Kalinga and Sinhala. The paintings of Sigiria and images of the
Buddha at Anuradhapura in Sinhala too bear close resemblance with the paintings of Sitabanji
and images of the Buddha at Lalitagiri in Odisha
Ceylonese Coin from Manikpatna, Odisha/ Kartika Boita Bandana Festival
These political and cultural links must have established commercial relations i.e. sea-borne trade
between Kalinga and Sinhala throughout the ancient period. As per VarahaMihira, Garuda
Purana and Bhoja, Sinhala was one of the major trade centres of pearl-fishery in the Indian
Ocean. Also, the discovery of Sinhalese king ShahasaMalla’s copper coins from Manikpatna in
Odisha (as shown in image), Polonnaruva in Sri Lanka and Kotchina in Indonesia gives the proof
of a rich maritime trade history between Kalinga, Sri Lanka and Sumatra (Indonesia)
Kalinga imported pearl, silver and copper from Sinhalaand exported precious stones, ivory
pepper, betel-nuts, drugs and fine textile products to Sinhala. A 17 thcentury CE poet of Odisha,
Upendra Bhanja, known as kavisamrat (poet laureate) in his kavya, Lavanyabati speaks of the
trade between Kalinga and Sinhala in the following words “bohitra lagila asi Sinhaladvipare,
sadhaba jubati mane ati prantodare gale bohita bandai” i.e. “after the boat reached the island of
Sinhala, the merchant ladies went in a jovial mood to adore the travelers”
Hence, we ca say that the ancient relations between Kalinga and Sinhala had spread and
impacted various aspects of life i.e. starting from political relations to trade and concluding in the
domains of religion and culture
Kalinga’s maritime relations with Bali and influence on adoption of Hinduism in Bali
Kalinga was instrumental in shaping the history and culture of Indonesia especially in the island
of Bali. The maritime trade of Kalinga brought prosperity to the kingdom which could largely be
attributed to her overseas trade with distant lands like Indonesia. The people of Kalinga
maintained lasting commercial and cultural relationship with the Indonesian islands of Java,
Sumatra, Bali and Borneo collectively sometime referred by some scholars as “Suvarnadvipa”.
The island of Bali, formed the most attractive destination for the merchants of Kalinga. In this
process, Odia culture, customs, religious beliefs, ideas, language, script and manners were
popularised in this island.
Bali is the only island in Indonesia where Hinduism combined with Balinese concepts is still
predominant. Even now Bali has an absolute repository of the Hindu culture of India. Hindu
gods like Bhagwan Shiva, Bhagwan Vishnu, Bhagwan Brahma, Bhagwan Indra, Varuna Dev and
Bhagwan Ganesha are worshipped and highly respected. H. B. Sarkar in his book titled “Some
Contributions of India to the Ancient Civilization of Indonesia and Malaysia” published in 1970
says, “Indeed, all known gods of any importance in the Hindu and Buddhist pantheon of India
had their heyday in Bali”
Bhagwan Shiva was considered as the most powerful divine power and was considered as the
elder brother of Buddha. As per traditional beliefs, Bali was the considered to be the centre of the
Universe and the home of Devi’s and Devta’s. The Balinese verses, which refer to five pious
women are very much similar to India i.e. “Om Ahalya Draupadi Sita Dara (for Tara) Mandodari
talha panchakanya smarennityam”. After Hinduism, Buddhism was also very popular in ancient
Bali
Indian influence on Bali could be easily seen in composition of works on astrology (Balinese
called wariga). Sanskrit also had a great influence on their language and literature. The Balinese
till today celebrate Indian festivals like Maha Shivratri, Saraswati Puja, Durga Puja etc.
The name Bali is said to have originated from the kingdom of the demon emperor Maha Bali
who had gifted away the entire world to Vamana Avatar of Bhagwan Vishnu 22. There are ample
proofs to testify that the Hindu influence from India reached Bali b’coz of trade relations
between the two nations. Recent archaeological discoveries indicate that the contact between
India and Indonesia, particularly Bali, had been at least since beginning of the Common Era or
CE
Discovery of rouletted ware23 , glass beads, semi-precious stone beads, potsherds with kharosthi
characters etc., from Bali points to ancient cultural contact between Bali and different regions of
India. The Hindu texts such as Vrihat Samhita and Kathasarita Sagar affirms trade relations
between India and Bali since very early times
Kalinga had close links with the Hindu kingdom of Bali. The island of Bali was known to t he
sailors of Kalinga as Nariketa dvipa. Many Balinese inscriptions refer to Bali as the island of
coconut24. The sailors of Kalinga made frequent voyages to the island of Bali and had their
settlements in the island who consequently spread various aspects of Hindu culture. This glorious
past has been preserved in a festival of Odisha known as Bali Yatra, celebrated throughout the
length and breadth of Odisha. It is also known as Boita Bandana festival and is celebrated on the
auspicious day of Kartika Purnima. Even today, people of Odisha celebrate this festival by
sailing boats of banana peel in rivers, ponds and sea chanting:
“aa – ka – ma – ba (bha) i
pana – gua – thoi
pana – gua – tora
masaka dharama mo ra”
Kalinga and the island of Bali have influenced each other’s culture very extensively. I.G.P.
Phalgunadi, an Indonesian scholar who visited Odisha and did some field work in connection of
his research was surprised by seeing the similarity between the culture and life styles of the
people of both the places. There are many cultural elements that are similar between Odisha and
Bali, e. g. religious activities, dance forms, art and crafts, temples and monuments, textile
designs, even food habits, manners and the vocabulary. Temples as socio-cultural centres are
common both to Bali and Odisha. The discovery of similar type of rouletted ware at Sembiran,
located in north eastern Bali and from the sites like Shishupalagarh, Manikpatna, Tamluk etc., of
Odisha suggest deep ancient trade contacts between Odisha and the island of Bali25 . In Bali,
there is an inscription of the fourteenth century CE written in Odia language and script 26 . Also an
interesting aspect came to light i.e. the scripts used in Bali in the tenth century CE were also used
in Kalinga.
Odisha played a significant role in the evolution of Hindu culture in Bali. A section of
Brahmanas in the Karangasam district of Bali styled themselves as Brahmana-Bouddha-Katinga.
It seems very likely that their ancestors were immigrants from Kalinga. Some words and usages
with regard to vocabulary crafts, religious practices, form of worship, food habits and manners
prevalent in Bali are of Odia in origin. For example, in the coastal districts of Odisha, mother is
addressed as BOU and father as BABA and in Bali the former is called BU (BOU) and the latter
as BAPA. In some places of Odisha, father is also called as BAPA
Table
showing similarities between Odisha & Bali
The Balinese term for betet-nut is buah28(goah) and in Odisha it is gua or guah. Cina/China is the
Balinese word for groundnut, while in Odia it is china or chinabadam. Both Balinese as well as
Odia’s used to call uncooked rice made out of part-boiled (or sun dried) paddy as arua 29. The
plough is called lengallo in Bali while the Odias used the term langala for the same. Another
very interesting example is the use of the word peja or pelo both in Odisha and Bali it refers the
thick fluid which is separated from cooked rice before serving it. The Brahmin priest in Odisha is
known as PANDA whereas in Balinese temples he is called PADANDA30 “the holder of
Dharmic Scripture”
I.G.P. Phalgunadi 31 mentions in his observation “We worship in Bali three deities, represented
by masks, very much resembling the trinity, Jagannath, Balabhadra and Subhadra in Orissa
[Odisha]… In Bali, we are especially fond of leaves of sag as in Orissa [Odisha], especially the
young leaves of the drum-stick tree, known in Orissa [Odisha] as sajana. We love to cook its sag
along with mashed coconut as is done in Orissa [Odisha]. We also love to eat cooked banana-
flowers and the core-stem of the banana plant, and also to have our food on banana leaves as in
Orissa [Odisha] and Bengal. We also prepare and eat a cake made of rice-flour with stuffing’s
like those known as manda and enduripitha in Orissa [Odisha], among other such cakes made of
rice flour. We worship a knotted bundle of paddy-sheaves as Shridevi, the goddess of crops or
harvesting, who is worshipped with the same connotation as Devi Lakshmi, in the month of
Margashira in Orissa [Odisha]. Goddess Shri Lakshmi receives regular propitiation when the
harvest is over. Lakshmi is regarded as the real owner of the rice fields. In west Java, this
goddess is known as Devi Pohachi, the Goddess of rice.”
Balinese and Odia’s have many similarities w.r.t. food habits. Both are fond of eating saga,
especially sajana saga (young green leaves of drum-stick tree). Other favourite vegetables
common to both include banana flowers (bhanda) and core stem (manja) of the banana plant. The
Balinese also serve their food on banana leaves as in Odisha and Bengal. Similarly cakes made
out of rice-flour known as manda pitha and enduripitha are also favourite dishes of both. The
habit of chewing betel and keeping the ingredients in a wooden box are found in both the regions
Not only food habits but also there is so much commonality is there w.r.t. religious structure and
scriptures. The Vasuki temple complex dedicated to Bhagwan Shiva (Parama Shiva), where
Shiva is supposed to sit on the head of the Vasuki, was constructed with the belief that Bali is the
centre of Universe and Mount Agung on which it was built represented Mahameru 31 (highest
mountain) or pivot axis of the universe. The kirtimukha motifs (themes) of Bali are influenced by
that of the Muktesvara temple of Odisha (Bhubaneswar). Various forms of worship also shows
similarity between the two regions. One of such instances is the worship of Goddess Sri Devi
(Bali) and Devi Maa Lakshmi (Odisha). Both Devi’s are associated with dhanya and tandula.
People of both the regions worship a knotted bundle of paddy-sheaves paying their respect to
both the Devi’s. In Odisha, this worship is performed on every Thursday in the month of
margashira (November-December) and is popular as Gurubara Manabasa
Besides, the worship of Devi’s along with worship of Bhagwan Vishnu and Bhagwan Shiva,
Buddhism is also established in Bali. As per scriptures, Bhagwan Vishnu is regarded as a sage
like the Buddha, the Balinese speak of Shiva as an elder brother of the Buddha33 . ln the
observation of daily rituals the Shaivite priests address God as Jagannath, Suresvara and Rudra.
Suresvara and Rudra are being used for Bhagwan Shiva. The priests chant shlokas like “Om
Ksamam mam Sivadeva, lagannath hitamkara”
In Bali, some of the rituals began with following slokas:
Om ksamasva : nama Jagannatha sarvapapanirataram

Sarvakaryam idam dehi pranamami Suresvaram
xx xx xx
Om ksamsva mam Sivadeva Jagannatha hitamkara
Sarevapapa vimutkena pranammyaham Suresvaram
Jagannatha Mahaprabhu was also worshipped by people of Bali in ancient days. K. S, Behera
who visited Bali in 1992 on the occasion of Kalinga Bali Yatra festival was astonished to see the
wide spread popularity of Jagannath worship in Bali. . At Denpasar in Bali, there is a temple of
Bhagwan Jagannatha. The names of Puri and Nilachala were also used in ancient Java and Bali.
In Bali, the temple where images were worshipped was called Puri/Pura. 36 Like the famous
Ratha Yatra (Car festival) of Puri, the Balinese also carry three wooden Gods in a grandeur
procession. Masks resembling the three murtis, Jagannatha, Balabhadra and Subhadra of Odisha
cover the three wooden Gods37
The accessory articles of Indian worship such as ghrta (clarified butter), kusa (a type of grass
used in religious ceremonies), tila (sesame) and madhu (honey) are also used in Bali. Also,
divine water is used in their rituals as it’s used here in India
Many rivers in Bali are named after the sacred rivers of India, like Ganga, Sindhu and Yamuna.
The Balinese thought that those rivers really were in Kling (Kalinga). Along with other rivers,
the Mahanadi River flowing in Odisha is considered sacred by the Balinese. They chant “Om
Ganga, Sindhu, Saraswati, Vipasa, Kausiki-nadi, Yamuna, Mahanadi, srestha Sarayu mahati”.
Mahendratanaya, another famous river of Odisha, was also held in high esteem in Bali. This river
originating from the foot of the Mahendragiri mountains falls in the Bay of Bengal and is
regarded as a holy river similarly it is regarded as the most sacred river in Bali. Even in the
Balinese stutis (verses), this river Mahendratanaya is mentioned along with other sacred rivers.
This may indicate that in ancient times some of the emigrants definitely were from the Mahendra
Parvata (Mahendra mountain) area of the Ganjam district of Odisha 25
The stuti or shloka runs as follows:
Om Ganga Sindhu Saraswati su Yamuna

Godavari Narmada Kaveri Sarayu Mahendratanaya
Cornavati Renuka Bhadra Netravati Mahasuranadi
Khyata ca Gandaki Punyah Puranjalah Samudrasahitah
Kurvantu te mangalam
Buddhism was also quite established in Bali. Clay stupikas and votive tablets inscribed with
Buddhist dharani of c. 8 th century CE are some of the positive evidences of the popularity of
Buddhism in Bali. In Odisha, votive tablets with inscriptions and figures of Buddha and
Bodhisattvas are known from the excavations at Ratnagiri and Avana in the coastal Odisha.
Similar objects have also been discovered from Bali
Another resemblance between Odisha and the island of Bali is the designing patterns of clothes.
The tie-and-dye fabric of Odisha has its close parallel in Bali. Bali is the only state in the
Indonesian Archipelago famous for a particular type of tie-and-dye fabric known as PATOLA.
Odisha and Gujarat are the only states in India which specialise in this type of weaving. It is
believed that the famous Sambalapuri style of textile weaving has influenced the PATOLA tie
and dye style of textile weaving of Bali. In Balinese cremation textile, Odishan kumbha designs
are there
The Hindu caste system of India is also found in the Indonesian society, though the Brahmins
and Kayasthas (a branch of kshatriyas) are held in equal regard. The behavioral features in both
places also have much similarity. The youngsters, while passing along elders sitting or standing
on the way, bend down separating themselves by stretching down their right hands towards
ground. Raising of folded hands, as a common form of greeting, is a practice in both Odisha and
Bali. Like Odisha, in the island of Bali, if a guest comes to a Hindu family he is first treated with
a betel leaf and a nut. On auspicious occasions like marriage, the Balinese Hindus invite relatives
to their house by sending betel leaf and nut as it is in practice in the coastal districts of Odisha 39 .
In Bali, during marriage ceremony the bride and the groom wear a type of head dress
(MUKUTA), which is very much like the head dress used in marriage ceremonies in Odisha
Masakapam Kepesih Ceremony, Bali
The folk dances of Odisha like chaiti ghoda nata (chaiti ghoda dance), danda nata, naga nata
(naga dance), kandhei nata (puppet dance), Ramalila etc., are very much present in both the
islands of Bali and Java, though in a slightly different form. 40 There is also striking affinities
between Prahalada Nataka performance of Odisha and Barong dance of Bali. Masakapam
Kepesih (as shown in image) ceremony in Bali is same as Bali Yatra “Boita Bandana” of Odisha.
The festivals are held in both countries in the month of November
Hence, it can be said that Kalingans extensively contributed towards the evolution and
development of Hindu Culture in Bali. In spite of the outside influences, the Balinese have never
lost their indigenous practices like Balinese calendars follow five days a week and Saturdays are
considered auspicious marked for worship of Devi Saraswati 41
Maritime Activities of early Kalinga as reflected in the art, architecture, sculpture, paintings and
literature of Odisha
Representation of boats in various temples in form of art asserts the importance attached to the
transoceanic voyages of ancient times. Let’s have a look at few selective illustrations (as
otherwise it would be a book in itself)
Lingaraj Mandira, Bhubaneswar, Odisha

Lingaraj Mandira has a magnificent representation of a boat (c.11th century CE). The scene
represents a woman steering a boat with an oar. The depiction of a woman steering a boat is a
unique specimen in the history of the Indian art tradition. It indicates that maritime activities
were so popular in those days among the people of Odisha that even women were associated
with the steering of the boat
Sri Mandira (Jagannatha Mandira), Puri, Odisha

Boat with King on Bhogamandapa of Jagannatha Mandira, c. 12th Century CE, Puri
Jagannatha Mandira also has a magnificent representation of a boat in chlorite stone on the
Bhogamandapa (hall of offering). The represented scene is of the Nava Keli Utsava “Chandan
Jatra” (rowing festival) of Jagannath Mahaprabhu. From the analysis of this depicted boat, it can
be presumed that the king and his attendants are shown preparing for this festival. The middle
portion of the boat has a cabin and in its entrance, representation of attendants on either side can
be discerned. Four women are shown seated with their oars. In the rear end, two ladies are
depicted. Between the two, one is standing with a chhatra (parasol) and the other is shown
holding something in her hand, probably associating with a sort of worship to be performed
before the rowing festival begins. The boat represented here, is also of MADHYAMANDIRA
type
Brahmeswar Mandira (Temple), Bhubaneswar, Odisha

Shipment of Elephants from Odisha Coast/ Depiction of boats carrying elephants, Brahmeswar
Mandira, c.11th Century CE, Bhubaneswar, Odisha/ Vaital Mandira, c. 8th Century CE,
Bhubaneswar, Odisha
The earliest representation of ships can be found in the sculptured frieze collected from the
vicinity of the Brahmeswar Mandira, Bhubaneswar and is now preserved in the Odisha State
Museum. The frieze depicts two ships, one is fully represented and in the second one, only the
frontal part is shown. In the first ship, it can be noticed that there is a standing elephant in the
front part of the ship. In the centre of the ship, two persons are represented being seated, and two
sailors are shown with oars in the rear end steering the ship
Vaital Mandira, western side of Bindusagara pond (adjacent to famous Lingaraj Mandira
of Bhubaneswar) 45
Mandira is known as Vaital Deula after the peculiar form of its roof resembling a ship or boat
capsized. (The word “deula” in Oriya language means a building structure built with a particular
style that is seen in most of the temples from Odisha. Sometimes the whole temple is called
Deula)
The term Vaita is probably a contraction of the Sanskrit word vahitra which means a sea-going
vessel or ship. The word Vaitara denotes a ship, and as the roof of this temple resembles an
overturned boat, it is reasonable to call it as Vaital Deula. The external appearance of the
mastaka is similar to the hull of a ship reversed, and with the ends removed by planes at right
angles to the longitudinal axis. The three crowning members resemble the masts of a ship
Konark Mandira (Sun Temple) Odisha
Giraffe in the Sculpture of Sun Temple, Konark, c. 13th Century CE/ A sailing boat (c. 18th
Century CE Palm Leaf Painting), Odisha
At Konark, on the beki (parapet) of the Jagamohana (audience hall or hall in front of the
sanctum) of the Sun temple, the martandabhairavas are shown as dancing on boats. Another
interesting stone sculpture of a fullfledged boat of Odisha, supposed to have been collected from
Konark (c. 12th century) and now preserved in the Indian Museum, Kolkata, depicts a boat being
rowed by four persons. It is observed from this sculpture that in the middle of the boat there is a
cabin with an upraised platform inside, and a man probably of a royal personage is sitting with a
bow and arrow. This type of boat on the basis of the location of cabin is called madhya -mandira
type of royal pleasure boat as described and categorised in the Yuktikalpataru of King Bhoja.
The depiction of a giraffe, exclusively an African animal in the sculpture of the sun temple,
Konarak positively indicates that Kalinga had overseas commercial link with Africa
Paintings illustrated on palm leaf manuscripts preserved in the State Museum at Bhubaneswar
The drawing shown in the figure is a representation of a beautiful ship. It is regarded as the
saruamandira type of ship as referred to by Yuktikalpataru of Bhoja, as it is covered by cabins at
the front, middle and the end. Three masts can be noticed in this ship. The mast at the middle is
fastened with ropes and its top is decorated with a temple like design in which representation of a
god or a symbolical representation can be seen. Above it, a flag is noticed. On the top of the ship,
a flying bird is artistically shown. Below the ship, representation of waves and aquatic animals
like crocodile, fish etc. are depicted in an artistic manner. On both sides of the ship, two sailors
can be observed. On the whole, the ship is realistically depicted with essential details as cabins,
masts, flag, birds etc.
References in Literature
Scene from Ramayana, Indonesia
The interesting feature of Rama literature in Orissa is that it has striking similarities with the
Rama literature of Indonesia. The earliest reference to Indonesia in the Indian literature is found
in the Valmiki Ramayana where Sugriva gives description of the different places of the world to
his messengers. In the message, he refers to Sisirontama, Ratna dvipa, Java dvipa and Suvarna
dvipa, etc. From the passage cited above, it can be said that the contact between India and
Indonesia began at least some centuries before the Christian era and continued for a long time
Illustrations in Overseas Kingdoms

In some of the sculptures of the Shwezayan Pagoda at Thaton in Burma (Myanmar), remarkable
similarities with the Odishan art are found. The dressing and hair style of some of the females are
of the Odishan varieties49 . Some of the bas-reliefs, in high technical as well as artistic efficiency
show affinity with early medieval sculptures of Odisha. Image of Shiva seated with Parvati from
this Pagoda is very similar with the Hara-Parvati carved on the outer wall of Vaital temple of
Bhubaneshwara.
The Odishan influence is also evident in the architectural and decorative programmes found in
the Ananda temple, constructed during the reign period of Kyanzittha (c. 12 century CE), the
Pagan king of Burma (Myanmar). Builders of the Ananda Temple were inspired by the cave
temple of Ananta in the Khandagiri hills (near Bhubaneswar in Odisha). The shikharas (spire or
tower) of the monuments of Prome have remarkable similarities with that of Bhubaneswar
temples
Also, the Buddhist art of Odisha, particularly, the standing Buddha images of Lalitagiri, had a
profound influence on the stylistic Buddha images of Thailand. I. C. Giover the excavator of
Dan-Ta-Phet site, gives credit for such sculptural transactions between Odisha and Thailand to
the Buddhist missionaries. The tower or shikhara of the 12th century CE temple of Maha -Tat at
Sawank’alok shows an affinity with Bhubaneswar temples in detail
There is also some resemblance between Indonesia and Odisha w.r.t. art and architecture which
is asserted by striking similarities statues of Buddha found in Indonesia with images of Buddha
of Odisha (as shown in image on the right hand side)
Wind, Weather and Significance of Kartika Purnima w.r.t. ancient voyages.
The phrase Aa-Ka-Ma-Bhai doesn’t find much reference w.r.t. to its meaning due to scarcity of
any historical inscriptions (materials), but the local belief of Kalingans is like this “It is
considered as a promise that the merchants would return back between Ashadha a nd Kartika (
July to November) and they would be protected by Devi Mangala in their return trip”
The timings of the commencement of the journey and the return journey were associated with
many guiding factors such as the direction of the wind, the movement of the water, the river/sea
route followed, etc.
Let’s look at the first guiding factor i.e. “Direction of the Wind “
Since, mostly the voyagers moved with the help of the sails they depended especially on the
weather condition and direction of winds, monsoon being the guiding factor (In Yajur Veda
there’s a reference to Salilvata an equivalent of monsoon)
India has particularly two types of monsoon winds. The return monsoon or the North-East
monsoon (as shown in the image) blows during the months of November / December during
which the wind direction is quite favorable to go up to Sri Lanka from any coast of East Coast.
The Bay of Bengal majorly remains calm during this period. Hence, it can be inferred why
Sadhabas use to commence their onward journey during the auspicious period of Kartika
Purnima
Similarly the South-West monsoon (as shown in image) blows during the period from June to
September. The wind direction of this period is quite favourable for the return journey from Sri
Lanka to any port of Kalinga. This fact is further confirmed by festivals associated with the
return journey like Khudurukuni Osha
Now, the next guiding factor i.e. “Movement of the Water”

Scientific studies have concluded that the water moves in a particular direction during a
particular period of the year and this is directly connected with the wind direction. Although
normally the water moves in the opposite direction of the wind but it moves along the direction
of the wind at the surface level. In the Bay of Bengal in particular the water currents move with
the wind. The ships during ancient times were not very big ones. Hence it can be inferred that
they could have moved with the surface water. Therefore the wind direction and the movement
of water all confirm the theory of commencement of the journey during November / December
time period especially during Kartika Purnima
And finally the next important guiding factor “Route: River or Sea to be followed”
The water routes in ancient India were generally categorized into three types i.e. as The Nadi
Patha (river route), Kulya Patha (canal route) and the Vari Patha(sea route). The Vari Patha is
further categorized as into Kula Patha (coastal route) and Samyana Patha (oversea route). The
traders followed both the types of sea routes for journey to Swarnabhumi and Subarnadwipa
The first route which was generally followed for a journey to Indonesia and China was Kula
Patha i.e. the sailors proceeded along the east coast of India up to Sri Lanka and from there with
the North equatorial current up to Indonesia and then finally to China
In the book, titled “Periplus of Erytheaean Sea” (composed between 80 and 89 A.D.) describes
the route along the coast. Fa Hein sailed through this route to go back to china. He sailed from
Tamaralipti to Sri Lanka then to Indonesia and finally to China. The other coastal route was
through Tamaralipti, Bangladesh and Mynmar (Burma). This route came into extensive use
much during 9th/10th Century A.D.
The second route known as Samyana Patha was rarely used by Sadhavas due to lack of
knowledge of the sea, absence of mariners compass, fear of pirates, unsuitability of the of the
ships to traverse the deep sea, etc. Hence, they generally used the Kula Patha
Ptolemy in his geography book (150 A.D.) has reference of an apheterian (point of embarkation)
near Gopalpur (Paloura) where the ships bound for Chryse turned towards deep sea. This
establishes the fact that the Samyana Patha was known in early 2 nd Century A.D. Even, there’s a
mention of one of the trips of I-Tsing in 7th Century A.D. in ancient texts. He traveled directly
from Indonesia via Andaman Nicobar islands to Tamaralipti. From Java he sailed for 10 days
and reached Nicobar “Nikaber” “Land of Naked People”. From Nicobar he sailed for another 15
days and reached Tamaralipti
Hence, it can be inferred that the Kartika Purnima was celebrated as the auspicious occasion for
the commencement of the journey to wish the Sadhavas a bon voyage and Khudurkuni Osha for
receiving back the traders after a long voyage
Festivals & Traditions
Fairs, festivals and traditions provide us relevant information on the overseas commercial
traditions of Odisha. The role of the maritime merchants finds numerous mentions in the stories
and legends, narrated and depicted in festivals, folk tales and traditions of Odisha. A merchant,
in ancient times, before setting out for voyage was honoured by the priests and the ladies of the
household at the place of departure and the ship was worshipped at the anchor. After numerous
adventures in the course of his voyage the merchant would come home at last with a lot of
treasures. Numerous references of the maritime trade activities can be found in the stories
and bratakathas (the story portion of the worship), narrated during the fairs and festivals, that
have come down to us since ancient times
Kartika Boita Bandana Utsava56
Some images showcasing the celebration of Kartika Boita Bandana Utsava

Some images showcasing the celebration of Kartika Boita Bandana Utsava
Boita in local language is an argosy or a large sail boat and bandana is worshipping with lighted
lamp (dipa). Thus, Boita Bandana Utshava symbolises the festival of worship of sail boats with
lighted lamps
The Kartika Boita Bandana Utsava (ship/boat worship ceremony in Kartika) is the most
important festival which commemorates the past maritime glory of Kalinga and is celebrated
throughout the length and breadth of Odisha. Every year, on the auspicious occasion of Kartika
Purnima day (full-moon day of Hindu month Kartika, October-November), the people of Odisha
celebrate this ceremony with pride full of splendor, fun and joviality
On this day, the Odia people, especially the ladies, set afloat miniature boats made of barks of
the plantain trees or of paper with the lamps burning inside them in the same manner in which
the ladies of yester years used to send off their men on voyages wishing them good luck. The
ladies put betel, betel nuts, rice, oil seeds, pulses, yava and barley and other such things
representing various commodities in the miniature boats that were taken out in shiploads by the
merchants for trade during ancient Kalinga days. 57 They recite these words
“aa – ka – ma – ba (bha) i
pana – gua – thoi
pana – gua – tora
masaka dharama mo ra”
Women also sing folklores with fabulous accounts of voyages. They also blow Sankha (conch
shells), beat Ghanta (bell) and make joyous sounds Hulahuli with their tongues in front of the
ships. Finally, looking towards the south, in which direction flows the rivers to meet the ocean,
they pay homage in memory of the early navigators
The custom appears to be symbolic of the sea voyage, which was generally undertaken in the
month of Kartika when the rainy season came to a close and the Indian Ocean remains calm after
the stormy days of the monsoons58. The Kartika Purnima was also considered as an auspicious
day to start voyages for trade (as explained in detail in section titled “Wind, Weather and
Significance of Kartika Purnima w.r.t. ancient voyages”)
Bali Jatra “Bali Yatra” Festival
Some images showcasing the Bali Jatra Festival at Cuttack, Odisha
Some images showcasing the Bali Jatra Festival at Cuttack, Odisha

On this Kartika Purnima Day every year on the bank of the great river Mahanadi, at a place
called Gadagadiaghata, in Cuttack, people celebrate the festival known as “Bali Jatra” (voyage
to the island of Bali) with pride full of splendor, fun and joviality 59
It is observed to commemorate the glorious ancient maritime history of Kalinga especially the
sea voyages to island of Bali. Another religious significance 60 is also associated with the same.
In 15th Century CE, Chaitnya Mahaprabhu on his way to Jagannatha Puri arrived at Cuttack on
the Kartika Purnima and organised SANKIRTANA (mass religious prayer) on the sandy bed
(bali) of the river Mahanadi at Gadgadia ghat. The residents of the city continued it in his
memory and named it Bali Jatra since it was held on the sandy bed of the river. Further, Jatra
also means a large fair or festival. As the trade fair is held on the sandy bed of the river, it is
named Bali Yatra (Jatra)
In Cuttack, Bali Jatra is celebrated annually as a large open fair near the Barabati Fort area 61. It is
said to be the largest fair of Odisha state. There are several attractions for children, and food
stalls selling Oriya delicacies (Cuttacki Dahivada Aludum, Thunka Puri, Barafa Pan, Gupchup,
etc.) from different parts of the state, and it also provides provided opportunities to the local
artisans and craftsmen to display their products. Bali Jatra also provides a lot of cultural
programs like display of martial arts, folk dances, folk songs and other variety programmes – all
by amateur artists. For the children, there are various attractions like the magic shows, charmers
displaying the acrobatic tricks of their tamed animals and merry-go-rounds, etc. Every year
millions of people from all over the nation come to experience it
During Bali Jatra, children float toy boats made of colored paper, dried banana tree barks, and
cork in the Mahanadi, ponds, water tanks, etc., to commemorate the voyage of their ancestors to
Indonesia. These toy boats, usually launched after sunset contain small oil lamps, which are lit
and placed inside them, to provide an attractive sight during the festival. This festival is also
celebrated with great fanfare in Paradeep Port. Bali Jatra bears testimony to the rich maritime
legacy of ancient Odisha
1992 Expedition of INS V-Samudra to commemorate ancient maritime trade by State Govt. of
Odisha62
To revive the legacies of the maritime glory, the State government launched an expedition to
Bali islands on the Kartika Purnima day in 1992. History was recreated when the seven member
crew on board of a thirteen meter long naval yacht INS V-Samudra sailed for the islands from
Paradeep Port amidst much fanfare to retrace the ancient trade route
On 10th Nov, 1992, the Kalinga Bali Yatra began the retracing of the old trade route taken by the
ancient Kalingas of Orissa to Bali, Java and Sumatra after the traditional ceremony of ‘Boita
Bandana’. The then Chief Minister Late Biju Patnaik and several Indonesian diplomats were
present during the flag-off
Thousands of people gathered to witness and cheer the crew. The yacht covered a distance of
5,810 nautical miles over a period of seventeen weeks and reached Bali islands (following this
route Paradeep to Campbell Bay and finally reached Bali via Padang and Jakarta)
A grand reception was accorded by the local government and the citizen. The H.E Governor of
Bali was personally present. Seminars and exhibition of cultural arts and crafts of Odisha were
the highlights of the function
The voyage culminated in a three day festival comprising a seminar on Indonesian cultural ties,
an exhibition of Orissan handicrafts and classical arts performances of classical (Odissi), martial
(Chhau) and folk (Sambalpuri) dance traditions of Orissa
During the two-day Kalinga Bali Yatra conference the points of conclusion arrived at are as
follows
1. There is a significant close relationship between India and Indonesia which is ma nifested in
several aspects of life such as philosophy or way of life, languages, technology and arts
2. It seems that the contact between India and Bali has been existing since the 3 rd century BC., yet it
is not clear, however, whether the contact between India and Indonesia is direct or indirect.
Recent archaeological discoveries testify to the contact between India and Indonesia, particularly
Bali
Khudurukuni Osha63
Worship of Boat on the occasion of Khudurukuni Osha, Odisha
It is one of the most important festivals w.r.t. maritime trade activities of Kalinga (ancient
Odisha). The celebration of this festival also reminds us of the glorious maritime tradition of
Kalinga, when there was sea-borne trade with the South-East Asian islands of Java, Bali,
Sumatra, Borneo, Ceylon, etc (as shown in image). It is observed on the Sundays of the month
of BHADRAVA (August-September), majorly by unmarried girls and newly married wives (in
some parts) of all castes throughout Odisha, 64 especially in the coastal districts of Balasore,
Bhadrak, Kendrapada, Jagatsinghpur, Cuttack, Puri, Khordha, Nayagarh and Ganjam
Some images showcasing the vidhi’s of Khudurukuni Osha being celebrated in a village
(worshiping Devi Maa Mangala)
During the festival, Devi Maa Mangala (a form of Maa Durga) is worshipped to fulfill all the
desires. The festival is named Khudurukuni (one who is very eager for khuda), because the
principal fond offered to the Devi is khuda (particles of rice), which is believed to be the
favourite of the Maa Mangala. In some places of Odisha, this ritual is also known as Bhalkuni
Puja or Bhaluni Osha65
In the early morning the girls go out collecting flowers required for the Puja viddhi (ritual). They
collect various types of flowers including Kaniara, Godibana, Tagara, Malati, Champa, Mandera
and Kain. Then they go to nearby rivers and tanks to have purificatory bath. After this they build
tiny temples of earth or sand and decorate the same with flowers. Paying respect to the Devi
there, they return to their respective homes. And whole day is spent in making garlands and
decorating the image of the Devi Maa Mangala. In villages generally the Devi Maa is
worshipped in the Dhinkisala (the place where caddy is pounced). This place is plastered neatly
with cow-dung and the Murti Sthapana of the Devi Maa Mangala is done. The floor is painted
with floral despins (designs) known as Jhoti or Alpana. Garlands are made to hang like arches.
The whole day passes with the arrangement and the rituals of worship commence in the evening
In the evening of the Osha day, the girls worship the Devi Maa Mangala, offering Khuda
Bhaja (left out particles of rice that are fried), Kantiali Kakudi (cucumber having little thorns on
it), Lia (fried paddy), Ukhuda (fried paddy sweetened by molasses) and Srifala (coconut) and
musically recite the poem from a book titled Khudurukuni osha written by late Gopinath Das, in
which an episode relating to a Sadhava family and its only daughter Taapoi is narrated
The father of Taapoi was a rich merchant (sadltaua) and used to go on distant voyages. Taapoi
had seven brothers who were married. She spent her early life in the midst of utmost luxury,
getting the love and affection of her brothers and sisters-in-law. Later on, the seven brothers,
after the death of their parents, went on a sea voyage with their BOITAS (flotilla) to distant lands
for wealth. At their departure, they instructed their wives to take special care of their only
beloved sister, Taapoi. However, destiny had something else for Taapoi. She was subjected to ill-
treatment by her bhaujas “sisters-in-laws” and consequently, to utmost miseries and distress. She
was made to live on khuda (left out rice particles) and was engaged to watch goats in the jungle
Inspite of unbearable torture she waited patiently for her brothers to return. The youngest sister-
in-law was kind to her, but couldn’t come to her rescue because of the six others. Amidst all
sufferings Taapoi held her morale high. All the while she was praying Devi Maa Mangala for the
safe return of her brothers. She worshipped the Goddess along with other girls and offered khuda
as she had nothing else
Her sincere and devotional prayer yielded fruit and her brothers returned safely. They landed on
the shore at night and while resting on the vessel they heard the wailing sound of a girl. Being
curious as to who was crying they searched the area and found to their utter dismay, that she was
none else than their dear sister. As the pet goat ‘Gharamani’ was missing, she was driven out by
the in-laws and without being able to find the goat she was helplessly crying. Seeing her
brothers, her joys knew no bounds. The brothers heard all about her plight at the hands of their
wives. To punish them they asked their sister to cut their noses. But, their noses were restored
when she again prayed the Goddess. Then all of them went happily home
The episode, however, is a living legend which not only gives a graphic description of the
maritime activities but also represents the socio-economic and religious backdrop of the
contemporary Odisha. It also tells usthat, the Sadhavas of Odisha were a prosperous community
who had trade links with many countries. The Sadhavas not only had such maritime contacts
rather they made Odisha a rich and prosperous kingdom because of it. On sociological side, the
story is a reminder to all wives to treat their sisters-in-law with kindness and affection. Further
the prevalence of the story throughout Odisha and the worship of Mangala by the girls belonging
to all castes shows that the sea-voyages were at one time quite a common thing in the state. Here,
it is to be mentioned that the Sadhavas were rich merchants, generally associated with the
maritime trade. They did not belong to a particular caste but constituted a class including people
from different castes interested in the maritime trade 66 67
Akashadipa Vidhi “Ritual”
The Akashadipa Vidhi observed in the Hindu month of Kartika also reflects the maritime
heritage of Kalinga. The Akashadipa system is being practiced in Odisha since very early times.
Besides its religious significance, the Akashadipa also served as the artificial light houses to the
sailors
The observation of this vidhi, in the month of Kartika, indicates two things – one on the ground
of religion and the other on the basis of navigation. On the ground of religion, Akashadipa, is an
auspicious symbol and was meant to wish goodwill and good luck to the sailors on their voyages
in those days. From the other side, the sailors considered this as the so called light house and
sailed their ships in the right direction
The above description was generally applicable to the beginners of the sea-voyages. Similarly,
for the sailors and merchants who returned from their trading trips, the Akashadipa would serve
as the light houses to determine their point of destination. Initially this system was practiced
especially in the coastal villages but with passage of time, it gained importance and the tradition
was followed throughout Odisha
Conclusion
The cultural heritage of each nation confines the real value of cultural formation process, the
positive expression of the historical tradition and national characteristics. Ancient Odisha,
popularly known as Kalinga was the epicenter of the inland and foreign trade and played a
leading role in the dissemination of their culture and civilization in the Indonesian islands and
there is a need to ensure that these cultural practices and traditions borne out of enduring
commercial and cultural relationship live on and its meaning, symbolism and significance is not
obliterated from social consciousness with the passage of time and confrontation with modern
lifestyles.1
The Kaḷinga architectural style is a style of Hindu architecture which flourished in the
ancient Kalinga previously known as Utkal and part of the kingdom of Magadha or present
eastern Indian state of Odisha. The style consists of three distinct types of temples: Rekha Deula,
Pidha Deula and Khakhara Deula. The former two are associated
with Vishnu, Surya and Shiva temples while the third is mainly
with Chamunda and Durga temples. The Rekha Deula and Khakhara Deula houses the sanctum
sanctorum while the Pidha Deula constitutes outer dancing and offering halls.
In Kalinga, the ancient land of Sakta cult, divine iconography existed since the mythological era.
Present day research implies that idols (deities) were placed under auspicious trees in the ancient
days. And maybe today a temple in general carries various minute details and the overall shape
of some heritage tree. The various aspects of a typical Kalinga temple include architectural
stipulations, iconography, historical connotations and honoring the traditions, customs a nd
associated legends.
Architecture: According to Manusmṛti there is a specific hierarchy of Command for the

management of people involved in they are classified as:
1. Kartā : The Chief patron of the temple, generally the king of the state is designated as
kartā. Hence these devotional ancient architectures often reflect various socio-cultural
aspects of society of the time.
2. Mukhya Sthapati : The Chief Architect, The master of the Shilpa Shastras, Vastu
Shastra, Dharma Shastra, Agni Purana and Mathematical Calculations. Besides being a
very knowledgeable person he is also a very pious man. He translates the Kartā's vision
into an architectural design based on stipulations.
3. Sutra Grahaṇi : The Chief Engineer (can be equated) as he is the person who translates
the architecture into actual geometrical dimensions. He is equally proficient in all the
required knowledge and most often is the son of the Mukhya Sthapati.
4. Bārdhanikas : The masons, the stone setters
5. Takṣaka : The sculptor with hands that create poetry in stone does all the magnificent
carvings and engravings of various forms that has left us spell bound.
Besides these primary set of specialists, various supportive functions are carried out by other
people.
Material selection
Primarily certain classes of stones are considered auspicious for the construction of Kalinga
deula (temples). Shilpa Chandrika, an ancient architecture book define some specific seven
varieties of stone as ideal and specific types are used for certain portions of the temple :
1. Sahaṇa
2. Chhita Sāhaṇa
3. Baḍa Pagaḍa
4. Dhobā Kuṇḍa
5. Rasa Chiṇḍa
6. Niḷa Kusāṇa
Though clay bricks have been used in very rare cases most Kalingan temples are built using
these stones.
Site Selection
Various aspects like type of soil, shape of the Plot, location of the plot, availability and type of
space and ground water level, etc. are taken into consideration while selecting the site. Color,
density, composition and moisture content of the soil discriminates between the best, middle,
sub-middle and worst kind of soil. Based on Vastu Shastra, a rectangular, square, elliptical or
circular plot of land is selected in order of preference.
Naga Bāndhēṇi
This is an intricate and ancient method in Shilpa Shastra, by which the temples direction and the
auspicious moment for beginning the sacred construction is determined. Like the present
day Geomorphology, Seismology, Topology etc., probably this is some ancient science which
guides the architect to understand natural forces and build stable massive structures in Odisha.
Scale Model
The Mukhya Sthaptya (Main Sculptor similar to Chief Architect) creates a scale model based on
traditional stipulations and takes the Karta's (producer / financier) approval. In many instances
we see such depictions on walls and motifs.
Pota Pitha Mobile foundations By observing conventional masonry and going through the
following steps of the preparation of potā and piṭha the foundation of a temple could be
understood:
1. A square or rectangular area is dug out depending on the type and combination of temple
proposed at the center of the preselected Nāgabandhani plot of land.
2. The depth of this Potā is 1/3 of the height of the proposed temple, from plinth level.
3. The length and width of this Potā (pit) is always sufficiently broader than the diameter of
the proposed temple.
4. Hard stone slabs are laid at the bottom to create a level.
5. Then with uniformly cut hard stones, the four walls of the Potā are erected and the outer
perimeter space between the pit wall and ground is properly filled with soil.
6. The Asṭadala Padma Chakaḍā (Eight lotus petal shaped), is then laid at the exact spot
required. This is a square or rectangular shape of hard uniform stone slab at the center of
which an eight petaled lotus shape in exact geometric proportions is engraved. The petals
are aligned to the north, north-east, east, southeast, south, south-west, west and north-
west. The exact perpendicular line through the center of this Asṭadala Padma Chakaḍā
determines the axis (rekhā/meru) of the temple. The traditional method of such alignment
is termed as Sanku.
7. Thereafter the Potā is properly packed up with large pieces of stone and soil, probably
pressed down by elephants.
8. The Potā (pit) is leveled off at ground level with huge and thick cut theodolite stones.
9. Another layer of theodolite stones, corresponding to the shape and size of the ground plan
called the piṭha is constructed. This is the base of the temple. In many instances, we see
this piṭha at various levels of elevation.
Bhunaksā (the ground plan)
Keeping the Sanku (the vertical axis through the center of Asṭadala Padma Chakaḍā) as the exact
center of Garbhagruha, the ground plan of the proposed temple is engraved by the Sthapati and
Sutragrahaṇi with the help of a sharp edged instrument, on the perfectly leveled Piṭha. As
temples in every of their details depend on proportions, complex ancient methods are used for
correct geometric designing and executing the ground plan (bhunaksa) to ensure long term
stability and aesthetic appearance of these huge structures. Simplicity or intricacy of the temple
is reflected in this ground plan.
Thereafter, the Bardhanikas set about precut stones, under the strict vigilance of Sutragrahaṇi as
per the Bhunaksa, deula gaddanni has started.
Deula- Temple architecture in Odisha evolved over a long period of time. Stipulated
architectural principles with ample provision for artistic improvisation enabled the progressive
generations. Temples in Odisha are based on certain fundamental principles of stability and take
their cue from the human body. The superstructure is basically divided into three parts, the Bāḍa
(Lower Limb), the Ganḍi (Body) and the Cuḷa/Mastaka (Head). Accordingly, each part is given a
different treatment throughout, from the architecture to the final ornamentation of the Temple.
Temples in Odisha in the classic local style very often have a figure of Gajalaxmi in lalitasana as
their lalatabimba or central protective image over the doorway to a temple or the sanctuary of
one.
Classification
 Classification of deuḷa temples at Bhubaneswar, Puri & Konark


Konark Sun Temple, one of the most well renowned temples in India, a World Heritage Site.
the tower has collapsed in the past.
Baitala deula, a 9th-century Hindu temple typical Khakara temple dedicated to

Goddess Chamunda, Bhubaneswar, Odisha.
Sculpture of Alasa Kanya at Baitala Deula, Bhubaneswar

 Rekhā deuḷa
 Padma Garbha
 Ratha Yukta
 Meru Shaili
Examples of Rekha deuḷa are Lingaraja Temple (Bhubaneswar), Jagannath Temple (Puri)
 Piḍha deuḷa
 Dwichallia Pidhha
 Nahachallia Pidhha
 Kathachalia Pidhha
 Ghantashree Mohana
 Pidhha Mohana
 Naddu Mohana
Example: Konark temple, Konark
 Baitaḷa /Khakarā deuḷa
Example: Baitala deula, Bhubaneswar
 Varahi Deula, Chaurasi

 Durga Temple, Baideshwar

REFERENCES
This One state in India has shaped the Entire Maritime History of South East Asia,by Asutosh Mohanty
https://tfipost.com/2017/11/kalinga-bali-yatra-01/
10 November 2017

Ancient Kalinga Maritime Exploits

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Journal of the Indo Nordic Author’s Collective

KALINGA Maritime history

Kalinga is a historical region of India. It is generally defined as the eastern coastal

BACKGROUND OF KALINGA WAR:

Transoceanic trade relations with Thailand and far east

Kalinga’s maritime relations with SriLanka

Scene of Vijay’s landing in Ceylon, Paintings of Ajanta Cave

Ceylonese Coin from Manikpatna, Odisha/ Kartika Boita Bandana Festival

Om ksamasva : nama Jagannatha sarvapapanirataram

Om Ganga Sindhu Saraswati su Yamuna

Masakapam Kepesih Ceremony, Bali

Lingaraj Mandira, Bhubaneswar, Odisha

Sri Mandira (Jagannatha Mandira), Puri, Odisha

Brahmeswar Mandira (Temple), Bhubaneswar, Odisha

Konark Mandira (Sun Temple) Odisha

Scene from Ramayana, Indonesia

Illustrations in Overseas Kingdoms

Now, the next guiding factor i.e. “Movement of the Water”

Festivals & Traditions

Some images showcasing the celebration of Kartika Boita Bandana Utsava

Some images showcasing the celebration of Kartika Boita Bandana Utsava

Bali Jatra “Bali Yatra” Festival

Some images showcasing the Bali Jatra Festival at Cuttack, Odisha

Some images showcasing the Bali Jatra Festival at Cuttack, Odisha

Worship of Boat on the occasion of Khudurukuni Osha, Odisha

Architecture: According to Manusmṛti there is a specific hierarchy of Command for the

Bhunaksā (the ground plan)

 Classification of deuḷa temples at Bhubaneswar, Puri & Konark

Baitala deula, a 9th-century Hindu temple typical Khakara temple dedicated to

Sculpture of Alasa Kanya at Baitala Deula, Bhubaneswar

Example: Konark temple, Konark

 Baitaḷa /Khakarā deuḷa

Example: Baitala deula, Bhubaneswar

 Varahi Deula, Chaurasi

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