The ANCIENT SECRET cities of Hindu Champapura

Dr Uday Dokras
INTRODUCTION
The Mystery 5 Capital Cities of Champa Kingdom!

The Cham came to power in the 2nd century, AD, which eventually grew and became the site of five capital
cities:

- Simhapura (4th-8th centuries)

- Indrapura (9th-10th centuries)
- Vijaya (10th-15th centuries)
- Kauthara (8th-17th centuries)
- Panduranga (8th-19th centuries)

Settled along the coastal areas of central Vietnam. The economy was based on maritime trade with ports at
Hoi An and Qui Nhon and also piracy. Sometime in the 4th century, contact with Indian traders brought the
influence of Hindu religion, art, and social customs to Cham society. During the 9th century, the Cham
embraced Buddhism, and later Islam during the 17th century. Today there are more than 77,000 Cham
descendants living in southern Vietnam and in neighboring Cambodia.

The Cham are believed to be of Austronesian origin; they are ethnically and culturally distinct from the Viet
to the north and the Khmer to the west. Early mention of the Cham are contained in Chinese records dating
to 192 AD. Efforts to expand their kingdom resulted in battles with the Han Chinese for control of
provinces near the Red River Delta to the north in the 4th century. The Chinese regained control of the area
and attacked the Champa capital of Simhapura in 446 AD. Ongoing rebellion over the centuries by the Viet
resulted in Vietnam’s independence in the 10th century. However, the Cham battled the Viet for control of
their northern border.

Likewise the Cham was faced with regular incursions by the powerful Khmer kingdom in the south.
Ultimately, the Cham retaliated by capturing the Khmer capital at Angkor in 1177 AD. The reaction of the
Khmers under Jayavarman VII was fierce and decisive. By 1190 Champa was split into two kingdoms, one
became a Khmer vassal state and the other was linked to Angkor by dynastic right. By 1220 AD the
Champa region was annexed by the Khmer, and the art reflects the noteworthy influence of that occupation.
Politically, the Viet posed the greater threat to the Cham kingdom and it slowly moved south claiming
territory. In 1471 the Viet overcame the Cham at their capital of Vijaya ending their independence. With
little cultural ties to their Hindu heritage and with the introduction of Islam to what remained of their
kingdom, Cham culture diminished. By 1820 the last Cham king and many
of his subjects fled to neighboring Cambodia or Malaysia.

What remains of 1,200 years of the Kingdom of Champa are the beautiful sculptures which combine aspects
native beliefs and Hindu and Buddhist imagery. Established in 1915 by the French, the Cham Museum in
Danang displays fine examples of Hindu deities including Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Parvati, Saraswati, and
Ganesh. Demons, devas, and demigods show stylistic influences of Hindu culture but also reflect unique
Cham artistic elements. Of great interest are the unique pedestals on display. These symbols of fertility
called uroja (meaning “women’s breasts) likely reveal the esteem afforded women in Cham culture .

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A closed city or town is a settlement where travel or residency restrictions are applied so that
specific authorization is required to visit or remain overnight. Such places may be sensitive
military establishments or secret research installations that require much more space or internal
freedom than is available in a conventional military base. There may also be a wider variety of
permanent residents, including close family members of workers or trusted traders who are not
directly connected with clandestine purposes. Closed cities are sometimes only represented
on classified maps that are not available to the general public In some cases there may be no road
signs or directions to closed cities, and they are usually omitted from railroad timetables and bus
routes. What are secret towns?

Some cities are so top-secret they can't even be found on a map. Others are padlocked, hidden in
the forest, or buried deep underground. In this article I shall expose some information of what I call
seldom known cities of the Hindu Kingdom of Champa.

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 Champa also
known as Champapura was a religiously tolerant Hindu kingdom, with many different faiths
coexisted peacefully or have merged with indigenous Cham beliefs. Religiously and culturally,
the Chams were grouped into two major religio-cultural groups; the Balamon Chams (also called
Cham Ahiér) that adhere to an indigenized form of Islam and Hinduism. Another northern group
inhabiting around Bình Định and Phú Yên provinces is the Cham Hroi (Haroi), who practice
Chamic animism. Under the previous Republic of Vietnam, they were considered a distinct ethnic
group. Since 1979, they have been reclassified by the Socialist Republic of Vietnam government as
a subgroup of the Cham. Champa is the name of a flower favourite to God Vishnu it is said-hence
the name Champapura or city of the Champa flower which means city where Vishnu Lives.

Champa was a formidible Hindu kingdom, renowned for its immense wealth and sophisticated
culture. Its major port was Kattigara. Nearly 2,000 years ago, Claudius Ptolemy wrote
of Cattigara and outlined it on his map of the world. Modern scholarship has
confirmed Cattigara as the forerunner of Saigon (modern day Ho Chi Minh City).Cattigara was,
in fact, the main port at the mouth of the Mekong River, a name derived from Mae Nam Khong, the
Mother Water Ganga.

Another early Champa king was Bhadravarman, who ruled from 349-361CE. His capital was
the citadel of Simhapura or ‘Lion City,’ now called Tra Kieu. Badravarman built a number of

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temples, conquered his rivals, ruled well and in his final years abdicated his throne and spent his
last days in India on the banks of the Ganges River.

Historic Champa was divided into five regions. Indrapura (present-day Dong Duong) served as the
religious center of the kingdom; Amaravati is the present day Quong Nam province; Vijya is now
Cha Ban; Kauthara is the modern Nha Trang; and Panduranga is known today simply as Phan.
Panduranga was the last Cham territory to be conquered by the Sino-Vietnamese.These secret
cities of which we know little yet they are so intreiguing as they bear Sanskrit (also HINDI) names

 Indrapura ("City of Indra", was the capital of Champa from about 875 to about 1100 AD. It
was located at the site of the modern village of Đồng Dương, near the modern city of Da Nang.
Also found in the region of Da Nang is the ancient Cham city of Singhapura ("City of the
Lion"), the location of which has been identified with an archaeological site in the modern
village of Trà Kiệu, and the valley of Mỹ Sơn, where a number of ruined temples and towers
can still be seen. The associated port was at modern Hội An. The territory once controlled by
this principality included present-day Quảng Bình, Quảng Trị, and Thừa Thiên–Huế provinces.

 Amaravati ( Immortal City) was located in present-day Châu Sa citadel of Quảng Ngãi
Province. The earliest mention of Amaravati is from an AD 1160 inscription at Po Nagar.

 Vijaya (Victorious city or city of the Victorious King)was located in present-day Bình Định
Province (Tumpraukvijaya). Early mention is made of Vijaya in an 1160 inscription at Po
Nagar. The capital has been identified with the archaeological site at Cha Ban. The associated
port was at present-day Qui Nhơn. Important excavations have also been conducted at nearby
Tháp Mắm, which may have been a religious and cultural centre. Vijaya became the political
and cultural center of Champa around 1150s. It remained the center of Champa until 1471,
when it was sacked by the Việt and the center of Champa was again displaced toward the
south.[138] In its time, the principality of Vijaya controlled much of present-day Quang Nam,
Quang Ngai, Bình Định, and Phú Yên (Aia Ru) Provinces.

 Kauthara was located in the area of modern Nha Trang (Aia Trang) in Khánh Hòa
Province (Yanpunagara). Its religious and cultural center was the temple of Po Nagar, several
towers of which still stand at Nha Trang. Kauthara is first mentioned in an 784 AD inscription
at Po Nagar.

 Panduranga (name OF God Vishnu) was located in the area of present-day Phan Rang–Tháp
Chàm (Pan Rang) in Ninh Thuận and Bình Thuận province. Panduranga with capital Parik,
was the last of the Cham territories to be annexed by the Vietnamese. It was the most
autonomous, sometimes independent, princedom/principality of Champa. Panduranga is first
mentioned in an 817 AD inscription at Po Nagar.

 Simhapura ( city of Lions) was the first capital city of the Hindu Champa
Kingdom.d Simhapura, from the 4th century to the 8th century CE. There has been much
debate regarding Simhapura now called Trà Kiệu, as it is believed by some to be the capital

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 city of Champa Kingdom and by others to be the capital city of the Kingdom of Lâm
Ấp (Linyi).

 Virpura Capital of Kautnara- meaning city of Brave ( people )

 Kompong Cham has Banteay Prei Nokor, Former name of Ho Chi Minh City/Saigon or
'The Waiting Port' is the capital city of Kampong Cham Province in southeastern Cambodia. It
is the 12th largest city in Cambodia with a population of 61,750 people (2021) and is located
on the Mekong River. Kampong Cham is 124 kilometers northeast from national
capital Phnom Penh.

Within the four principalities were two main clans: the "Dừa" (means "coconut" in Vietnamese)
and the "Cau" (means "areca catechu" in Vietnamese). The Dừa lived in Amravati and Vijaya,
while the Cau lived in Kauthara and Panduranga. The two clans differed in their customs and
habits and conflicting interests led to many clashes and even war. But they usually managed to
settle disagreements through intermarriage.
Hinduism and Buddhism

Po Nagar/’ Ninh Thuận

Apsara with Saraswati (right)/Dancing Sivas, both from c. 10th century AD

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 Hindus of Champa

HISTORY-OF-VIETNAM---Vietnam has a rich history dating back around 20,000 years,

beginning with its earliest known inhabitants, the Hoabinhians. Over millennia, the region's
strategic geographical features facilitated the development of several ancient cultures, including the
Đông Sơn in the north and the Sa Huynh in central Vietnam. While often under Chinese rule,
Vietnam saw intermittent periods of independence led by local figures like the Trưng Sisters and
Ngô Quyền. With the introduction of Buddhism and Hinduism, Vietnam became a unique cultural
crossroads influenced by both Chinese and Indian civilizations.The country faced various invasions
and occupations, including those by Imperial China and later the French Empire, which left long-
lasting impacts. The latter's rule led to widespread resentment, setting the stage for political
upheaval and the rise of communism after World War II. Vietnam's history is marked by its
resilience and complex interplay between indigenous cultures and external influences of China,
India, France and the United States.

The Cham Hindus of Vietnam are an almost forgotten people, remnants of the Cham dynasty
which endured in the region now known as central Vietnam from the 7th century well into the
19th. Yet they are 60,000 strong, and they have kept their traditions alive for centuries, far from
India’s shores. Builders of cities named Indrapura, Simhapura, Amaravati, Vijaya and Panduranga,
these Hindu people and their culture continue to flourish to this day. When we speak of the
Champa people, it is not a trek through history; we are speaking of a living culture with roots going
back thousands of years.While today the Cham are Vietnam’s only surviving Hindus, the nation
once harbored some of the world’s most exquisite and vibrant Hindu cultures. The entire region of
Southeast Asia, in fact, was home to numerous Hindu kingdoms. The many magnificient temples
and artifacts, from Angkor Wat to Prambana, remain as potent testimonials to their splendor and
accomplishments. These grand edifices still stand, though the societies around them no longer
worship there or practice the lost traditions.

Few know that Christopher Columbus, on his fourth and last voyage, had attempted to reach the
Champa Kingdom and actually believed he had reached Vietnam. In ancient days well-worn trade
routes had linked Europe with India and the entire region of South and Southeast Asia, and for
countless centuries the wealth and wisdom of India had flowed to the markets and institutions of
the world. By the 1400s, however, political instability had disrupted direct trade links with India
and the West. Columbus was convinced that by sailing west from Spain he could circle the globe—
a concept ridiculed by most Europeans, who still believed the Earth was flat—and thus find a new
trade route and reestablish the long-lost link to the wealth of the East. His planned route would take
him south along the Vietnamese coast, past the Cape of Kattigara and on to Malacca; he believed
this to be the route Marco Polo had followed from China to India in 1292. Reaching Cariay on the
coast of Costa Rica, he thought he had found Vietnam and was very close to one of his coveted
destinations, the famous gold mines of the Champa Kingdom. Fortunately for Vietnam, he was
mistaken.

Another Vietnamese Hindu kingdom was Funan, which flourished between the 1st and 6th
centuries ce. Its capital was the Oc Eo Citadel. While exploring sea passages to India in the year
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250 ce, two Chinese envoys, Kang Dai and Zhu Ying, described Funan as “having its own taxation
system, ruled by a king in a walled palace.” Professor Louis Malleret has unearthed much evidence
of significant seaborne trade between Oc Eo, Persia and Rome.

Vast Temple Complexes

In ancient times the Champa built vast temple complexes that remain standing to this day.
Primarily dedicated to Lord Siva, these structures honor Lord Siva as the founder and protector of
the Champa Dynasty. The most important of these is known as My Son, a Hindu religious and
literary center. Originally, this temple complex featured 70 structures, of which 25 survive. Sadly,
the main tower was severely damaged by American bombers in 1969 during the Vietnam War.

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The Sivalinga was the primary form worshiped at My Son, its aniconic form also representing the
divine authority of the Siva-empowered king. Today the Cham people continue to worship this
form of Lord Siva.

Champa art, Hindu temples and statues have been found in many parts of Vietnam.The term
"Balamon" derived from "Brahman" or "Brahmin", one of Hindu caste of religious elite. Balamon
Chams adhere to the old religion of their ancestor, an indigenized form of Hinduism that thrived
since the ancient era of Kingdom of Champa in 5th century AD. While today the Bacam (Bacham)
are the only surviving Hindus in Vietnam, the region once hosted some of the most exquisite and
vibrant Hindu cultures in the world. The entire region of Southeast Asia, in fact, was home to
numerous sophisticated Hindu kingdoms. From Angkor in neighbouring Cambodia,
to Java and Bali in Indonesia. The Cham Sunni in the Mekong Delta often refer the Balamon
as Kafir (Derived from Arabic Kāfir for infidels)

9th-century Dong Duong (Indrapura) lintel describing the early life of Prince Siddhārtha
Gautama (who is sitting on a mule)./10th-century Cham Saivite relief of Śiva
Before the conquest of Champa by the Đại Việt ruler Le Thánh Tông in 1471, the dominant
religion of the Cham upper class (Thar patao bamao maâh) was Hinduism, and the culture was
heavily influenced by that of India. The commoners generally accepted Hindu influence, but they
embedded it with much as possible indigenous Cham beliefs to become parts of the Ahier religion
today. The Hinduism of Champa was overwhelmingly Shaiva and it was liberally combined with
elements of local religious cults such as the worship of the Earth goddess Lady Po Nagar. The
main symbols of Cham Shaivism were the lingam, the mukhalinga, the jaṭāliṅgam, the
segmented liṅgam, and the kośa.

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 A liṅga (or liṅgam) is black stone pillar that serves as a representation of Shiva. Cham kings
frequently erected and dedicated stone lingas as the central religious images in royal temples.
The name a Cham king would give to such a linga would be a composite of the king's own
name and suffix "-iśvara", which stands for Shiva.
 A mukhaliṅga is a linga upon which has been painted or carved an image of Shiva as a human
being or a human face.
 A jaṭāliṅga is a linga upon which has been engraved a stylised representation of Shiva's
chignon hairstyle.
 A segmented liṅga is a linga post divided into three sections to represent the three aspects of
the Hindu godhead or trimurti: the lowest section, square in shape, represents Brahma; the
middle section, octagonal in shape, represents Vishnu, and the top section, circular in shape,
represents Shiva.
 A kośa is a cylindrical basket of precious metal used to cover a linga. The donation of a kośa
to the decoration of a liṅga was a distinguishing characteristic of Cham Shaivism. Cham kings
gave names to special kośas in much the way that they gave names to the liṅgas themselves.
The predominance of Hinduism in Cham religion was interrupted for a time in the 9th and 10th
centuries AD, when a dynasty at Indrapura (modern Đồng Dương, Quảng Nam Province, Vietnam)
adopted Mahayana Buddhism as its faith. King Indravarman II (r. 854–893) built a giant Buddhist
monastery, meditation halls, and temples for Champa's monks (Sangha), and celebrated the
veneration of the Buddhist deity Lokeśvara under the name Laksmindra Lokeśvara Svabhayada in
875. Mahayana in Champa was blended with observable elements of Tantric Buddhism,
manifesting in many traces. For example, Indravarman's successor Jaya Simhavarman I (r. 897–
904) according to his verbatim in 902, Vajrapāṇi is the Bodhisattva capable of leading humans into
the "path of the Vajra." The Buddhist art of Đồng Dương has received special acclaim for its
originality.

Buddhist art of Champa also shared the same unique aesthetics, paralleling with Dvāravatī (Mon)
art, highlighting in the similarities of both cultures in their iconographic form of the Buddha-Stūpa-
Triad, where the Buddha seats in padmāsana (lotus) flanked by on either side by a depiction of a
stūpa. Other shared features are makara lintel, fishtail-shaped sampot illustrating, Gaja-Lakṣmī,
pendant-legged Buddhas. The sources of Mon–Cham cultural interaction may be the inland routes
between the Muang Fa Daed site on Khorat region, near a lost kingdom called Wèndān by the
Chinese (probably the site of Kantarawichai in Kantharawichai, Maha Sarakham) Southern Laos,
via Savannakhet, then to Central Vietnam coast through Lao Bảo and Mụ Giạ Passes.

Beginning in the 10th century AD, Hinduism again became the predominant religion of Champa.
Some of the sites that have yielded important works of religious art and architecture from this
period are, aside from Mỹ Sơn, Khương Mỹ, Trà Kiệu, Chanh Lo, and Tháp Mắm.
From the 13th to 15th centuries, Mahayana among the Cham was practiced in form of syncretic
Saivite–Buddhism or the fusion of the worship of Śiva (seen as the protector) and Buddha (seen as
the savior). Buddhism prevailed secondary. With the decline of royal power of the ruling
Simhavarmanid dynasty in the 15th century and the fall of their capital Vijaya in 1471, all
Mahayana or Vajrayana traces of Champa disappeared, enabling space for the rising Islamic faith.

Yajna (Sanskrit: यज्ञ, romanized: yajña, lit. 'sacrifice, devotion, worship, offering') refers
in Hinduism to any ritual done in front of a sacred fire, often with mantras.[1] Yajna has been
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a Vedic tradition, described in a layer of Vedic literature called Brahmanas, as well
as Yajurveda The tradition has evolved from offering oblations and libations into sacred fire to
symbolic offerings in the presence of sacred fire (Agni).
Yajna rituals-related texts have been called the Karma-kanda (ritual works) portion of the Vedic
literature, in contrast to Jnana-kanda (knowledge) portion contained in the Vedic Upanishads. The
proper completion of Yajna-like rituals was the focus of Mimansa school of Hindu
philosophy. Yajna have continued to play a central role in a Hindu's rites of passage, such as
weddings.[4] Modern major Hindu temple ceremonies, Hindu community celebrations, or monastic
initiations may also include Vedic Yajna rites, or alternatively be based on Agamic rituals.
The word yajna (Sanskrit: यज्ञ) has its root in the Sanskrit yaj meaning 'to worship, adore,
honour, revere' and appears in the early Vedic literature, composed in 2nd millennium BCE. In
Rigveda, Yajurveda (itself a derivative of this root) and others, it means "worship, devotion to
anything, prayer and praise, an act of worship or devotion, a form of offering or oblation, and
sacrifice".[5] In post-Vedic literature, the term meant any form of rite, ceremony or devotion with
an actual or symbolic offering or effort.
A yajna included major ceremonial devotions, with or without a sacred fire, sometimes with feasts
and community events. It has, states Nigal, a threefold meaning of worship of the deities
(devapujana), unity (sangatikarana) and charity (dána). The Sanskrit word is related to
the Avestan term yasna of Zoroastrianism. Unlike the Vedic yajna, however, the Yasna is the name
of a specific religious service, not a class of rituals, and they have "to do with water rather than
fire"The Sanskrit word is further related to Ancient Greek ἅζομαι (házomai), "to revere", deriving
from the Proto-Indo-European root *Hyeh₂ǵ- ("to worship"). Way back in 1879, at the Batavian
Society of Arts and Sciences, K.F.Holle drew attention to the performance of
Somayajna (Sanskrit: सोमयज्ञ, or Somayaga or Soma sacrifice is a Hindu ritual. It is a type
of yajna associated with the lunar cycle, and regarded to be performed for the maintenance of the
cosmic order. This ritual is based on methods described in the Vedas. Soma is used as the main
offering in this yajna, regarded to be able to propitiate deities. It is prescribed to be performed only
by the Brahmanas. A priest who performs this yajna is termed as a Somayaji.
The seven types of Somayajna are

 Agniṣṭoma – The first and main type, the six others are considered variations of this
 Uktya
 Ṣoḍaśī
 Atyagniṣṭoma
 Atirātra
 Āptoryāma
 Vājapeya
 And Soma Yagna a metallurgical process and offering to G

Aṣṭāśri yūpa 'eight-corner pillar' (8)_ as Viṣṇubhāga of Śivalinga of the Hindu civilization in
Binjor and in Laos

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aṣṭāśri yūpa 'eight-corner pillar' is an integral part of Śivalinga. The same shape finds expression

in a fire-altar discovered in Binjor, on the banks of Sarasvati River, near Anupgarh INDIA
It has been posited that the octagonal shape of the linga is sourced from the Skambha,Yupa used
in Soma Samstha yajna described in the veda texts. This is the pillar of flame, fire and light which
infuses carbon element into molten metal to harden it. A celebration and veneration of an
extraordinary metallurgical process of ancient Hindus. This Yupas with inscriptions proclaiming
performance of such yajna. The yuipas are octagonal in shape.aṣṭāśri is vedic term.

19 pillars have been found all over India and in Borneo, inscribed by Mūlavarman. aṣṭāśri yūpa
is a ketu, a sign of proclamation, of performance of Soma Samstha Yajna. Archaeological
attestation that aṣṭāśri yūpa is a metaphor to signifty infusion of carbon element into molten metal
in a fire-altar to create aṣṭāśrī 'eight forms of a linga. This new Kurukshetra of SE Asia remained
a spiritual centre for sanskrit of Kambuja Desa for
~1000 yrs till the decline of Hinduism. Kurukshetra Mahatmya can be read from an inscription
on same ~1500 yrs old stele of king Devanika. But it wasn't like creating a new tirtha out of
nowhere. There was a reason for Sanskritized ppl of the region to perceive it as holy. In 456CE
Cham king Devanika issued an inscription recording consecration of the site near royal city
Shreshthapur as Kurukshetra. And it was the sanctity of mountain that was probably reflected in
king's decision to consecrate the area as New Kurukshetra, A holy mountain known as Linga
Parvata in ancient inscriptions of Laos, S E Asia. Note the natural linga (almost 10 meter high)
on top of mountain.1

Establishment of the city of Lingapuram

A new city called Linga puram was established nearby and a royal road directly linked this tirtha
to new capital city of Angkor vat. Over time Khmer emperors endowed it with impressive
temples, palaces tanks and roads. Today it is known as Vat Phou temple complex. Eventually it
became the part of Khmer Empire of Kambuja Desa (modern Combodia) but the area retained
same spiritual significance. All the structures were built in such a masterful manner so as to
align entire complex with the Swayambhu linga on the top of the mountain. A road flanked by
lotus columns leading to the main shrine of Shiva on the mountain. as if symbolizing
journey from earth to heaven! Main shrine of Shiva on Lingaparvata. ShivaLinga consecrated in
shrine was known as Bhadreshwara after the patron saint of Chams.

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 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, Deel 125, 2de Afl. (1969), pp. 193-206/Also see: Nr̥ simha signifying a
Skambha, Yupa with caṣāla 'wheat chaff' carbon infusion
https://www.academia.edu/…/Nr_simha_signifying_a_Skambha_Yu…
https://tinyurl.com/y6jolc6p

Some impressive carving on the walls of Vat phou complex

1)Indra on his Airavat
2)Kaliyadaman
3)Vishnu on Garuda
4)Shiva riding on Kala.
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Bronze image of Shiva and Parvati from the Vat Phou temple complex area. Large no. of Shiva
Lingas were also found from the area. After the decline of Hinduism it vanished from the
memory of the people and eventually converted into Thervada Buddhist temple. However it
shows how fame of Kurukshetra as important Sanakrit tirtha reached as far as South East Asia as
early as 5th century/Gupta Age.And more than that it shows how well entrenched Sanskrit
civilization was in South East Asia during ancient times
Standing at four ft tall, holding the pride of place among exhibits, the massive stone pillar is an
awe-inspiring sight. On closer scrutiny, it is not a stone pillar but a Siva lingam and it is at the
Museum of Vietnamese History, Hochi Minh city, Vietnam, and is a local find.
This isn’t some Vietnamese version of the Siva lingam, rather the one that has been perfectly
sculpted as stipulated in the Agamas or the Iconographic canons.
The main stem of the Lingam that is seen here is paired with its pedestal called the Avudai to
make up the lingam that one can see in all our temples. Further, the main stem of the lingam is
made up of three distinct parts – the bottom most being square shaped denoting the Brahma
Bagam, the middle being octagonal – Vishnu Bagam and the top most cylindrical, the Rudra
Bagam. When matched with the Avudai, which is circular at the base and oval on top, with a
hole bored through it in the middle to hold the stem, the Brahma Bagam would be below the
Avudai, the Vishnu Bagam within it and the Rudra Bagam would be visible on top. The actual
dimensions, proportions and further intricacies like inscribing the lines of the Brahma sutras are
subjects of serious study but it is worthy to note that in the Vietnamese lingam, there is a face
sculpted just above the Vishnu Bagam. Such are called Mukha Lingams though the Indian
variants have more pronounced features.
For those who are already feeling heady it is worthy to point out that one of the world’s oldest
Siva lingam is found in Gudimallam, situated about 21 kms from the Kalahasti temple. Dated
between 2nd C BCE and 1st C BCE, this imposing Lingam measures an exact five ft in
height and has one of most interesting sculptures carved on it. The two armed figure, holds a
ram by its hind legs with his right hand, holds a pitcher with his left hand and has an Axe
slung over his left shoulder. The facial features are unique but for such an early date, the
quality of the sculpture is splendid, especially the ornamentation, the necklace, earrings and
detailing of the head dress.standing on a massive demon, who is shown as kneeling down and
supporting the weight with both his hands on his knees. His face is grotesque, ears are pointed
like those of a bat and his cheeks marked with deep lines but he seems to be grinning with
both rows of teeth exposed. His head dress and ornaments have been sculpted in style as well.
It is important to notice that this early Lingam does not have the three distinct bagams as
advocated in the Agamas and thus the cannons must have evolved and crystallised sometime
during the interim period.-The Hindu, S. Vijay Kumar / 2015 https://www.facebook.com/pawansayam.gond

Bhadreshwara
In the early start of the 1st millennium, the region now forming Cambodia and Laos was ruled by
the Champa dynasty of kings. They were called the Cham rulers. In 400 AD, the Cham King
Devanika faced constant attacks from invaders coming from near the South China Sea.

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One day, very fearful and dejected about losing, King Devanika wandered into the forests in deep
thought and worry. Tired, worn out and with depressing thoughts, Devanika took refuge in a
mountain cave. An old wise sage, who was meditating in that cave, saw the dejected Devanika
sitting down in a slump, and in his booming voice addressed the emperor – “Glory be to the divine
powers. O King! What brings you here. King Devanika immediately fell at his feet and poured out
his heart to the wise man “Oh wise sage, attackers are annexing my territory. My people are being
killed and their families are being broken. I am at fault, because I have been incapable of
protecting my people! It is a shame O great sage!”

The omniscient wise man just smiled and said “O almighty king, the time has come for you to

regain your glory in a new land. Did you know that Lord Shiva himself has descended from the
heavens and taken abode atop a mountain? The lingam stands resplendent in the rising sun. Go and
find the Lord, O King! Build a stately temple that is as majestic as Lord Shiva himself. Worship
that lingam, and all your former glory will be restored. You shall build a new empire, your progeny
shall flourish and dharma shall be established. Go! Do not waste precious time in lamenting thus!
With the grace of the Lord, anything can be achieved” King Devanika’s courage was restored by
the auspicious words of the sage. He bowed to him in deep respect and set out for his search.

King Devanika assembled his troubled people, and they all began their pilgrimage in search of
Lord Shiva. After several weeks of tiring journey, they arrived at the base of a tall mountain and
decided to camp for the night. At dawn, the golden rays of the sun began to escape the horizon and
lit up the sky in a beautiful tint of red. Devanika was awakened by the chirping birds, and he stood
14
up, rubbing his eyes and lo! On the top of that very same mountain stood the lingam glowing in the
golden rays of the rising sun. He was stunned by this breath-taking view. When everyone awoke,
they celebrated for having found the abode of Lord Shiva.

As foretold by the sage, Devanika had found the new land where he had to establish his dharmic
rule. Inspired by the principles set forth in the Mahabharata war, he named this land “New
Kurukshetra”. The mountain was named “Lingaparvata” (the mountain of the linga). Devanika
established his new empire with Shreshthapur as his capital. The people that lived in the region
along with the people who came with Devanika, became the forerunners of the prosperous Khmer
people.
A huge temple called Wat Phu was also built. Wat Phu exists even today. The original buildings
were replace around 11th century but it is in ruins. If the ruins themselves are so majestic and
astounding in their architecture, we can only perceive how magnificent the original temple would
have been.
Mahabharata had happened in 3102 BCE. King Devanika had found the lingaparvata in 456 CE.
4800 years after the great war. The Khmer kings that followed Devanika were also very
prosperous, until their decline in 14th century was caused by western aggression.

Glories of Kurukshetra ( Kurukshetra Mahtmya )

A stone inscription describes the glories of Kurukshetra

(Kurukshetra mahtmya) 1000 miles away from India in the following words.

TRANSLATION

15
Kurukshetra and Linga Parvata in Laos

16
 PANDURANGA

Panduranga and Kauthara are two areas inhabited by the Cau tribe, one of the two main
tribes that later formed the Cham people . In Panduranga, coastal cities soon formed where
the Cham people were skilled in navigation. Urban areas still exist today in Vietnam with

17
 names converted to Sino-Vietnamese such as: Panrang (Panduranga) into Phan
Rang , Panrik into Phan Ri , Pajai into Pho Hai , Hamu Lithit into Phan Thiet . Religious
architectural works such as Cham towers were built continuously over time, from the 8th to
the 17th century. Po Nagar towers (in the 8th century), Hoa Lai tower , Phu Hai tower , Po
Dam tower (9th century), Po Klaung Garai tower (13th century), Po Rome tower (17th
century).

Panduranga was the last area of the Cham people before being completely annexed
into Vietnam in 1832. Therefore, currently, the largest number of Cham people concentrate
and live here in the country. The areas where Cham people live are villages in Phan
Rang , Ninh Phuoc , Ninh Hai , Ninh Thuan province and villages in Bac Binh and Tuy
Phong , Binh Thuan province. Currently, there are about 120,000 Cham people here and still
retain ancient customs.

The first Panduranga was a small state that existed in the period 757 - 1832, corresponding
to the area Currently it is Ninh Thuan and Binh Thuan . Panduranga is known as
the Champa land with the widest territory and the last to exist, when the Champa kingdom
was destroyed by the Vietnamese in 1471 and 1653.Early Champa history through historical
documents and inscriptions only shows information in the North in
the Amaravati and Vijaya regions . Information about the southern regions/states such as
Panduraga and Kauthara comes later. There are research projects that before being merged
into Lam Ap, Panduranga was a vassal territory of the Funan kingdom . The meaning of
Panduranga is : A deity, One with pale white complexion, Lord Vishnu, With pale white
complexion, One of many names of Lord Vishnu.

After the collapse of the northern dynasties during the Linyi period, in 757 a new southern
dynasty took control of all of Champa, with the capital at Virapura , during the Panduranga
state. Virapura in particular and Panduranga in general were truly the center of power of the
kingdom, and it was not until 859 that their central role ended until the 15th century.
However, over time, Panduranga became a victim of oppression. prosperity, neighboring
forces continuously invaded and looted. During 21 years, from 854 to 875 , the army of the
Angkor empire repeatedly attacked Panduranga, occupied large areas of land along the left
bank of the Dong Nai river, sometimes even crossed the Langbian plateau, breaking into
Panduranga territory. pillage. Vikrantavarman III died in 854 (worshiped under the Buddhist
name Vikrantasvara), without an heir, there were internal disputes within the court. In 859 , a
king with many victories, named Laksmindra Bhumisvara Gramasvamin , was brought to the
throne by his court, with the title Jaya Indravarman II . The national
name Campapura (country of the Cham people - in ancient Sanskrit) was officially used by
Indravarman II. Chinese history books transliterate it as Changcheng or Champa or Champa,
in the Western language it is Champa.

Since 1471, after the capital Vijaya fell to Dai Viet, Champa lost the northern territories
from Cu Mong pass outward. The Cham people focused on returning to the southern region
with the new kingdom of Panduranga. From then on, the Panduranga area became the
administrative center of the Cham people until 1832 when the Nguyen Dynasty completely
abolished the autonomous status.

 The state of Panduranga was established in 757 as a consequence of the dissolution of the
Linyi state . Panduranga's territory may be limited to the area of Ninh Thuan province
today. It was independent until 859, when it united with four other states to form

18
 the Champa nation , but its autonomy remained intact. This country established its capital
at Virapura (Hung Trang citadel), then Palai Bachong village, Hoa Trinh commune, An
Phuoc district, Ninh Thuan province , now Phuoc Nam commune , Thuan Nam district ,
on Highway 1 , far from Ho Chi Minh City. Minh is about 310 km . The small state of
Panduranga is considered the predecessor of the Panduranga kingdom, established in
1471, with some changes in territory and population.
 According to Dai Viet Complete History , after Le Thanh Tong annexed the northern
lands of Champa into Quang Nam province. That is the land from the south of Thu Bon
River to the north of Cu Mong Pass (ie Thua Tuyen Quang Nam region during the Le
dynasty, Quang Nam region during Nguyen Hoang's reign to defend Thuan -
Quang). [2] A Champa general, Bo Tri Tri, retired to Phan Rang to take the throne and
govern the remaining territory from Ca Pass to Binh Thuan as a vassal of Dai Viet. This
land is divided into three regions: Dai Chiem, Nam Ban and Hoa Anh [2] . In particular,
Dai Chiem was the territory of Champa including the small states of Kauthara,
Panduranga and later also the small state of Aiaru in the north of Kauthara, which was the
territory of the former United Kingdom.
 In 1579, Nguyen Hoang sent general Luong Van Chinh to attack Hoa Anh (present-day
Phu Yen). In 1611, Nguyen Hoang defended Dang Trong and continued to attack
Panduraga-Cham Pa and annexed Phu Yen region into Dang Trong territory. In
1653, Nguyen Phuc Tan attacked and annexed the Khanh Hoa region into Dang Trong
territory.
 In 1594, a Cham king sent a fleet to Malaysia to help the Johor kingdom fight
against Portugal . In 1693, General Nguyen Huu Canh continued to attack and annex the
remaining territories of Ninh Thuan and Binh Thuan. However, due to the resistance of
the Cham people, the Nguyen lords also wanted to focus resources on
attacking Cambodia , so they withdrew and gave the Cham government autonomy.
 From 1828-1832, the Champa government was an ally of Gia Dinh governor Le Van
Duyet in the dispute with Minh Mang. In 1832, Minh Mang ended the autonomy of the
Cham people after establishing Binh Thuan province on this last land.

Hoan Vuong period (757 - 859) Prithi Indravarman :757 - 774

Hoan Kingdom was born after a change of power in Lam Ap , the kingdom that existed in
this region before.

In 757 , a small king in the south of Lam Ap rose up and deposed Bhadravarman II - the
young king of Lam Ap who had just ascended the throne - and then proclaimed himself king,
with the name Prithi Indravarman , ending the northern Gangaraja line.

According to the read inscription, Prithi Indravarman was the one who unified the Champa
territory in the most legitimate way, because he was recognized by the court as "the ruler of

19
the entire country like Indra, the god of gods". Although the country has been unified, this
territory still does not have a name. When going to China to pay tribute, it is unknown how
Prithi Indravarman's envoy explained that ancient Chinese records named the new territory of
the Cham people during this period as Hoan Kingdom (i.e. kingship returning to the old
homeland). ). Prithi Indravarman's first action was to move the capital Sinhapura (the lion
city, Tra Kieu, Quang Nam today) to Virapura .

Under Prithi Indravarman, Indian civilization and culture from the south overwhelmed all
activities of the Cham people in the north; Sanskrit was widely spread among royalty and
places of worship; Brahmanism is followed by many people; Theravada Buddhism thrives
among the people ; Temples, mansions and pagodas were built everywhere, most often in
Khu Lap ( Hue ), Amavarati ( My Son ), Sinhapura (Tra Kieu)... to give thanks to the
gods. However, the principle of autonomy of the northern emirates is still respected, because
there is no image or image of the goddess Bhagavati - the protective deity Panduranga chosen
by Prithi Indravarman to be the "Mother of the Land" for people to worship. phoenix – in
archaeological sites in the northern territory.

The wooden tower that formerly worshiped Queen Jagadharma ( 646 - 653 ) was rebuilt by
Prithi Indravarman with hard materials at Aia Trang ( Nha Trang ), on a high hill next to the
Cai River estuary (Xom Bong), to worship Statue of goddess Bhagavati (golden). This tower
later became known as Po Nagar , or Thap Ba .

Prithi Indravarman was a talented king, the country was peaceful and very prosperous. The
wealth of the Hoan Kingdom attracted neighboring kingdoms, especially Srivijaya
(Palembang), Malayu ( Malaysia ), Javadvipa (Java), Nagara Phatom ( Thailand ), Sriksetra
( Burma ) and Angkor ( Chenla ). ); They came to exchange or wait for an opportunity to
loot.

In 774 , Austronesian troops ( Javanese and Malays ) landed from offshore at Kauthara and
Panduranga, occupying Virapura. King Prithi Indravarman fought back fiercely but died in
the rebel army (later worshiped by the people under the Buddhist name Rudraloka). An
inscription read at the Po Nagar tower states "unlucky and weak people came from far away
places, ate food more terrible than corpses, and were cruel. These people came to rob the
linga statue of the god Sri. Sambhu, burned down the [Po Nagar] temple". After this attack,
the Austronesian army stole many treasures, including a golden statue of goddess Bhagavati.

 Satyavarman :774 - 786

As soon as Prithi Indravarman died in battle, a nephew who called him uncle named Cri
Satyavarman was honored by the royal family to replace him. But as soon as he ascended the
throne, Satyavarman and the royal family fled to the north ( Binh Dinh ) to take refuge. Here,
the king was helped by the Cham community and local Montagnards ( Ba Na , Hre ) to form
a powerful army to go down to Kauthara to attack the Austronesian army. Faced with
Satyavarman's power, the Austronesian army boarded a boat and fled to sea. The new king
led the royal family back to Virapura. Here, the king built a new palace in Krong Laa citadel
and unexpectedly invented a new custom that later kings imitated, which is the custom of
planting the Kraik tree, the royal symbol, in front of the palace. electricity. Po Nagar Temple,
destroyed by the Austronesian army, was rebuilt by Satyavarman with bricks, completed
in 784 and exists to this day. In 786 , Satyavarman died (worshiped by the people under the
Dharma name Isvaraloka), his youngest brother was put on the throne by the royal family,
named Indravarman I (also known as Nhan Da La Bat Ma) ( 786 - 801 ).

20
 Indravarman I : 786 - 801
Hearing the news of Satyavarman's death, in 787 , Javanese troops from the sea again
invaded Virapura, looted, killed many soldiers and people, and destroyed the Hoa Lai tower
worshiping the god Bhadradhipatisvara in the west of Virapura citadel (near Phan
Rang today). The Austronesian army divided into two groups, one group captured many
women and treasures to transport back to the country, another group occupied
Panduranga. By 799 , Indravarman I was able to chase the Austronesian army out to sea to
rebuild the country. In Virapura, the king rebuilt Hoa Lai tower with three new towers, called
Kalan Three Towers, worshiping the gods Indrabhadresvara, Sankara and
Narayana. Indravarman I quelled the armies that arose from everywhere, such as in Candra
(North), Indra (Northeast), Agni (East), Yama (Southeast), and most importantly, the
Yakshas rebellion (South). Yakshas were Montagnard tribes residing in the territory of
the Angkor empire , not the Khmer army.

 Harivarman I : 801 - 817

In the early 9th century , Indravarman I died, and his brother-in-law, Prince Deva
Rajadhiraja, took over, with the title Harivarman I (Kha Le Bat Ma). During the first two
years, the new king put all his efforts into rebuilding the country and restoring military power
. To receive more support from the masses, the king ordered his prime minister Senapati
Pangro to restore the Po Nagar tower in 817 and build two new towers next to the main
tower, one in the south and one in the northwest for people to reach. Admire the statue of
goddess Bhagavati, carved in marble .

After great efforts, the Hoan Kingdom prospered again, Harivarman I decided to attack the
countries that had plundered the country before. In January 803 , the Cham army attacked
Chau Hoan (Ty Canh, now Nghe An ) and Ai (Hai Am, now Thanh Hoa ), bringing back
many items. With the amount of rice brought from the north, the Hoan Kingdom navy sailed
to punish the kingdoms of Kelantan in Java and Patani in Malaysia. When he returned, the
king sent people to the mountains to recruit more soldiers. With this army, twice
(in 803 and 817 ), Harivarman I entered the upper Dong Nai plateau, defeated the Khmer
army and controlled a large area of land.

To have more food sources, in 808 , Harivarman I led his army to conquer Hoan and Ai
continents again, but was defeated by the governor Truong Chau : 59 members of the royal
family were captured alive, many elephants, warships and troops. Military equipment was
confiscated, more than 30,000 people died in battle. The following year, in 809 , Harivarman
I recaptured Hoan and Ai easily and brought back many artifacts.

 Vikrantavarman III : 817 -

Harivarman I's son, the emir of Panduranga, succeeded him in 817 , with the
title Vikrantavarman III (Thich Loi Ti Kien Da Bat Ma). Because the new king was still
young, the court appointed Prime Minister Senapati Par, the little king of Manidhi, as his
father-in-law. This prime minister organized many attacks on the territory of Kambujas
( present-day Cambodia ), ruled by King Jayavarman II, destroying many Khmer strongholds
on the upper Dong Nai plateau. To thank the Mother of the Land, in the Po Nagar campus,
Senapati Par built two new towers to the west and southwest, and later built three more
towers: one in the central area worshiping Sri Shambu, one in the west. The north worships
Shandhaka and the south worships Ganesha. Despite this, the political and religious center
was still maintained at Virapura, the capital of Panduranga.

21
Under Vikrantavarman III, the Hoan Kingdom was a prosperous country with a powerful
army. An inscription, found at the Po Nagar tower, describes Vikrantavarman III as follows:

"[He] wears golden strings studded with pearls and sapphires, like the full moon,
covering a white parasol that covers all four corners of the sky because the parasol is
deeper than the ocean, [His] body is adorned with crowns, belts, bracelets, earrings,
rubies... of gold, from which radiated light like [sparkling] vines" .
Ancient Chinese scriptures (Old Tang Books) further describe: "[The king] wore a white-
leaf collared shirt... on top he wore pearls and gold necklaces made into a
chain..." . Aristocrats and royal women also wore precious jewelry: "Ladies wear ancient
fabrics of millions of millions... they are decorated with gold chains and pearls" or "...
the army is equipped with many types of equipment." different weapons..."

Period 859 - 1471 During this period Panduranga was ruled by Champa kings from
Simhapura (Tra Kieu) and Vijaya (Do Ban). Panduranga was invaded many times by the
Khmer empire.
Po Klong Garai
As a Champa king of Panduranga origin, he ruled for about 50 years. Po Klong Garai had
the merit of leading the Cham people to resist foreign invaders, stabilize the country and
develop agriculture, and was revered by the Cham people as a king. god of irrigation.

Po Klong Garai
Tower - the religious center of Panduranga
Period 1471 - 1692
After being conquered by Dai Viet in 1471, the Cham royal family from Nam Ban (from
Quang Nam to Do Ban) led by Bo Tri Tri, grandson of Tra Toan, fled to Southern
Champa to take refuge and dispute power with the royal lines. local religion in southern
Phan Rang (Virapura). Local people were urged not to recognize the Bo Tri Tri
(Jayavarman Mafoungnan) family because they were only the executive level of the
previous kings.

The Bo Tri Tri family did not reign long. In 1478, Bo Tri Tri lost his younger brother,
Koulai, and replaced him, but was assassinated in 1505. Koulai's son succeeded him and
ruled until 1530, when he died. From that day on, the descendants of the Nam Ban royal
family were honored by the royal court and the people as kings. Tra Toai's son, the

22
 younger brother of Tra Toan, the last king of Vijaya, was Prince Po Krut Drak who was
promoted to succeed Chakou Poulo to rule Panduranga.

 Jayavarman Mafoungnan (1471-1494)

 Po Kabih (1494-1530)
 Po Krut Drak (1530-1536)
 Po Maha Sarak (1536-1541)
 Po Kunarai (1541-1553)
 Po At (1553-1579)
 Po Klong Halau (1579-1603)
 Po Nit (1603-1613)
 Po Chai Paran (1613-1618), younger brother of King Po Nit - after losing the Phu
Yen region , moved the capital Bal Chon. Phan Rang to the south in Phan
Ri (Panrik), the new capital was named Bal Canar . Bal Canar was also the last
capital of Champa, ending its role in 1832
 Po Ehklan (1618-1622)
 Po Po Klong Menai (Mahataha) (1622-1627), usurped the throne from Po Ehklan
 Po Rome (1627-1651), son-in-law of Po Mahataha, was later captured by the Nguyen
Dynasty and died in Phu Xuan after the battle in 1651.
 Po Nraup (1651-1653) – Mrs. Tam
 Po Thot (1653-1659), at this time Champa lost the Khanh Hoa region , leaving
only Ninh Thuan and Binh Thuan
 Po Sout (1659-1692) - Mrs. Tranh, was captured and brought to Phu Xuan after the
battle with the Nguyen Dynasty in 1692 and died in 1694
Thuan Thanh town (1693 - 1832)
Under pressure from the Vietnamese to advance south , in 1693 General Nguyen Huu
Canh attacked and annexed the last land of the Champa government into the territory of Dang
Trong , however from 1693 to 1697 the Cham people resisted. At the same time, the Dang
Trong government also wanted to devote resources to conquering Chan Lap , so in 1697 it
returned power to the Cham kings, but changed the name in the document to Tran Thuan
Thanh, or Thuan Thanh town. Tran Thuan Thanh is an autonomous territory and at the same
time a vassal of the Dang Trong government. The capital was located in Bal Canar , now in
Binh Thuan province.

During the Tay Son war, Thuan Thanh town was the battlefield where the dispute occurred
between the Tay Son and Nguyen Anh dynasties . Since 1794, Panduranga land was
considered an outpost of the Nguyen lords to prevent the advance of the Tay Son army into
Gia Dinh land - the capital of the Nguyen army at that time.

However, from 1828 to 1832, the Champa government here was under the protection of the
governor of Gia Dinh , Le Van Duyet . After Le Van Duyet died, King Minh Mang abolished
the autonomy of the Cham people and established Binh Thuan province. The last government
of Thuan Thanh town in particular, and Champa in general, ended there. The Kingdom of
Champa ceased to exist after 1832.

23
Po Nagar Tower is the religious center of KautharaPo Nagar is a Cham temple tower founded
before 781 C.E. and located in the medieval principality of Kauthara, near modern Nha Trang
in.#Vietnam. It is dedicated to Yan Po Nagar, the goddess of the country, identified Hindu
goddesses Maa Bhagavati and Mahishasuramardini, and who in Vietnamese is called Thiên Y
Thánh Mâu.
Kauthara was one of four states under the Champa federation that existed as soon as this
kingdom was formed. It is a Champa area distributed in a space from Phu Yen (Ea Riu)
stretching to the end Let's go to Cam Ranh Bay . This place's terrain is mainly a small and
narrow coastal plain with a connection between the mountains and the sea. The regular
deposition of alluvium along the river basins flowing to the estuary has created the central
Kauthara area. Completely socio-economic development is the convergence of trade
junctions along with bustling cultural and social activities, second only to the capital Vijaya .

Period 757 - 1471

In the 8th century, the political center of Champa temporarily shifted from My Son to the
Panduranga and Kauthara areas, centered around the temple complex of Thap Ba (Po Nagar
tower) near present-day Nha Trang. A place to worship the earth goddess Yan Po Nagar. In
774, the Javanese destroyed Kauthara, burned the Po Nagar temple, and carried away
the Shiva statue . The Cham king Satyavarman chased the enemy and defeated them in a
naval battle. In 781, Satyavarman erected a stele at Po Nagar, claiming victory and control
over the entire area and rebuilt the temple. In 787, the Javanese again burned down the Shiva
temple near Panduranga .

In 944 and 945, Khmer troops from Angkor invaded the Kauthara area. Around 950, the
Khmer destroyed Po Nagar temple and took away the goddess statue. In 960, the Cham
king Jaya Indravaman I sent an envoy to the Song dynasty (at this time the capital was
in Kaifeng ). In 965, the king rebuilt the Po Nagar temple and the goddess statue to replace
the one that was taken away.

Period 1471 - 1611

Unlike the fate of the other four regions, Kauthara was relatively unaffected by wars thanks
to its distance from both Dai Viet and the Khmer Empire . Only in 1471, the Dai Viet army

24
invaded Champa and destroyed the capital Vijaya, King Le Thanh Tong decided to cut off the
coastal land from Cu Mong pass to Ca pass and return it to the Champa people , crowning the
lord of this land. Both Kauthara, Panduranga , and Jarai became subordinates of the first Le
dynasty .

In 1578, Luong Van Chanh, a general of Lord Nguyen Hoang , led his army into Kauthara,
besieged and defeated An Nghiep citadel - the most fortified and massive citadel in Champa
history, located in Phu Hoa district , west of Tuy Hoa city today. now - push them back to the
old boundary south of Ca Pass . The battle was only aimed at restoring the old order,
but Luong Van Chanh also took a step forward in sending displaced people to exploit this
land, scattered from the south of Cu Mong pass to the Da Dien river delta . During about 10
years at the end of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century, Panduranga from
the south encroached on Kauthara land, killing and expelling Vietnamese people residing in
this land.

Period 1611 - 1653

In 1611, Lord Nguyen Hoang sent a Cham general, known in Vietnamese history as Van
Phong, to capture two districts of Dong Xuan and Tuy Hoa to establish Phu Yen palace , later
changed to Tran Bien palace. In 1653, taking advantage of Champa king Po Nraop (Ba
Tam)'s harassment of the southern border, Lord Nguyen Phuc Tan sent an army to attack
Champa, advance to Phan Rang river, and capture King Po Nraop. about Hue . On the old
land of the Kauthara emirate, Lord Nguyen Phuc Tan established two palaces: Thai
Khang (now Ninh Hoa and Van Ninh ) and Dien Ninh (now Dien Khanh , Nha Trang , Cam
Lam and Cam Ranh ). So in 1653 Kauthara was completely annexed into Dai
Viet territory . Kauthara fell, Po Nagar temple in Nha Trang fell under the control of the
Nguyen Dynasty. That's why the Champa king decided to bring the statue of Po Ina Nagar to
Phan Rang to be worshiped in a temple in Mong Duc near Huu Duc village (Phan Rang) now

Version of Vo Canh Beer in Khanh Hoa

Most of Kauthara's territory belonged to Lord Nguyen since 1653. Lord Nguyen brought
immigrants from Quang Nam , Thuan Hoa to Khanh Hoa, and Vietnamese immigrants lived
intermingled with Cham people in clusters. Viet Cham conflicts often occur in this land,
mostly due to land disputes, the losers often belong to the Cham people. In 1712, Lord
Nguyen Phuc Chu had to agree on five terms to protect the rights and treat the Cham people

25
fairly. In the 18th century, many European missionaries reported seeing many Cham villages
near Nha Trang. However, today there are no more Cham villages to be seen. [1] Although the
Cham people almost no longer live in Khanh Hoa province, this province still retains many
important vestiges of the small kingdom of Kauthara such as Po Nagar Tower , Thanh Hoi,
Ong Thac temple, Chua Temple. Currently, in Van Phong Bay, there is a small island named
Hon Diep (or Hon Bip), over 10 km from the shore, on which there is an ethnic group living
isolated in a few dozen houses, not communicating with the outside world. , the Vietnamese
people in Van Ninh call them "Dang Ha people" or "Ha people". The islanders have dark
skin, pale ears, white eyes, and are quiet; They don't carry burdens like Vietnamese people,
but carry them on their heads. In the early 1930s, Van Ninh district officials called all the
islanders to register for the Bo Dinh book, but when asked for their names, they only had first
names and no last names. Finally, the district official said: "Well, the men take the Dinh
family name, and the women take the Tran family name." Judging by customs, habits and
human appearance, perhaps these are the last Cham people still existing in Khanh Hoa to this
day.

Vijayapura or Vijaya

Vijaya meaning Victorious; also known as Vijayapura, is an ancient city in Bình Định
province, Vietnam. From the 12th century, it served as the capital of the Kingdom
of Champa until it was conquered by Dai Viet during the Champa–Dai Viet War of 1471.

Geography, economy, transport Vijaya was centred on the lowland area along lower Côn
River, in what is now the south of Bình Định Province. To the east of the plain and near the
estuary of the river is a strategic and well-protected location for a port. This led to the rise
of Cảng Thị Nại, one of the major ports of Champa. The river leading up into the highlands to
the west was important for the trade with highland peoples supplying Champa with luxury
goods such as eaglewood for export. Vijaya's geography was also important for its
agriculture. With one of the larger rivers of Champa, its soils were more fertile than that of
many other places.[2] This allowed for a relatively large concentration of people near the
centre of Vijaya, which resulted in a relatively large number of temples.
According to two noteworthy 15th century reports noted in Vietnamese grand chronicles,
the Toàn thư, Vijaya had a small number of households, just 2,500, or approximately 10,000
inhabitants. More accurate, the second report states that the city had about 70,000 people
living inside.

The area around Vijaya was probably one of earliest landfalls of the Cham people in what is
now Vietnam. However, its architecture implies that it did not become important until the
11th or 12th century. Records suggest that there was an attack on Vijaya's citadel from the
Vietnamese in 1069 (when Dai Viet was ruled by Lý Nhân Tông) to punish Champa for
armed raiding in Vietnam. The Cham king Rudravarman III was defeated and captured and
offered Champa's three northern provinces to Dai Viet (present-day Quảng Bình and Quảng
Trị provinces).

In Champa at the time there were two ruling kings–Parameśvaravarman and Rudravarman
III–in Nha Trang and Phan Rang, respectively. Rudravarman of Phan Rang had good relation
with the Chinese Song dynasty. None of them ever did manage to travel far north to counter
the Vietnamese. Northern Champa at that time was ruled by a Cham chief/warlord with title
Śrī Yuvarāja Mahāsenāpati, not related to the Parameśvaravarman–Bhadravarman–
Rudravarman family.

26
The Vietnamese raid in 1069 began embarking from a port in Hue on 28th day of the third
month, reached their destination of the third day of fourth month, then engaged with the
Cham. Sailing from Hue to Vijaya (Qui Nhon) within six days doesn't make sense. King Ðệ
Củ/Chế Củ had been fleeing into Cambodia (Zhenla), was then captured. They pillaged the
city of Indrapura (Phật thệ) for one month, then it took one month for them to return to
Hanoi. Michael Vickery insists that the 1069 Vietnamese raid did not target Vijaya, but
probably Châu Sa & Cổ Lũy citadels on the north and south banks of the Trà Khúc
River in Quảng Ngãi province. Châu Sa was a large port city named Amaravati, has the
temple of Chánh Lộ dating to eleventh century. He also speculates that Chế Củ was certainly
not king Rudravarman III, but a Cham chief somewhere in the north. [10] The earliest mention
of Vijaya as a Cham city was dated to around 1153 to 1184, so the explicitly application of
Vijaya for a location of Champa prior that period should be considered an historical
anachronism.

Vijaya was involved in wars with Angkor (now Cambodia) in the 12th and 13th centuries.
Khmer military incursions into Champa were successful for some time and Suryavarman
II managed to subdue Vijaya in the 1145, deposing Jaya Indravarman III, [5]: 75–76 but the
Khmer were later defeated in 1149. Vijaya was at times dominated by the Khmer
king Jayavarman VII. The Khmer king relied on Cham supporters for his successful military
campaigns in both Angkor and Champa.

Vijaya was captured by the Yuan army led by Mongol commander Sogetu in early 1283. The
Mongols were ultimately driven away, but the city was sacked. In 1377, the city was
unsuccessfully besieged by a Vietnamese army in the Battle of Vijaya. Major wars with
Vietnam were fought again in the 15th century, which eventually led to the defeat of Vijaya
and the demise of Champa in 1471. The citadel of Vijaya was besieged for one month in
1403 when the Vietnamese troops had to withdraw because of a shortage of foodThe final
attack came in early 1471 after almost 70 years without major military confrontation between
Champa and Dai Viet. It is interpreted to have been a reaction to Champa asking China for
reinforcements to attack Dai Viet. [18] Much of Champa was dissolved after the 1471 Cham–
Vietnamese War. Vijaya was completely destroyed, while other southern principalities had a
protectorate-like status within Dai Viet.

Vijaya's architecture distinguishes it from other Champa centers, because it used a

combination of stone and brick elements,[20] while most other Cham structures only used
bricks. This suggests some influence from Cambodian Angkor.[20] It also points to the relative
abundance of labour in Vijaya compared to other Champa centres of powers, because
processing stones for construction was more labour-intensive than the production of
bricks. Vijaya's style of architecture seems to have been dominant throughout Champa for
some time, given the later classification of the architecture from the period between the 12th
and 14th centuries as the 'Binh Dinh style'.

27
Banh It TowersDuong Long Towers
A relatively large number of towers built in Vijaya have been preserved in Bình Định
Province. They include the ruins of the citadel: Cánh Tiên tower and several temple towers.
The Dương Long towers are among Southeast Asia's tallest Hinduist buildings.

Site Date Location

late 12th - early 13th century; improved up to 14th Bình Hoà, Tây
Dương Long
- 15th century (before 1471) Sơn

Hưng Thạnh / Đống Đa, Quy

late 12th - early 13th century
Tháp Đôi Nhơn

Nhơn Hậu, An
Cánh Tiên late 13th - 14th/15th century
Nhơn

Thốc Lốc / Phú Bình Nghi, Tây

late 13th - 14th century
Lốc Sơn

Bình Nghi, Tây

Thủ Thiện late 13th - 14th century
Sơn

Phước Hoà, Tuy

Bình Lâm early 11th century (c. 1000)
Phước

Bánh Ít / Tháp Phước Hiệp, Tuy

early 11th century (c. 1000); improved later
Bạc Phước

The ruins of Tây Sơn era Hoang De citadel lies within the old Champa city walls.

Sack of VIJAYA

28
Conflict between Champa and Đại Việt did not end, however, with the abandonment
of Indrapura. Champa suffered further Viet attacks in 1021 and 1026. In 1044, a
catastrophic battle resulted in the death of the Cham King Sa Dau and the sack of
Vijaya by Đại Việt under Lý Thái Tông. The invaders captured elephants and
musicians and even the Cham queen Mi E, who preserved her honor by throwing
herself into the waves as her captors attempted to transport her to their country. Thirty
thousand Cham were killed. Champa began to pay tribute to the Viet kings, including
a white rhinoceros in 1065 and a white elephant in 1068 sent to Lý Thánh Tông In
1068, however, the King of Vijaya Rudravarman III (Che Cu) allegedly attacked Đại
Việt in order to reverse the setbacks of 1044. Again the Cham were defeated, and
again Đại Việt captured and burned Vijaya. These events were repeated in 1069
when Lý Thánh Tông took a fleet to Champa, torched Vijaya, and captured
Rudravarman III. The Champa king eventually purchased his freedom in exchange for
three northern districts of his realm. Taking advantage of the debacle, a leader in
southern Champa rebelled and established an independent kingdom. The northern
kings were not able to reunite the country until 1084.

SIMHAPURA City of Lions

Simhapura, now called Trà Kiệu was the first capital city of the Hindu Champa Kingdom,
from the 4th century to the 8th century CE. The site has been known to the western world
since the late 19th century. Today nothing remains of the ancient city except the rectangular
rampartsBửu Châu or jade hill overlooks the site and is known as the citadel of the
Simhapura. There are also signs of a border wall for the ancient city, though it is currently
unknown if this was for defense, hierarchical segregation, irrigation, or something else
entirely. There has been much debate regarding Trà Kiệu, as it is believed by some to be the
capital city of Champa Kingdom and by others to be the capital city of the Kingdom of Lâm
Ấp (Linyi). Trà Kiệu also has two main ceramic phases: the first consists of basic ceramics
for household use and roof tiles marked with textile impressions. The second phase brings
about the iconic roof tiles with faces on them. There are two main theories about why the
faces start appearing on the tiles: the first is that Hinduism had such a strong influence that
workers at Trà Kiệu began carving faces into roof tiles. The second theory is that there was
an Indian mask maker who introduced and popularized the face motifs as this style of
decoration on roof tiles.

29
The Trà Kiệu pedestal of the 10th century supports a massive lingam and ablutionary cistern.

A row of apsaras, or celestial nymphs, is depicted on the base of the Trà Kiệu Pedestal /The
Dancers' Pedestal of Trà Kiệu features this apsara or dancer and gandharva or musician.

Ruins of the Mỹ Sơn Sanctuary

30
In 653, king Prakasadharman (r. 653–686) ascended the crown as Vikrantavarman I of
Champa in Simhapura (Tra Kieu). He was a descendant of kings Gangaraja (r. 413 -?)
and Rudravarman I (r. 527–572). This lineage was known as the Gangaraja dynasty or the
Simhapura dynasty. He embarked a series of campaigns to subdue other Chamic kingdoms in
the south, and by 658 AD the kingdom of Champa (campādeśa) stretching from Quảng Bình
province in the north to present-day Ninh Hòa city, Khánh Hòa province in the south, was
unified under one ruler for the first time.[

Prakāśadharma organized the kingdom into administrative units known as viṣaya (district.
However, viṣaya also can be synonymous with dominion, kingdom, territory, region). At that
time there were two know districts: Caum and Midit. Each of them had a handful number
of koṣṭhāgāras – 'storage', could be understood as the source of stable income to upkeep the
worship of three gods. They could be rice fields, storehouses, and less likely treasures.
Prakāśadharma built numerous temples and religious foundations at Mỹ Sơn. One structure is
amazing decorated was dedicated to the Ramayana's author Valmiki by the king, resembling
a theme from the wedding of Sita in the Ramayana.

Prakāśadharma dispatched four diplomatic missions to the court of the Tang Empire in 653,
654, 669, and 670. Envoys and tributes were regularly sent to China by previous kings. The
seventh century saw Champa or Linyi from the eyes of the Chinese, became the chief
tributary state of the South, on a par with the Korean kingdoms of Kokuryo in the Northeast
and Baekje in the East - though the latter was rivaled by Japan

Champa theory
Occupation of the Trà Kiệu site began in the 1st-2nd century, while Cham influence at the
site didn't begin until the mid to late 4th century. The city of Simhapura, now known as Trà
Kiệu, had its perimeter walls built in the early centuries of the Common Era which support
the above statements. While Champa influence began traveling out of India and into South-
Eastern Asia in the 4th century, Simhapura isn't believed to have become the capital of the
Champa Kingdom until the 10th century AD. Further mentions of Simhapura dating from the
11th century (1074–1076) when king Harivarman IV decided to restore the city back to its
golden age. Evidence of Cham influence in Trà Kiệu are sketches from Claeys that show the
district foundations on which Cham built their towers. There's evidence of bricks both broken
and intricately laid that denote the Cham's influence in Trà Kiệu. Additionally, the border
wall was made of brick which tells us that Trà Kiệu had enough Cham influence to fashion
their border walls after the Cham style. There was additionally a lot of Cham style pottery
found at Trà Kiệu, and while this is not definitive evidence there was enough pottery to make
it highly significant. Ultimately, while there is no absolute proof of the Champa Theory, there
is significant evidence of Chinese influence as well. However, the Cham influence is
undeniable and many Vietnamese Archeologists conclude that Simhapura now known as Trà
Kiệu was the capital of the Champa Kingdom.

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Ceramic end tile with decoration from Trà Kiệu. Example of roof tiles with face motif.//Stone
sculpture of the god Siva on a pedestal and on display at the Museum of Cham Sculpture (Da
Nang). The presence of Siva gives some credence to the Champa theory
Lin Yi theory
This theory is proposed by Leonard Aurousseau, who sent out the original documenter of Trà
Kiệu, J.-Y. Claeys. Claeys conducted flyovers of Trà Kiệu in 1927 and his research went on
to undermine Aurousseau, who thought Trà Kiệu was the capital of the Lin Yi empire that
enveloped parts of Vietnam.[9] This deviates even from the later developed "Champa theory"
explained above because Aurousseau believed Trà Kiệu to be the city that was invaded by
China in the 5th century. This theory was based on the ancient Chinese records of the
invasion and was a shot in the dark as the precise location of Lin Yi has remained uncertain.
It was unclear from said Chinese records if Lin Yi referred to a Kingdom or a City.

Another scholar, Andrew David Hardy, theorizes the name Lin Yi may have been used by the
Chinese as a catch-all for a hostile Vietnamese polity. According to Hardy, Lin Yi was
located north of Cham territory and was likely not a Cham settlement and was instead later
absorbed into the Champa polity as it expanded north. He further theorizes that the Chinese
simply extended the name Lin Yi to the Champa Thu Bồn valley. [3] As with Aurousseau's
theory, Hardy bases this hypothesis on speculation and on documentation of China's
interactions with the Champa, as well as an elusive Vietnamese polity.

Chronology
There are two main phases in the chronology of Trà Kiệu, which are as follows: Trà Kiệu I
Phase (which can be further subdivided into Ia and Ib) and Trà Kiệu II Phase. The largest
difference between Trà Kiệu I and II Phase lie in the styles of roof tiles found at the site. Trà
Kiệu I Phase is represented by the presence of roof tiles with textile impressions, while Trà
Kiệu II Phase roof tiles lack impressions. Roof tiles from Trà Kiệu II Phase are instead
decorated with motifs of human faces. A further breakdown of the chronology of Trà Kiệu
from researcher Trường Giang Đỗ is as follows:

 Trà Kiệu I Phase

o A range of pottery of coarse fabric, including:

32
 o Ovoid jars, cord-marked jars, lids, dishes, bowls, pedestal cups and stoves and roof
tiles
 Trà Kiệu I Phase Ia
o Roof tiles marked with textile impressions
 Trà Kiệu II Phase
o No roof tiles with textile impressions on concave surface, instead decorated with
human faces
o Eaves tiles with human face motifs can be dated from the third century CE, likely
from the second quarter and onwards
Origins of face motifs

Stone image of the god Visnu on display at the Museum of

Cham Sculpture. (Da Nang) This Visnu gives further evidence to the Hindu face motif
theory.
Simhapura, was founded by King Bhadravarman in late-fourth century. The third
inscription of Bhadravarman is the oldest surviving text in Cham language and also any
Southeast Asian language. He was also the first known person to order the constructing of the
first Śiva lingam, a symbol of Saivaism, in the region. His temple was reported having been
destroyed by fire in the six century, and still remains today as one of oldest historical
structures in Southeast Asia ever been built and used. From the third to fifth centuries, there
were dozens of small Chamic kingdoms and chiefdoms popped up south of Hue to modern-
day Phan Rang. Stone sculptures of Cham folk divinities admixed with Hindu aesthetic
dating from fifth to sixth centuries AD were found in those settlements.

AMRAVATI

Hoi An or the Ancient Amaravathi in Vietnam-Hoi An Ancient Town in Central

Vietnam and surrounding district was once known as Amaravathi, heartland of the Cham
civilisation, adjacent to the capital Simhapura. Amaravati was located in present-day Châu
Sa citadel of Quảng Ngãi Province. The earliest mention of Amaravati is from an AD 1160
inscription at Po Nagar.Hoi An has more than eleven hundred architectural remains
representing ten architectural forms. These are residential houses, places of worship for
family ancestors, village communal houses, pagodas, temples, tombs, bridges, water wells,
markets and assembly halls. The foundations of Hoi An built environment go back to the
late sixteenth century. However, the present architectural remains are mainly from the
nineteenth century. There is evidence of the economic and cultural exchanges between Hoi
An and China, Japan, India and several European countries. The residents of Hoi An,
generation after generation have been living and working in the same houses. In the
Ancient Town, a large number of heritage objects are kept; traditional crafts are
maintained; and heritage dishes, habits, customs, and festivities are fostered. Hoi An is a
World Heritage site as the most intact port town of the 19th century in Asia.

33
In 2008, Hoi An was chosen as one of the 110 historic destinations in the world by
National Geographic magazine. Hoi An is part of the cultural route along with My Son and
its Saivite temples, and Hue World Heritage sites.

The Buddhist dynasty at Indrapura

Buddhist altar from Đồng Dương, 9th-10th

century AD. Museum of Cham Sculpture, Danang.
In 875, King Indravarman II founded a new northern dynasty at Indrapura. (Dong Duong
near Da Nang in modern Vietnam). Eager to claim an ancient lineage, Indravarman declared
himself the descendant of Bhrigu, the venerable sage whose exploits are detailed in
the Mahabharata, and asserted that Indrapura had been founded by the same Bhrigu in ancient
times. From 877 onward, the Chinese knew Champa as "Cheng-cheng", discontinuing their
use of the term "Huan-wang. Indravarman II repulsed an invasion by the Khmer
King Yasovarman I.

Indravarman was the first Cham monarch to adopt Mahayana Buddhism as an official
religion. At the center of Indrapura, he constructed a Buddhist monastery (vihara) dedicated
to the bodhisattva Lokesvara. The foundation, regrettably, was devastated during
the Vietnam War. Thankfully, some photographs and sketches survive from the prewar
period. In addition, some stone sculptures from the monastery are preserved in Vietnamese
museums. Scholars have called the artistic style typical of the Indrapura the Dong Duong
Style. The style is characterized by its dynamism and ethnic realism in the depiction of the
Cham people. Surviving masterpieces of the style include several tall sculptures of
fierce dvarapalas or temple guardians that were once positioned around the monastery. The
period in which Buddhism reigned as the principal religion of Champa came to an end in
approximately 925, at which time the Dong Duong Style also began to give way to
subsequent artistic styles linked with the restoration of Shaivism as the national religion.

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Kings belonging to the dynasty of Indrapura built a number of temples at Mỹ Sơn in the 9th
and 10th centuries. Their temples at Mỹ Sơn came to define a new architectural and artistic
style, called by scholars the Mỹ Sơn A1 Style, again in reference to a particular foundation at
Mỹ Sơn regarded emblematic for the style. With the religious shift from Buddhism back to
Shaivism around the beginning of the 10th century, the center of Cham religion also shifted
from Dong Duong back to Mỹ Sơn.

Kompong Cham has Banteay Prei Nokor, Former name of Ho Chi Minh
City/Saigon
Kompong Cham has Banteay Prei Nokor, Former name of Ho Chi Minh
City/Saigon before annexation by the Vietnamese in the 17th century. an
ancient temple complex in the northwest known locally as temple of "Wat Nokor in Khum of
Kompong Siem", or "Wat Angkor", around 2km from the provincial capital Kampong Cham
(city). though a sign at the entrance now officially designates the name of the temple as
Nokor Bachey Temple .The complex faces east at a bearing of 84.5°E, and covers 15ha. the
site is composed of an outer rectangular laterite wall approximately 420x370m, an inner wall
approximately 100x130m. A large reservoir or Baray some 950 meters long and 480 meters
wide is located 350 meters east of the site. Now abandoned, the reservoir area was used in the
mid 20th century as a hippodrome, evidence of which can still be seen by visitors.

The interior of the Nokor Bachey Pagoda

The monument was built out of sandstone and laterite, and dates from the last years of the
reign of Jayavarman VII. It is composed of a central tower surrounded by four laterite wall
enclosures. The central tower of the temple of Wat Nokor is decorated with motifs
characteristic of Bayon with Buddhist scenes on the pediments.[1]

The temple complex is believed to have been the headquarters of Jayavarman VII for a time,
from where he extended his influence over nearby principalities.[2]

It has a number of distinguishing characteristics other than the fact that it is the largest
ancient temple complex in Kampong Cham Province. One of these characteristics alludes to
the fact that it is built of black sandstone, which causes it to stand out from other temples of
the period which are often built of brick or reddish sandstone. The temple has an inscription
which is open to visitors to see (and even touch) in the central pavilion. Wat Nokor Bachey
boasts a 'Chartres' effect in which a more modern temple of a very different style has been
built over and around the original Angkorian structure creating a blend of architectural styles.

There are many legends surrounding the origin of the temple but the most popular one
has Oedipal overtones. According to this legend, the temple was built by a king who
accidentally killed his father and married his mother. As recounted in the Greek
legend, this king was put out by his father after a seer told him that his son would kill

35
him. The son, however, did not die and returned to his kingdom not knowing that his
father was the king. After quarreling on the road, the son killed the king and married
his queen who was his mother. Upon discovering his crime, the young man built Wat
Nokor in penance for his crime.

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