V. Pottery As Source of Information

V.
POTTERY AS SOURCE
OF INFORMATION
PRESENTATION OF DATA between Copper Age Redutite III and Redutite IV,
Prior to a discussion of the issues related to pottery the latter phase attributed to the so-called Tran-
production, there is a need to make a presentation of sitional Period (to the Early Bronze Age). Such dating
the dataset, which this study is based on. As informa- was in concordance with published information and
tive the shard material is, it can never disclose the full furthermore confirmed by consultations with Bulg-
complexity, technological as ideational of the ceramic arian scholars. However, after the full disclosure of
production: hence, the below considerations are based House 3, as well as partial disclosures of other built
on complete or nearly complete specimens discovered structures, these ideas were abolished.
in certain contexts, primarily inside built structures. House 3 was the biggest structure encountered at
House 1 (Pl. 7) is represented by 30 complete or the site (internal space of 37.8 m2). The pottery was
reconstructable ceramic vessels, found in an area of distributed in a much more concentrated manner
28.3 m2; this number is significantly lower than those than in the other houses. 51 reconstructable vessels
of the remaining two houses. Nevertheless, the dataset were discovered (Pl. 10–12). The bulk part was found
is important since it includes vessels with analogies in in a heap of shards at the eastern wall. Clearly, this
the other houses. indicates vessels arranged on shelves. The biggest
House 2 probably reveals the fullest information on containers (volumes reaching 250 litres) were standing
an original collection of vessels (Pl. 8 & 9). Despite on the floor, while above, smaller vessels were stacked
the fact that rims of vessels in situ were in some places in at least two levels. Mending of vessels concentrated
discovered just 15 cm below the surface, the area oc- on qualitatively outstanding pottery with well-bur-
cupied by the house has suffered little damage due to nished light surfaces, decorated with painted or com-
subsequent activities than have the other houses. In plex incised patterns. Even the biggest storage con-
general, the material of House 2 (internal space of tainers had only a moderate inclusion frequency and
34.5 m2) is dominated by unsophisticated, rusticated were better fired than the crude pottery from the first
or plain surface pottery, fired at low temperatures, mentioned houses. 11 whole or nearly whole graphite
and abundantly tempered (with organic matter and painted vessels were discovered (Pl. 12). In fact, this
chamotte as the main constituents). Surface burnish- was the only house at Lı̂ga 2 that contained graphite
ing is applied on the interior of only a few bowls. Out painted pottery. Some archaeologists have tried to ex-
of 42 vessels, 16 can be classified as coarse, 24 as very plain the lack of graphite painted pottery on Copper
coarse and only 2 as fine ware pottery. The latter Age sites with poor preservation (Todorova et al.
are thin-walled biconic jugs (wall thickness ranging 2003). At Lı̂ga, this is not the case, since graphite
between 3–5 mm), decorated with fluting and small painting was done prior to burnishing, which had a
bosses on the shoulders. The prevailing decoration durable protective impact on pottery surfaces.
technique, except for barbotine and finger trailing, is It is important to note, that graphite paint was not
fingernail/fingertip impressions (22 vessels). No reserved for smaller vessels, often interpreted as food
painted ware has been discovered in this house. The serving ones, but was also applied to voluminous
number of shapes is limited to 9, all falling within the closed containers used for storage. The manner of
formal repertoire of the KSB culture. surface treatment and decoration is thus closer to the
Houses 1 & 2 were mainly investigated during the early part of the Copper Age than to its terminal
first field campaign (2000). Based on the pottery, both phases, according to the typological ordering systems
structures were dated to the very end of the Copper set up in Bulgaria. In fact, H. Todorova, visiting the
Age. The settlement of Lı̂ga 2 was initially placed in site in 2001, raised the issue whether this pottery
between the last two settlements of Redutite, that is, should be dated to the Early Copper Age. All three
74 Acta Archaeologica
ket and satisfying the demands of the well-

informed mainstream population. However, as
much as the knowledge on the Copper Age is re-
stricted, such a simplified (and intentionally exag-
gerated) picture can hardly be true. The evidence
on the pottery production at Lı̂ga conforms to
that of all better investigated sites. The graphite
Fig. V.1. Items associated with production of pottery. 1 – pot stand, painted pottery often has the character of mass
possibly a tournette, 2 – cone of graphite (lengthΩ2.4 cm, ØΩ1.15 production, indicating that it was based on locally
cm). available knowledge. How then might it be ex-
plained that one woman from a particular house
was carrying water from the stream at the foot of
houses were however temporally bound through their Lı̂ga in a dull water jar, while her neighbour for
spatial relatedness as well as certain vessels with a the same purpose was using a well-burnished,
high degree of resemblance, most likely products of shiny graphite painted jar – if not in terms of indi-
the same potter. vidualism?
Thus, the existence of qualitatively divergent vessel (3) As to the implications for archaeological research
assemblages stemming from contemporaneous struc- strategies: Are we doing the right things? – With-
tures poses several important questions, hopefully out going into deeper discussion, it is evident that
answered in the following: only context-designed excavation and recording
(1) As to the built structures: Can contemporary procedures can provide a reliable profile of a site.
structures with qualitatively different contents be The usual Bulgarian practice: trench excavation
functionally equated? – The usual concern of an in limited areas is creating false suppositions, tem-
excavator is to assign different meaning to related porally as well as culturally.
but divergent sets of finds, trying to demonstrate
the functional variability of structures, often with
ill-founded explanations and expectations. At POTTERY PRODUCTION
Lı̂ga, this process was reversed, and an attempt All three houses subjected to detailed investigation
was made to show that qualitative exclusiveness contain some evidence on pottery production, which
and find variety is not enough to ‘‘transform’’ a can be considered as complementary to at least a par-
dwelling house into a sanctuary or a community tial reconstruction of the pottery technology. House 3
house. As has been noted above, categories were held the most sophisticated pottery, contrasting the
not exclusive. other two pottery sets to such a degree that external
(2) As to the diversity of pottery production traditions influences were considered among possible expla-
and their temporal sensitivity: What are the cul- nations (Pl. 13). Such were gradually discarded,
tural-chronological implications? – In many cases, though, as it appeared that exclusive graphite paint
evolutionary explanations have been suggested to occurred on different types of utilitarian pottery,
interpret prehistoric developments in the Balkans. mainly on big storage containers.
Societies are presented as homogenous masses, The production process of graphite painted pottery
collectively stockbreeding or harvesting, sharing requires a proper surface treatment and graphite as a
and accepting each others ideas on the surround- naturally found mineral. Careful selection of temper-
ing world. Anything extraordinary is explained ing material was important in order to minimize the
with the existence of itinerant masters with an risk of cracking during firing. Coarse particles could
urge to travel and a good geographical knowl- also complicate surface treatment. So, not surprising-
edge, knowing that his, or her, work will be ap- ly, graphite painted pottery is made of clays with
preciated. Less travel-keen masters tend to estab- moderate amounts of fine tempering constituents,
lish production centres, closely following the mar- preferably of Group III (sand and organic matter) and
Lı̂ga 75
Fig. V.2. Cone of red ochre (ØΩ1.8 cm). (One square of the back-
ground plate equals 1 cm.)
occasionally Group VI (organic matter). Such consist-

ency is no doubt significant in the light of the possible
combinations attested at the site. A local origin of Fig. V.3. Stones found in a spherical pot standing at the oven of
House 2.
graphite painted pottery was also confirmed by the
discovery of a graphite cone in House 3, which was
broken across the perforated hole for suspension. The
item had a characteristic pointed tip (Fig. V.1:2). nishing was carried out with stones and possibly
Similar cones are known from Karanovo and other bones with a narrow burnishing tip of 2–3 mm, as
sites (Mikov 1966). Graphite is a quite common poly- can be deduced from the size of the burnishing
morph mineral, appearing in the schist layers of the strokes. An important find was made in House 2.
Balkan and Rhodopi mountains, but it is most readily Along with big storage jars placed to the West of the
available in the mountain regions of Northern Bulgar- oven, a vessel of Type ‘‘J’’ (restricted spherical two-
ia (N. Zidarov, pers.comm.) (1). In any case, its pres- partite pot) was discovered. This contained a small
ence in Lı̂ga attests to a considerable movement of biconic cup with small knobs but without handles plus
people and/or objects – another important statement 14 water rolled stones (Fig. V.3). The latter can be
about Copper Age society and its mobility and/or grouped according to size, shape, and stone type. The
network. main group is made up of quartzite with whitish or
Graphite painted pottery was accomplished reddish tinge, 3 pieces (fragmented) are of brownish
through painting with graphite on a vessel’s surface black siltstone. As to shape and size, there are 5 oval
in a leather hard state. Perhaps the motives were out- and flat quartzite stones (2.7–3.1 cm long), 4 big
lined as incised lines, for the complexity of the mo- quartzite balls (3.0–4.8 cm long), 3 oblong pointed
tives implies that they were well planned before actual siltstones (3.8–4.5 cm long), and 2 triangular quartzite
decoration. Graphite painted motives may cover the pieces (4.6 cm long). Despite the enigmatic numeric
upper part or the whole vessel. Graphite was kept in order, the stones ought be connected with smoothing
place by subsequent burnishing of the surface, which and burnishing. Their small size may indicate that
enhanced the vessel’s visual and functional properties. such stones were associated in particular with produc-
Surfaces painted with graphite were better burnished tion and surface treatment of the popular small bi-
than surfaces, which were left without it. The bur- conic cups.
Several fragments of pot stands with flat top were
1. The author is grateful to Dr. Nikola Zidarov, Director of the
also discovered at Lı̂ga. One reconstructed fragment
Institute of Geology, Sofia for this and other information quoted comes from House 3 (Ø 21 cm) (Fig. V.1:1), two
in the text. others (parts of the same artefact) from a refuse area
Fig. V.4. Abraded shards. 1 – modern West African examples, 2 – a Copper Age example from Lı̂ga.
at the northern wall of House 1. The latter was often elongated rim shards with one or, in some cases
slightly smaller in diameter, but in terms of paste, two, edges smoothly abraded (Fig. V.4:2). The pattern
colour (light grey) and general appearance closely of abrasion shows that they have been used in vertical
resembled the first one. The surface was carefully direction. The contact area of such a shard is around
smoothed and the thick walls were made to resist a 4–5 cm in length, much too extensive for successfully
significant weight. Such stands are also known from compacting a surface. Therefore, it is more likely that
other Copper and Bronze Age sites (Mikov 1966, the abraded shards were used for scratching and
Figs. 10–11). V. Mikov has suggested that they smoothing of vessel surfaces, resulting in a more even
should be considered hand-tournettes (a turntable distribution of the clay. Such conclusion is also con-
device), placed on flat bases with the conic protuber- firmed by observations made in Western Africa,
ance to set the stand on (Mikov 1966). Although the where shards with similar abrasion pattern have been
functionality of such a device seems dubious in prac- seen in action by the author (Fig. V.4:1). Indeed,
tice, it is likely that the stands were indeed used in analyses of vessel surfaces confirm that scraping was
pottery production. The main part of the vessels has used as one of shaping techniques. The vessels of Lı̂ga
simple flat bases (81%, based on shard material, in 2 were built using coiling techniques. Only tiny
kg), demonstrating that they were formed on flat miniature vessels were occasionally made by hand
surfaces. Some bases also show a raised quantity of molding, i.e., forming in the palm without using ad-
sand grains, indicating that a layer of sand was sep- ditional clay, the same way as bases are formed. Bowls
arating the vessel from the modelling surface, so that were also made using coil techniques, the use of
a vessel would not adhere to the surface. By con- molds could not be demonstrated. Closed containers
trast, a part of the clay figurines have impressions of were built starting from the base, while carinated ves-
leaves of grass on their feet, promoting the sugges- sels seemingly were built in two parts and joined at
tion that special workshop areas were not needed for the shoulders. The lower part of the body was in a
their production. Concerning possible rotating de- leather hard state before being joined with the coil of
vices, their employment would have been more im- a rim. At this stage, when the basic shape was
portant for burnishing, which involved repetitive achieved, further refinement of the shape and thin-
streaking in one direction. All the investigated ves- ning of the walls were carried out by scraping. Some-
sels with burnished surfaces had traces of long hori- times, excessive scraping was done in less visible
zontal strokes. areas, like the interior surface of the shoulders. Be-
A frequent find among the Lı̂ga 2 material are re- sides abraded pottery shards, another group of im-
cycled pottery shards. These appear in different plements might also have also been employed in
shapes and reflect distinct functions. Several shards scraping. These are rounded or oval stone discs, 4.5–
were interpreted as pottery burnishers. These are 5.0¿3.1–4.6 cm and 0.8–1.0 cm thick, thinning out
Lı̂ga 77
towards the edges. Such implements were discovered

in Houses 1 & 2 (Fig. V.5).
Yet other stone tools may also be related to pottery
production. However, their interpretation is not al-
ways clear-cut. For example, based on formal simi-
larity with the abraded shards, flat stones, ca. 6¿9
cm, with a flat dorsal edge and ground surface on
both sides along the flat edge are also interpreted as
being used for pottery smoothing. But without micro-
scopic studies such interpretations remain guesswork.
Besides the graphite cone used for pottery painting,
several lumps of haematite or red ochre were found.
This pigment has also been used as pottery paint.
However, compared to other Late Copper Age sites,
it is represented rather sparsely. Several shards with
red and yellow (goethite) paint were discovered in
layers dated to the Lı̂ga 1 settlement. In Lı̂ga 2, only
House 3 held some evidence of use of red pigments.
A big storage container with a globular body was Fig. V.5. Stone discs presumably applied for pottery scraping in a
painted both with graphite and red ochre, mainly to leather hard state.
enhance the vertical loop handles (Pl. 12:13). In such
a case, paint was applied after the vessel was fired. In
another case, pulverized haematite was applied to the fired during a longer period, since the core has the
surface of vessel in leather-hard state and then bur- same colour as the surface, and the pottery is gener-
nished. This happened prior to firing. All occurrences ally harder. Along with the light coloured pottery –
of haematite lumps were treated with caution, since presently partly discoloured due to weathering and
their presence in burned daub indicated that they other post depositional effects – was a small group
were naturally occurring in local clay sources, so that of darker vessels: brown (10YR-5/3), greyish brown
their presence at the site could be explained by de- (2.5Y-5/2) and even dark grey (10YR-4/1). Since
composed daub. Several big lumps were discovered many archaeologists take colours as an indication of
in House 2. Among these was a small hemispheric firing conditions, darker colours are automatically ex-
piece with abraded edges and a diameter of 1.8 cm plained by firing in reduced atmospheres. Proper re-
(Fig. V.2). The pattern of abrasion bears witness that duction occurs when iron oxides, present in the clay,
the haematite piece was rubbed against a hard, flat are being affected over lengthy periods and at tem-
surface. peratures in excess of 850 æC (Gibson & Woods 1997).
Evidence on firing – the most demanding part of Such firing conditions were not impossible to achieve
the production cycle – has only been indirectly col- by the firing installations known from Lı̂ga, but to
lected. Many vessels had traces of fire clouds – a result sustain them over a longer period, a potter would
of the deposition of carbon during open firing. The need a kiln (Gosselain 1992) (Fig. V.6).
light colours of Lı̂ga 2 vessels: pale yellow, Munsell Evidence on pottery kilns is very sparse, as on other
Colour Chart: 2.5Y-8/3), reddish yellow (7.5YR-6/ types of firing installations. Even putting all security
8, 6/6), light red (2.5YR-6/8), red (2.5YR-5/6), light measures aside, firing of pottery within the settlement
brown (7.5YR-6/4), and the like all point towards fir- at Lı̂ga would not have been possible, partly due to
ing in oxidizing conditions. Investigations of vessel co- space limitations but mostly to windy conditions at
res show that oxidation was not always complete, the the top of the plateau, making combustion control
combustion of organic matter not always being con- impossible. So, it is predicted that firing would have
cluded. Graphite painted pottery seems to have been been carried out at a more sheltered site below the
Fig. V.6. Temperature ranges for five kinds of firing, based on thermometric data. 1 – open firing, 2 – open firing with shards covering the
pots, 3 – pit firing, 4 – pit firing with shards covering the pots, updraft kiln firing (after Gosselain 1992, in David & Kramer 2001).
plateau, probably close to the stream (and the clay Cucuteni culture (Gheorghiu 2002, with refs.). The
sources). This area has experienced significant erosion earliest remains of a kiln in Bulgaria were found in
and exploitation through its history, leaving minimal the Jagodinska cave in the Rhodopi mountains and
chances for discovery of a firing site. There is, how- are dated to the Transitional Period (Avramova
ever, another source of information, namely represen- 1992). Such kilns would have been suitable for cre-
tations in clay, often found on Copper Age sites and ating a reduced firing atmosphere.
acting as tokens of non-verbal communication. An in- More readily even, dark colour is achieved through
teresting find in this respect was made at Sadovec- smudging – a technique of depositing carbon immedi-
Ezero: a fragment of a rectangular table-like item ately below the surface (Gibson & Woods 1997),
with several perforations on the upper face was inter- which also improves the surface resistance to abrasion
preted as a model of a subterranean up-draught kiln, (Skibo et al. 1997). Smudging is easily achieved in
based on better-preserved historical (Fig. V.7 & V.8), open firings, when organic material, for example
but also Copper Age examples from the Romanian green leaves, are placed near hot vessels still covered
Lı̂ga 79
Fig. V.7. Clay item discovered in Ezero and interpreted as a model of an up-draught kiln.
with fuel (oxygen deficiency is needed). Smudging is influence of the KSB complex) and Sudievo Tells
considered a vessel improvement due to the glossy (under influence of the KGK VI complex) in the
surface. Interestingly, even though this procedure is Thracian Plain ‘‘light-brown burnished pottery is not
very simple, smudged vessels are being sold at 1/3 ornamented’’ (Todorova et al. 2003). The trend at
times higher prices than their oxidised equivalents Telish is not clear. Graphite painted pottery from Sa-
(personal observations at potters’ workshops in Bénin dovec Golemanovo Kale has dark surfaces, Redutite
and Ghana). Another widespread surface-darkening II and III have light-coloured surfaces, and the same
technique is quenching (Carlton 2002). Still hot pots is the case at the multi-layered site of Pipra. Hence,
are being submerged in a soupy organic solution (e.g., it might be suggested that dark-coloured graphite
flour mixed with water) immediately after firing, and painted pottery is earlier. However, a different pattern
as a result, the solid component of the solution car- emerges at the sites of Sadovec-Ezero and Sadovec-
bonise, creating a dark surface colour (Carlton 2002). Kaleto, where there is no clear-cut division regarding
Evidence on firing conditions is also gained in- background colour. In earlier Late Copper Age layers
directly from graphite painted pottery. Contrary to all light colours prevail here, while towards the latest
assumptions about pyrotechnological advancements – phase of the Copper Age darker colours dominate.
including the idea of firing taking place at 750–950 æ Interestingly, when comparing pottery of all three
(Todorova 1986) – it appears that graphite painted fully excavated houses at Lı̂ga, only House 2 has dark
pottery only requires relatively low firing tempera- surfaced vessels. A most striking case is that all three
tures, since graphite tends to burn out at tempera- houses had at least one vessel of the pear-shaped Type
tures above 700 æC (Milwaukee Archaeological Re- ‘‘S’’, which, identically, is decorated with fingernail
search Laboratory 2003). True professionalism thus impressions (pinching) on the main part of the body
rests with the ability to sustain temperatures above below the neck and equipped with two horizontal
500 æC, needed to combust carbon from core areas, handles. Houses 1 and 3 contained a light coloured
and below 700 æC. Hence, smudging must be re- representative, while House 2 had a dark coloured
garded as the most probable reason for dark pottery one.
colours, as it penetrates deeper and creates a more So, despite the uniformity of shapes, an important
even layer than quenching. pattern of pottery variation emerges, based on tech-
Firing conditions along with post-firing treatment nological traditions, individual skills, and perhaps
may hold cultural implications. It has been noted that even competition in stressing personal/household
the graphite painted pottery of Lı̂ga 1 has a dark particularities – as expressed through material cul-
background, while during Lı̂ga 2, graphite paint is ture.
only found on light coloured vessels. Similar obser- In terms of evidence on pottery production, House
vations are made at other Late Copper Age sites. It 1 is somewhat underrepresented. Perhaps the great
has been noted, for example, that at Yunatsite (under amount of figurine parts and miniature vessels, some
but nevertheless opening new possibilities to get closer

to the daily life of prehistoric communities.
TYPOLOGY, MENTAL TEMPLATES AND

TECHNOLOGY
Most archaeologists starting to work in ceramics have
the intrinsic belief that pots can tell us more than just
exposing their material features or aesthetic values, as
comprehended with a modern eye. But often a great
deal of studies only results in detailed and compre-
hensive typological lists, which, despite their
thoroughness, have little to offer in terms of wider
perspectives. Typology has become a justified goal in
itself for many archaeologists working with the rich
prehistoric material in Bulgaria (Todorova & Mats-
anova 2000; Todorova et al. 2003; Katsarov 2003 –
just to name a few recent studies). The strength of
typological ordering as a tool is the search for repeti-
tiveness, recognition of primal forms and not – as
often misperceived – a detection of certain unique
characteristics like lip variation. Such arbitrary over-
classification is producing a lot of behavioural
Fig. V.8. Roman up-draught kiln from the region of Hotnitsa, Veli-
‘‘noise’’, with little cultural significance (Arnold 1985).
ko Tarnovo (after Sultov 1969). B. Hayden offers a useful definition of typology that
‘‘should properly refer to systems of categorisation,
which [...] reveal something about the nature of hu-
man behaviour in relation to artefacts, whether this
of which can be regarded as experimental, may in- information is by nature evolutionary, functional,
directly indicate that clay was also a familiar medium technological, temporal, social, or other’’ (Hayden
for the residents of this house. The other two houses 1984, 80).
have undoubtedly produced pottery for their own Ethnoarchaeological research presents a number of
needs. At the same time, there is also some evidence studies accounting, for instance, for varieties in func-
for exchange at the settlement level: The canonic ap- tional distinction among pottery types to a degree
proach to certain vessel types – the already mentioned which is by no means accessible for archaeologists
pear-shaped vessel (Type ‘‘S’’), for example – may, dealing with prehistoric materials. Thus, in present
however, complicate the detection of fingerprints of day Ghana, food serving bowls with a distinct classi-
individual potters. So far, certain evidence on ex- ficatory name can be subdivided into several sub-
change relates to two untypical biconic cups without groups depending on their size, which reflects the age
the usual vertical handles, found in Houses 2 and 3 of a male person consuming the meal (Bredwa-Men-
(symbolic exchange?) (Fig. V.9). Furthermore, a jug sah 2001).
from House 2 – an exact parallel is found in Redutite Therefore, for the purpose of revealing ‘‘the role of
III – exhibits advanced ceramic skills in forming material entities as potentially active components of
highly curved and only 4 mm thick walls, and thus human behaviour’’ (Fletcher 1992), typology is being
stands out from the remaining part of the vessels of based on ‘‘mental templates’’ or ‘‘prototypes’’
this house (Fig. III.17). Several more examples can be (Kempton 1981), understood as the ideal form of an
given, based on comparisons and some speculation, artefact, existing in the cognition of people who share
Lı̂ga 81
Fig. V.9. Biconic cups discovered in, respectively, House 2 and 3. Difference in colour and surface is due to different post-depositional effects.
the same culture. Of course, the results produced tery assemblage. They also tend to be overrepre-
within the framework of this theoretical category can- sented in archaeological reports, since a formal recon-
not be tested against the classification, which existed struction can often be performed on a single shard.
among the pottery users themselves. But through For this reason, only bowls represented by two or
mapping of basic attributes and subsequent seriation more shards are taken into present consideration.
it is nevertheless possible to arrive at some basic Bowl variation manifests itself through orientation of
shapes, which at least would have been recognised by rim and shape of lip. Inverted or straight rims domi-
the potter, who thought not only in socially con- nate. Everted rims are usually sharply carinated. Ca-
structed concepts by also in terms of technological rination might have a chronological significance, as it
possibilities and a chaı̂ne opératoire. Such an approach occurs in great numbers at the Sadovec sites, and is
is in the present case supported by pottery analyses comparatively rare at Lı̂ga. Lip thickening is also con-
from other KSB sites, confirming that the process of sidered a diagnostic feature of the late Copper Age, at
‘‘cultural replication’’ during the late Copper Age was Lı̂ga it is usually reserved for bowls of better quality.
well progressed (cf. Fletcher 1992). Furthermore, bowls were often modified by adding
Our own typological ordering is presented in a handles or other attributes with the same functional
scheme (Pl. 14 & 15) (and below). Geometrical shape property. Volumetrically, bowls are a highly varied
is taken as the starting point for classification: The group.
number of geometrical forms used determines the B. Deep straight-sided bowls with thickened rim and
hierarchical order, unrestricted bowl (or a cone) being height around 1⁄2 of the maximum diameter, wall-
regarded as the simplest form. Names given to typo- base angle ranging between 50 æ and 60 æ.
logical categories encompass their supposed function, C. Deep hemispherical bowls. Knobs maybe applied
which may not always correspond to the intended use below the turning point: Highly placed turning point,
but at least is easing verbal communication. diameter of the orifice being 11⁄2 times (and less) big-
ger than the bottom diameter. A subcategory may
have rounded base.
BOWLS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES D. Deep hemispherical bowls with marked inverted rim.
A. Simple bowls. This category incorporates vessels of The turning point is marked with a pair of handles,
unrestricted cone shape, with heights varying between tabs or knobs. Volumetrically this group is uniform.
1⁄ and 1⁄ of the maximum diameter and with a wall- E. Dishes: a shallow vessel form with unrestricted
2 3
base angle ranging between 35 æ and 45 æ. Simple orifice and a height being more than 1⁄3 of its maxi-
bowls is the most numerous category of the Lı̂ga pot- mum diameter. Dishes in Lı̂ga have wide orifices with
a diameter of 40 cm and beyond. The transition be- the orifice equalling the diameter of the base. This
tween the low body and a relatively long straight rim group is closely related to Group ‘‘J’’.
is marked with a cordon, decorated with fingernail/ M. Globular vessels drawn slightly down, straight or
fingertip impressions or shell impressions. Knobs or inverted cylindrical rims.
tab handles are also found on this protrusion. The
interior is well smoothed. Volumetrically, this group
is uniform. BICONIC VESSELS WITH CYLINDRICAL NECKS
F. Barrel shaped jars: two-partite vessels with the di- N. Biconic jugs with cylindrical neck: This group is numer-
ameter of the orifice roughly equalling the height of ous and comes in a variety of different appearances
the vessel. The orifice is twice larger than the bottom. in spite of the fact that they seem to be functionally
Volumetrically, it is a uniform group, which indicates akin. In general, these thin-walled, symmetrical, and
a well-defined and fixed function. All have rusticated thoroughly made vessels can be regarded as fine pot-
surfaces and are equipped with massive vertical tery. They come with two or one vertical loop handle,
handles or knobs either on or below the turning point. sometimes with small horizontally perforated knobs
G. Upright jars with highly placed, sharply angled or tab handles, placed on or below the turning point.
shoulders and upright or (inverted) flaring necks. The Another subgroup contains juglets without handles. A
shoulders can be marked with pseudo-winding cor- particular representative of this group is an amphora-
dons. Pairs of knobs or horizontally perforated tab like jug with highly placed shoulders and vertical loop
handles (or a combination of both) are also placed on handles connecting rim with shoulder. No parallels
the shoulders. As a rule, the lower part of the body is have been discovered so far. Generally, this group is
rusticated, while the neck is smoothed and burnished. considered as typologically robust, since it is also
If decorated, patterns are displayed on the neck and widely represented at other KSB sites, primarily Re-
shoulders. The interior is well-smoothed or burnish- dutite and Sadovec. As a rule, the jugs are decorated
ed. Volumetrically, these jars fall in two size cate- in the most protruding area, i.e., the shoulders.
gories: medium sized and very large containers. The O. Closely related to the previous group are biconic
interior is well-smoothed. cups. These are shallow vessels usually equipped with
H. Biconic jars with rounded shoulders, which can two opposing vertical loop handles connecting the
be placed either high or in the middle. Massive verti- shoulders with the rim. But representatives without
cal handles are placed on or below the turning point. such handles occasionally appear. This group is nu-
The surface is rusticated. merous and probably one of the most frequent mem-
I. Bucket-shaped pot with a conical body and cylindri- bers of a standard pottery set of a household.
cal neck, represented by a single only partly preserved P. Big biconic jars with cylindrical or slightly everted
specimen. neck. This group comprises voluminous closed ves-
J. Restricted spherical two-partite pots with inverted rim sels. The turning point is exactly in the middle of the
and the turning point being in the middle of the ves- shape. Half the vessels is equipped with vertical
sel’s body. This group is one of the most numerous handles, placed either on the shoulders or below. Al-
within the pottery assemblage. A subgroup includes though similar in shape, the volumetric difference and
vessels with highly placed turning point. Vessels of the difference in pottery treatment (smooth versus
this type are found in a variety of contexts and come rusticated surface) imply that, functionally, this group
in a variety of volumetric sizes, but mainly in middle might have been heterogeneous. The type is also
and small sizes. widespread on contemporaneous sites.
K. Small biconic pots with marked straight rim, R. Similar to ‘‘P’’, but highly placed turning point
closely related both to the ‘‘H’’ and ‘‘J’’ types. Usually, and a more globular appearance of the body.
the turning point is in the middle, but occasionally S. Biconic jugs with slightly everted rim and two horizontal
also higher up. Functionally, these pots might be simi- handles placed at the beginning of the neck (pear-
lar to the ‘‘J’’ pots. shaped). In this case, the handles seem to be a strong
L. Spherical pots with marked necks, the diameter of typological attribute, as exactly the same shape with
Lı̂ga 83
the same type and position of the handles can be

found at other sites. Variation may only appear in the
type of decoration. The most frequent type of decor-
ation, also appearing at other sites, is made by fin-
gernail impressions on almost the entire surface. All
three houses in Lı̂ga contained this type of vessel. A
subgroup is fashioned in a similar way, but the orifice
is much wider as compared with the closed represen-
tatives of the main group.
T. Biconic storage containers can appear with a short
everted rim or a long cylindrical neck: wide orifice.
U. Globular storage containers with cylindrical neck:
wide orifice. Fig. V.10. Example of a biconic vessel from Hotnitsa, a Late Cop-
V. Storage containers with cone-shaped lower part and per Age tell settlement under influence of the KGK VI cultural
long, cylindrical, occasionally slightly inverted upper complex. Drawing by S. Makchev.
part.
VESSEL SHAPES not included). This marked statistical difference must

Without exclusion, the above list of Lı̂ga pottery have cultural explanations. To my best knowledge,
types – primarily based on vessel shapes – are ethno-archaeological studies are silent on such mat-
squarely included in the general typological repertoire ters, morphological attributes like handles entering
of the KSB, as well as in the KGK VI cultural com- the formal repertoire of pottery making through func-
plex. This demonstrates that the source of origin is tional considerations. Even when shifted into the styl-
the same for both complexes and must go back to a istic domain (by incorporating handles into the gen-
period before the start of the Copper Age. Where the eral design of a vessel), a functional significance is still
difference between the two cultural complexes be- preserved. Quite logically, it has been stated that one
comes visible is in application of secondary morpho- of the main sources of technological change is ‘‘feed-
logical attributes such as handles, knobs, and sup- back from the context of use’’ (Schiffer & Skibo 1987,
plemental thickening, altering the profile curves. For 598). Consequently, handles may reflect much deeper
example, characteristic for KGK VI are broad ap- structures than simple stylistic experiments or bor-
plied bands covering the shoulders of biconic vessels, rowing under influence from other regions with dif-
thus creating the visual effect of a cylindrical body ferent cultural affiliations.
element inserted between a cone-shaped lower and Handles are disadvantageous in terms of produc-
the upper parts of the vessel (Fig. V.10). More puz- tion, since they are bringing an extra complication
zling is, however, the abundant use of handles and to into the process. They are also uneconomic in terms
some extent also knobs within the KSB culture. A of space requirements, unless placed below the turn-
comparative analysis of the material from two houses ing point. Bearing these arguments in mind, it be-
of the Late Copper Age site of Hotnitsa, Veliko Tar- comes clear that handles must have a behavioural ex-
novo (considered as belonging to the KGK VI sphere planation. Their use must be connected with chang-
of influence) has showed that only 4% of the whole ing ideas on use of space and furniture, for example,
vessels were equipped with handles or perforated when vessels are being kept hanging rather than
tabs. In Lı̂ga this number is more than 70% in the standing on floors or shelves. But most importantly,
group of closed biconic vessels with cylindrical necks. handles increase the portability of a vessel, making
What is even more striking is that bowls are also it more suitable for transportation. Hence, increased
equipped with multiple and varied types of handles, frequency in the use of handles advocates for an in-
thus 37% of the Lı̂ga 2 bowls and derivatives (knobs creased mobility of the population: a cultural phe-
nomenon of the bearers of the KSB tradition, which below) highly acute. The reasoning only ends with a
is not as yet fully acknowledged. suggestion and not conclusive statements. But what-
ever interpretation is chosen, it always has cultural
implications. Lids for cooking pots would indicate a
FUNCTIONAL CONSIDERATIONS type of cuisine based on stewed meals. Clay pans
Perhaps the most important issue in pottery studies is would imply baking of wheat bread. Luckily, such
function. A vessel is considered to be a utilitarian tool interpretations may be tested against organic residue
(Rice 1987, 208), which occasionally may or may not analyses. For example, it has recently been demon-
enter the symbolic domain. The variety of pottery strated that a vessel type, which for half a century has
shapes and sizes, surface treatment techniques and been known in SE Europe as a ‘‘milk jug’’ due to its
decoration designs can be seen as cultural expressions form and ethnographic analogy, appears to bear no
with a clear functional aspect as regards the needs traces of being used as a milk container (Craig et al.
and requirements of the users. Most pottery re- 2003).
searchers agree that form, temper and surface treat- In terms of tempering materials used in pottery
ment reflect and are determined by function (Rice production, there is a growing body of evidence that
1987, 208). Consciously, or through ‘‘try and error’’, selection of tempering materials is governed by pot-
each artefact is evaluated according to its ‘‘perform- tery function (Steponaitis 1984; Rice 1987). For ex-
ance matrix’’, that is how the production (procure- ample, cooking pots are expected to withstand ther-
ment of raw materials, tempering, consumption of mal shock during episodes of repeated heating, which
fuel, etc.), use and maintenance rely to a vessel’s per- may reach 300–500 æC. Effective resistance to thermal
formance characteristics (Schiffer & Skibo 1987). By shock can be achieved through the use of organic
comparing longevity of vessel types one may establish tempering materials which create greater porosity of
some particularly robust types: culturally rooted and a vessel and thus arrests eventual cracks (Rye 1976;
functionally stable, as well as some weaker types: in- Arnold 1985). Chamotte is also a suitable tempering
terim phenomena reflecting the innovative potential material as it expands at the same rate as the clay
of a society. But revealing such variables as form, tem- matrix and will not cause cracking (Rye 1976; Arnold
per and surface treatment cannot always be unam- 1988). This also means that the shrinkage rate is the
biguous, as a range of other factors may bias their same, making chamotte tempered pottery resistant
selection, not least the narrow analytical background even to freezing temperatures. Organic tempering
of the investigator. Take for example the so-called materials can be appreciated for a better workability
early Slavic clay pans: clay disks with turned up edg- of the clay and greater strength during forming pro-
es. These have been identified on sites of the sixth- cesses (Schiffer & Skibo 1987). In terms of fiber use,
seventh century AD, which were regarded as Slavic. thatch or straws have a reinforcing effect on non-fired
Clay pans are interpreted as facilities for baking bread or low-fired dry storage containers. Organic tem-
leaves, based on typological links with ethnographic pered vessels are appearing to be friable. In order to
data from the Balkans, where clay pans have been in increase abrasion resistance – for instance, in the case
use until recently (Curta 2002, 295). However, of cooking, serving and recurrent cleaning actions –
artefacts of the same form are also known from a potter had to consider additional constituents that
Hallstatt assemblages in Slovakia and Volhynia, will enhance the performance characteristics of such
where they were used as lids for urns (Curta 2002). vessels. In the case of Lı̂ga, potters have achieved
Hence, based on the latter analogy, it has recently mitigation of friability through addition of chamotte
been suggested that clay pans should be regarded as or sand, or through thickening of the walls. It has
lids for cooking pots (Curta 2002). No argumentation been noted, that organic tempering is preferred for
has been provided as to why the last and not the first production of big vessels, as it decreases the total
analogy is more reliable. Such observations make the weight of such. A medium size vessel weighs 6–7 kg,
problems of functional interpretation of clay pans so weight must have been considered as an issue,
from Lı̂ga and other prehistoric sites in Bulgaria (cf. which could not be treated casually.
Lı̂ga 85
Less well understood is the use of calcareous com- may cause dental or nutrition problems. Instead of
ponents in the clay. At Lı̂ga it is used in rather moder- using complicated explanations, more simple and ef-
ate quantities, probably partly due to its natural oc- fective ones are chosen: ‘‘Use the hard rock types and
currence in the clay sources, but still, its presence can- stay healthy/alive’’.
not be explained away as accidental. In other The same might be the case with the use of cal-
contemporary sites, like Hotnitsa Tell at Veliko Tur- careous materials. Potters simply believe that this
novo, calcareous components make up the most im- tempering material is superior. Pottery technicians
portant tempering constituent of the clay matrix (pers. are trying to understand why technologically compli-
observations). The thermal expansion rates of cal- cated materials are chosen, while others, with a
careous materials (CaCO3) is close to the clay they chemical background, provide the plausible expla-
are incorporated into (Rye 1976). At firing tempera- nation: Calcareous materials create an alkaline en-
tures of 620–900 æC, CaCO3 starts to decompose (into vironment and thus inhibits the growth of bacteria,
calcium oxide and carbon dioxide), leading to spalling which need an acidic environment to interact with
and desintegration (Rye 1976). Many recovered ves- alimentary products (Rehhof et al. 1990). Hence, ves-
sels do have lime blows but these are believed to be sels tempered with calcite or storage containers plas-
the result of secondary burning, which occurred when tered with lime or gypsum plasters are highly suitable
the settlement burned down. The use of calcareous for keeping grain and other dry foodstuffs. Obser-
clays in any case excludes the use of firing kilns, point- vation must have led to similar conclusions in prehis-
ing to the fact that their utilisation must have been toric times and then transmitted as a culturally en-
limited. Modern potters, producing vernacular pot- forced idiom.
tery in the Balkans, also consider calcareous materials An important issue in the case of Lı̂ga is to explain
(usually calcite) as the superior tempering material the existence of several different combinations of tem-
(Carlton 2002). Which qualities exactly make calcite pering materials. The existence of a high 11 Temper-
superior are not being formulated, since such matters ing Groups – which can be further subdivided ac-
do not seem to occupy the minds of these potters cording to prevailing constituents within a combi-
(Carlton 2002). nation – shows that such are not accidental but
This leads to another area of understanding of the practically tried and accepted combinations. Hence,
technological dimensions of tempering materials, it would not be wrong to equate tempering groups
namely that their selection (as also the selection of with technological traditions.
clays) may well be culturally biased. By stating this, The usual pattern that emerges from ethnorachae-
technological reasons for favouring one or another ological research is that ceramic traditions are trans-
element are not rejected, but the real reason may well mitted through the female line of the family (Graves
be coated in different layers of folk beliefs or techno- 1991; David & Kramer 2001). Circumstantially, this
logical inertia: ‘‘this is how we do it’’. Certain dis- is even proven by archaeological evidence at Franch-
coveries may lead to results which might be difficult thi, Greece (Vitelli 1993). The variability of combi-
to mediate directly, instead a set of more understand- nations of tempering materials might thus be ex-
able constrains are being put on community mem- plained in terms of existence of differing pottery tra-
bers. For example, in selecting milling stones, the ditions, reflecting a range of mating network relying
population of southern Bénin is constrained to use on patrilocal principles of residence. Actually, male
rock types, which can only be exploited in the north- potters would not alter the outcome of this reasoning,
ern part of the country, spreading the folk belief that for in any case such diversity of technological tra-
the use of other types of rocks will cause heart diseases ditions advocate for a significant movement of people
and death. This is not an economic attempt to ma- and a wide breadth of communication networks of
nipulate the population for the benefit of certain rock the settlers of Lı̂ga 2.
quarries. In fact, the issue is less dramatic, for the Turning to the Lı̂ga 1 material, which reflects a
message is meant to warn against soft rock types rather high uniformity in terms of pottery traditions
found in southern Bénin, which easily pulverize and (especially as to surface treatment), one may in this
tery function is surface treatment. In many cases sur-

face treatment alone is informative enough to help
deducing the function of a vessel. Thus, the automa-
tism of ‘‘big vessel π surface rusticationΩstorage ves-
sel’’ certainly holds true in many cases.
A great variety of surface treatment techniques
have been recorded from the Lı̂ga 2 settlement. Sur-
Fig. V.11. Biconic vessels. 1 – from Redutite III (after Gergov
1992a), 2 – from Lı̂ga, House 2.
face rustication with barbotine and finger-trailing
have already been mentioned under decoration tech-
niques, but the most common type of Lı̂ga 2 surface
treatment is simple smoothing while the paste is still
find a clarification of the issue of technological plastic. Perhaps some of the water-worn quartz
change, which occurred after the abandonment of the pebbles found were employed for that, besides usual
pertaining settlement. The qualitative differences be- finger smoothing. A true slip achieved through coat-
tween the two settlements signify a change of social ing with another layer of clay in order to change the
focus, from self-centred to out-going, from adaptive colour or to reduce the permeability is very rare.
to explorative, from passive to active. The causes of When found, it is clearly distinctive as a separate layer
this change deserve a separate discussion, but more reaching up to 1.5 mm in thickness. Mainly it occurs
than that, they need to be elaborated through a differ- on the interior of closed vessels or, sometimes, bowls,
ent approach to the already excavated material, pref- which therefore are interpreted as liquid containers.
erably fresh excavations, since regional data are still More often, self-slip occurs, a technique where the
very weak on this account. surface is being smoothed with a wet hand or cloth,
Albeit pottery from the neighbouring site of Redut- thus concentrating the finest particles of the clay ma-
ite is not available for closer investigation, whole ves- trix as an outermost covering layer (Hodges 1965).
sels presented in publications or museum collections The main surfaces of fine pottery, the exteriors of jugs
show a great affinity with the pottery of Lı̂ga. Very and graphite painted vessels, and the interiors of
close parallels are found both in Redutite II and in bowls had burnished surfaces. As mentioned, burnish-
the temporarily more distant Redutite III (Fig. V.11). ing reduces permeability and provides effective
This underlines two important points: the longevity methods to fasten colour pigments. Despite such tech-
of certain vessel types and a sense of territoriality. I nological advantages, burnishing was primarily val-
here employ the term ‘‘type’’ to indicate an end result, ued for its visual qualities. Thus, the interiors of
expressed through a combination of shape π second- closed vessels were mainly burnished in the area of
ary morphological attributes π decoration & zones of the rim. But interiors were not left untreated. Quite
decoration. Accidental congruence of the three main often, traces of brushing are recorded on the interior
variables is statistically improbable and can only be of closed vessels. Besides surface smoothing this could
explained with a conscious handover of ‘‘production also be used to better distribute the clay, especially
recipes’’. In turn, this indicates that genealogically minimizing the transition between the coils. Brushing
connected people were constantly resettling the same was done with a tuft of fine twigs or other kinds of
territory during several hundreds years. In fact, the fibers. Sometimes the interiors have traces of deep
hiatus layer of 0.2 m between Redutite II and III need striations, covering the entire surface. Their presence
considerable time to be formed, much longer than on big biconic jars with long narrow necks shows that
suggested by the excavator: 60–120 years (Gergov this was a special surface compacting technique, car-
1992a) (cf. above). Further implications of this reason- ried out in the state when the vessel was leather-hard.
ing would be a return to an earlier (and not very orig- Therefore, striations almost appear as deep grooves.
inal) assumption, namely that pottery functionality is The striations are usually 2 mm wide, made with a
type bound. brush of relatively stiff stems or similar materials, gen-
The last variable to be considered in terms of pot- erally following a horizontal direction. It should be
Lı̂ga 87
stressed that vessel shape may also dictate the type intended and actual use (Skibo 1992). The last may
and areas of decoration, as can be seen from vessels be complicated to achieve without supplementary
with formal and decorational affinity but volumetric microscale analyses, such as residue analysis. In-
and functional differences. Generally, as it can be tended use may be too broad a category to be in-
seen from the overview of main pottery shapes exem- formative at all. Nevertheless, an attempt is being
plified by whole vessels, there is a clear correlation made below to unveil the functional variability of the
between vessel shape and surface treatment. Lı̂ga 2 vessels.
The very strength of the research at Lı̂ga is a fourth Bowls is the largest group of all pottery types. They
dimension or variable, the context. The position of a are traditionally connected with food serving, and as
vessel within a house, as well as its association with such experience the greatest stress and the shortest
other vessels or artefacts, is an important testimony use-life (Rise 1987, Table 9.4). Investigation of the
to the use of such vessel. The following considerations refuse area between Houses 2 and 3, interpreted as
on functionality are therefore explored through the an immediate discard area of domestic waste, has
combination of the abovementioned variables: shape, showed that the highest frequency among pottery
temper, and surface treatment, and, the context. fragments was held bowls and small cups. Moreover,
Following the functional categorisation suggested these were discovered in big fragments, and occasion-
by P. Rice (Rice 1987), pottery is treated in terms ally as halves of whole vessels. Two sizes of bowls –
of storage, processing, transfer, and other. The last up to 25 cm in diameter, and beyond that (usually
category is a mixed one, encompassing pottery types around 40 cm) – may indicate personal versus group
with special or uncertain functions, e.g., fire-vessels. consumption. Slightly inverted rims, as the majority
The conviction, that functionality can be deduced of the bowls has, would prevent spillage but also be
from the available pottery sets, is supported by the very unsuitable for pouring. Numerous bowls found
fact that despite technological variation, there is a around the ovens imply that such may also have been
clear trend towards replication among the sets (cf. the involved in food processing, but probably not in con-
above section dealing with production technology). nection with liquid foodstuffs, simply because the size
Furthermore, this issue can be elucidated through (usually shallow with wide orifices) and the shape of
ethnoarchaeological work, providing examples that the bowls recorded at the ovens have practical limi-
potters may have great flexibility in their methods of tations, making pouring from one container to an-
production (Skibo 1992). Thus, stability may not only other a complicated task.
be seen as cultural inertia, but as a reflection of The use of bowls for storage of dry foodstuffs can-
evolved functional pottery types corresponding to the not be excluded, even though this would be unecon-
needs of the people. omic in terms of space; in fact, this may explain the
Revealing pottery function is the optimal goal for need for handles or the like. Rounded ear handles,
any ceramic study, since such is connecting a range tab handles perforated both horizontally and verti-
of complicated issues, like subsistence, diet, and even cally, or pierced rims are found on almost half the
architecture and furniture. It is interesting to observe bowls. In two cases, horizontally perforated tab
that the notion of luxury wares as objects visually handles were fashioned as an anthropomorphic face
standing out has also been recognized by the settlers with protruding nose, placed immediately below the
of Lı̂ga, but such wares were not excluded from the turning point and yielding extra character to a recog-
utilitarian sphere. Part of the graphite painted ware nized pot. There is a certain regularity in the way
has decoration rubbed off as a result of use. So, the different types of handles are placed. Vertically per-
exclusiveness was stated through active use and expo- forated tab handles are placed on turning points/
sition and not as passive exhibition on shelves. Hence, shoulders if these are marked (i.e., the widest part of
socio- and ideafunctions sensu Skibo (Skibo 1992) can- a bowl), or just below the lip if a bowl has a straight
not be separated from technofunctions (Skibo 1992), profile line. Piercing is also made immediately below
at least not in the case of the Lı̂ga 2 material. the lip. Clearly, this indicates that such bowls were
Functional deductions are possible on two levels, adapted for (horizontal) suspension. Vertical handles
tive diagnostic features. One of the jugs found in

House 2 contained a small worked sheep/goat as-
tragalus.
Vessels of Types ‘‘F’’ (barrel shaped jars), ‘‘H’’ (bi-
conic jars with rounded shoulders), and ‘‘I’’ (bucket
shaped pot) are interpreted as short term (?) dry stor-
age vessels through their association with each other
and with the grain pithos in House 2. All have rusti-
cated surfaces and wide orifices but are volumetrically
smaller than the following category of dry storage ves-
sels. All vessels of the group are equiped with handles
or massive functional knobs, demonstrating their
portability. Rusticated surfaces provide firmer grip-
ping and increase abrasion resistance.
Long term storage containers are the most vol-
uminous pottery type, corresponding functionally to
the permanently installed pithoi, as in the House 2.
Their typological and stylistical variety is quite large
Fig. V.12. Bowl decorated with painted pattern of snakes, from and probably not fully represented since mending of
Redutite II, exhibited at the Regional Historical Museum, Pleven big containers is a complicated task. The recon-
(ØΩca. 40 cm). structed types include simple containers with cone-
shaped lower part and long, cylindrical upper part
(Type ‘‘V’’), which can be rusticated and decorated
or horizontally perforated tab handles are found with cordons and bands of fingertip impressions, or
either above or below the turning point (and could have smooth surfaces with incised patterns. Biconic
also be used for suspension). Abrasion marks found or globular shapes (Types ‘‘T’’ and ‘‘U’’) could also
on the exterior of several pierced bowls (or their frag- be chosen for such voluminous types as storage con-
ments) below the holes show that these were in re- tainers. Decoration seems to play a double role for
peated contact with hard surfaces. Hence it was sug- these vessels. With few exceptions, voluminous stor-
gested that some bowls were hung vertically on the age containers are decorated. They can be perceived
walls. as static sculptures, rarely moved and attracting atten-
Jugs, juglets and biconic cups (Types ‘‘N’’ & ‘‘O’’), tion of eventual visitors, signalising the wealth of the
abundantly represented in each house at Lı̂ga, should owner. At the same time, decoration could have been
also be seen as part of a serving set. These are often used for protective purposes in the realm of magic.
found in association with bowls. Through association, Spiral-snake patterns are numerous, especially on
jugs of Type ‘‘S’’ (pear-shaped) may be included in bowls, where snake heads are added to the spirals,
the same group. Their closed orifices and long necks making the equation between snakes and spiral orna-
are suitable for pouring. All vessels of the group are mentation more convincing (Fig. V.12). This orna-
so-called strong types, reflecting longevity of tradition, mentation is found on female figurines, stelae inter-
cultural adherence and, through close parallels with preted as altars, and other ritual objects, and is also
the KGK VI pottery, affiliation with broader regional applied to the group of storage containers, either in
associations. Like the well-known beakers of the TRB the form of incisions (Fig. IV.2) or graphite paint (Pl.
culture (Sherratt 1987), such vessels can be seen as 12). Certainly, vessels holding the vital resources of a
tokens of social behaviour connected with common household needed this extra protection to withstand
eating and drinking practices. Vessels of this group putridity and bacteria, and other menaces.
are acknowledged as the most distinct pottery of the Little doubt can arise in relating vessels of Types
Late Copper Age, but cannot be used as time-sensi- ‘‘P’’ and ‘‘R’’ with liquids. Both types have biconic
Lı̂ga 89
shapes expanding to an almost globular appearance. base would enable to concentrate the main part of
In terms of shape, the vessels are typologically related the food higher up, where heating is most intense.
to other biconic specimens, but volumetrically they The relatively open orifice would enable handling of
are much bigger. Uniform in shape, these types cover food more easily, while the slightly inverted neck
two functional categories, transfer and storage, vessels would prevent ‘‘boiling over and reduce evaporation’’
with smoothed surfaces equipped with handles being (Rise 1987). The relative depth would permit to con-
seen as connected with transfer. Furthermore, based serve the heat (Rise 1987). However, such assump-
on a common ethnographic analogy, such jars are tions are not supported by scientifically collected eth-
interpreted as being used for carrying water. The big- nographic data from contemporary traditional societ-
gest one, with well smoothed exterior and interior ies, where food preparation is made over an open
compacted by deep striations, and equipped with two fire-place, posing different requirements for cooking
massive handles, had a capacity of 44 litres, the total pottery, such as rounded bases (see Rice 1987, 239).
weight, when full, being 60 kg. It was found close to Examples of close affinities to the group in question
the entrance of House 3, which would indicate that can still be found in remote Russian villages, where
it had a higher mobility than a storage container. It cooking continues to be made inside an oven, now-
is not unusual to carry manual loads of 60 kg in tra- adays in metal pots of similar biconic shapes. The
ditional societies, perhaps with a helper. Other repre- circumstance that many vessels of Lı̂ga 2 were
sentatives of this group, without handles and with rus- affected by secondary burning made it difficult to rec-
ticated surfaces, were used for storage. One such ves- ognise eventual bands of soot caused by cooking.
sel was found at the pithos of House 2 with a Within the present group, part of the jars did have
corresponding flat lid. traces of soot on the lower part of the body, but the
The last major functional issue to be discussed in origin could not be established with certainty. Perhaps
this generalised presentation concerns food processing the discovery of a spoon inside such a jar in House 2
pottery. The main division is whether the processing can be used as evidence that these vessels, resembling
is made with heat or without heat (Rise 1987). Cook- modern soup tureens, were connected with food pro-
ing pottery has a very low use-life, higher than food cessing, both hot and cold.
serving pottery but much lower than for example pot- On the other hand, the great number of Type ‘‘J’’
tery used for storage (Rise 1987). The use-expectancy vessels (closely related to Types ‘‘K’’ and ‘‘L’’) may
is usually around one year. Most of the cooking ves- indirectly be used in stating their involvement in food
sels are not discarded immediately after being evalu- preparation processes. One of the pots of this group
ated as no longer suitable for cooking (for various rea- had indeed a band of soot over the lower part of the
sons, but usually due to appearing surface cracks). In- body (Fig. V.13). These vessels are found in a number
stead, they enter another functional domain (pers. of sizes: from small cup-like specimens to medium
observations, various ethnographic situations). In ones of 3–4 litres. They are believed to be the func-
Lı̂ga, there are two big pottery groups that can be tionally most universal vessel type, as observed from
associated with cooking and food processing without their reuse. These vessels were for example used for
heat. storage of tools. A vessel found west of the oven of
Based on surface treatment of interiors (well- House 2 contained a small biconic cup without
worked and compacted through smoothing or bur- handles, which was placed on top of water-worn
nishing), it has been estimated that upright jars with pebbles used in pottery production (cf. the section
highly placed, sharply angled shoulders and upright above of production technology). Another vessel of
or slightly inverted necks (Type ‘‘G’’) were suitable for the same type was found close to the entrance of the
holding liquids, e.g., for soaking purposes. Their same house, it contained a still functional adze. Sec-
shape is also optimal for the function of cooking ves- ondary modifications are also observed on vessels of
sel. When placed inside an oven, the lowest heating this type. One smaller representative had a perfor-
temperature would be at the base, which would be ation, ca. 1 cm in diameter, made centrally in the
standing at the same level as the fuel. So, a narrow base (another base of a small vessel with similar per-
Fig. V.14. Fragmented vessel with centrally placed bottom perfor-

ation.
exclusion, comprised by miscellaneous vessel types or

ceramic types one way or another related to vessels.
Deliberately, these items are not listed together with
Fig. V.13. Vessel (Type ‘‘J’’) discovered in House 2 bearing band the pottery types, which is the usual practice in Bulga-
of soot over the lower part of the body.
ria. Most of the items have a rather obvious function,
which does not depend on the shape, like a lid.
foration is also known); both items are from House 1

and were probably intended as a funnels (Fig. V.14). MISCELLANEOUS
Vessels of this group are without handles, but in- MINIATURE AND VERY SMALL VESSELS
stead almost always equipped with two or four knobs This group includes a number of very small vessels
placed on the shoulders. The surface is rusticated, which fall outside the usual functional categories dis-
usually by finger-trailing which is well-organised and cussed above. Miniature vessels are less than 5 cm in
has decoration effect. Such exterior texturing, which height, but in a way, their shapes echo the shapes of
has also been noted on a previous group (vessels of the big vessels, especially biconic jugs (Pl. 16:1–12).
Type ‘‘G’’), does not increase a vessel’s heating effec- Other vessel types like simple or footed bowls are also
tiveness (Skibo et al. 1997), contrary to some belief. represented. While some of the tiny vessels may be
Deep exterior texture protects from spalls and reduces considered models or even toys, as for example hand
cracking produced by thermal shock (Skibo et al. molded ‘‘bowls’’ made of untempered clay and low-
1997). In any case, the bigger representatives of this fired, others appear to have a more regulated func-
group may have been involved in cooking. Even tional determination. This assumption is based on the
though the search for external soot was a more or less observation that certain miniature vessel types occur
vain task, since impact from secondary burning in as exact copies also at other sites: in the neighbouring
most cases could not be ruled out (except for the one Sadovec sites, but also in a remote site like Yunatsite
rather certain case above), several vessels were in fact (Todorova & Matsanova 2000) (Pl. 16:13–14). Their
discovered with another indication of possible use in porous surfaces do not seem to be suitable to contain
food processing with heat. These externally light col- liquids, and it can only remain a speculation whether
oured vessels, volumetrically resembling each other charms or herbal medicine was kept in such vessels.
(3–4 litres) were found with totally blackened in- The function of small vessels the size of a coffee
teriors, until the edge of the rim. This may suggest, cup is not clear either and can in fact cover a range
that a process similar to quenching was taking place: of different purposes (Pl. 16:15–19). The majority has
boiling of wheat or any other flour soup/porridge. inverted rim, which makes them unsuitable to be used
The last category to be discussed is a category by as cups. Two vessels attributed to the group had 2
Lı̂ga 91
cm long cylindrical spouts with a diameter of 0.5 cm lower ring-foot. The diameters are 10–18 cm. The
(‘‘feeding bottles’’). Barrel-like in shape with slightly surfaces are either plain or decorated with incised
everted rim, they were too fragmented to be com- spirals. None of the pot stands have traces of having
pletely reconstructed, but the height was estimated to been in contact with fire.
be 6 cm. Both were found in House 1. None of the
representatives of this group has decorated surface.
PANS
In layers attributed both to Lı̂ga 1 and Lı̂ga 2, flat ce-
LIDS ramic discs with upturned edges have been found, simi-
Fragments of lids (Pl. 16:20–24) were very often re- lar to the earlier discussed ‘‘Slavic bread pans’’ (Pl.
covered, but their proper identification is not always 16:30–32). Such items are discovered at every KSB
straightforward. They can have an appearance of flat site. The size ranges between 15 and 20 cm in diam-
discs, just slightly curved. Or they can resemble rather eter. The interpretation as lids (Curta 2001, cf. above)
deep, straight-sided bowls. Tempering Group IV pre- is disputable, due to their massiveness and, especially,
vails. The lids fall in two size categories: those with a to the fact that a variety of more elaborate lids are
diameter of 10–15 cm and those of 20–25 cm. Oc- abundantly represented in the repertoire of Copper
casionally, they can be larger, up to 36 cm in diam- Age pottery. Furthermore, a fragment of a similar
eter. shape with an upright handle has been discovered.
One exceptional example allows reconstruction of What can be disputed is whether such pans were used
a vessel type as yet unknown among the archaeologi- for bread baking or something else – like salt produc-
cal material, thick walled and with a narrow neck: a tion. It is quite certain that this type of pottery was
bottle-like vessel. A single discovered rim shard might created to be exposed to high temperatures.
perhaps give some idea of the shape of such vessel
(Pl. 16:25). The lid in question is circular, 8 cm in
diameter, with slightly concave top and a plug-like FIRE-VESSELS AND STRAINERS
circular protuberance that can be inserted into a con- These two types of artefacts are similar in appearance
tainer with the diameter of 4.2 cm (Pl. 16:24). but completely different in function. They have the
shape of a bowl and are dotted with holes. The differ-
ence between them is that fire-vessels (Fig. III.13:1 &
POT STANDS AND FOOTED VESSELS 14) (often rather misleadingly known as Rauchgefässe)
Pot stands have been a constant member of the Cop- have two orifices, a narrow one and a broad. Fire-
per Age house inventory (Pl. 16:26–28). They are vessels have been a typical inventory of every house-
often associated with bowls to provide extra stability hold. In the Lı̂ga 2 settlement complete representa-
if the base is narrow, but it cannot be ruled out that tives were discovered in both House 2 and 3, close to
their use was connected with social aspirations rather the oven. The use of such special clay devices has
than practicalities. The existence of footed bowls, been comprehensively discussed by E. Cosack (Co-
which perhaps derive from the same aspirations, may sack 1994). Examples without wholes are also known,
be regarded as a kindred type. Footed bowls were but their purpose can be deduced due to traces of
rare in Lı̂ga and are only represented as fragments secondary burning. The fire-vessels were used to pre-
(Pl.16:29). Each house contained 3–4 pot stands. serve fire during periods when the oven was not in
They are of two types. The usual type has the shape use, typically at night. Ashes with ember could be
of a low double-cone with an identical size of the ori- covered by a fire-vessel, which would then minimize
fices. Abrasion marks inform about the standing sur- the supply of air, keeping the ember/coal glowing but
face. Another type resembles an egg-cup: a shallow not burning. Such vessels are known to have been
ring-foot supports a deep bowl-like upper part. The used from the Neolithic through the Migration
difference between the last type and the footed bowls Period, at least (Cosack 1994).
is that pot stands are supported by a broader and Quite often shards with perforated walls were
Fig. V.15. Double-conic clay item discovered at the oven in House 3.

Fig. V.16. Bowl with antropomorphic tab handles.
found among the excavated material. Through the the oven and close to the milling platform. It is con-
discovery of fully preserved items, it was established sidered enigmatic since several possible interpreta-
that there are some repetitive differences helping to tions of its function can be suggested. It is equipped
distinguish between fire-vessels and strainers (Pl. with four small vertical handles approximately in the
17:1). Although the size of the perforations may be middle, probably intended for a wide orifice (height
the same, their density is twice as great on strainers 16 cm, Ø1: 18 cm, Ø2: 8 cm) (Fig. V.15, Pl. 11:5).
(35 pr 3 cm2 as compared with the fire-vessels’ 16 pr Such objects are also known from other Copper Age
3 cm2). The holes in strainers tend to get narrower and later sites, usually without handles or occasionally
from the centre towards the outer surface, while fire- with small bosses on the edge of the rim. Tradition-
vessels keep the same size of the holes. Holes on ally, the items have been interpreted as drums. But
strainers are distributed from immediately below the other, more mundane functions are also possible, for
edge, while the edge of fire-vessels has a band without example a sieve or a funnel, which could be fixed to
perforations. Fire-vessels have far better smoothened hide bags or the like.
outer surfacse than strainers. The inside surfaces are
not worked in either.
Three nearly complete strainers were found. They VESSELS WITH ANTHROPOMORPHIC AND
have a greatest diameter of 10 cm and a height of 6– ZOOMORPHIC REPRESENTATIONS
7 cm. The smoothly abraded central part – opposed One bowl discovered in House 2 was equipped with
to a rough rim and rounded bottom – indicates that vertical tab handles horizontally perforated in such a
strainers must have been used together with vessels way that a human face with protruding nose and in-
with an orifice not exceeding 9.5 cm. cised eyes was created (Fig. V.16). House 1 contained
a vessel, which was equipped with flattened bosses
and small protruding zoomorphic heads, most prob-
DOUBLE-CONIC CERAMIC ITEM ably resembling an ox (Pl. 17:2). An ox representation
An enigmatic double conic object with two orifices was also found in House 3. A fragment of a spherical
was found in House 3 of Lı̂ga 2, immediately West of thin-walled vessel (‘‘oil lamp’’?) had a triangular head
Lı̂ga 93
(representation of horns?), a dewlap on the neck and the original technology if no constrains of this kind
incised almond-shaped eyes (Pl. 17:3). are imposed (David & Kramer 2001).
Hence, it is suggested that the technological vari-
ability of the pottery production of Lı̂ga 2 mirrors a
SPOONS mixed composition of the occupants. This observation
A number of spoons (Pl. 17:4–6), mainly fragmented, is reinforced by comparative studies of ceramics from
have been discovered. They can be divided into two Lı̂ga 2 and Hotnitsa Tell at Veliko Tarnovo, the latter
types: with a handle of circular, or with flattened showing a much greater uniformity, thus implying the
cross-section. The last group is slightly bigger in size, existence of different patterns of social behaviour. It
but generally the length of the spoons varies between has been proposed that these differences should be ex-
8 and 9 cm. A spoon with flattened handle was found plained by a higher mobility and expanding networks
inside a vessel of Type ‘‘G’’ (Pl. 17:4). Surprisingly, all of interaction, which, most importantly, have led to ex-
spoons contain some amount of sand in the clay ma- change of people through distant alliances and mating
trix, usually combined with organic matter. strategies. Further studies may confirm the antici-
pation based on Lı̂ga material, that such differences re-
flect a general diachronic trend and perhaps can be
SUMMARY & PERSPECTIVES considered as a diagnostic temporal marker.
The body of ceramic data collected during the three Another important observation is that the pottery
field campaigns of 2000–2002 at Lı̂ga is too large to production of Lı̂ga 2 was organised on a household
be presented in its full extent. Nearly every shard has level, since two of the three fully investigated houses
been entered into the artefact database, which has contained certain direct as well as circumstantial
become a vital and as yet not exhausted tool for pieces of evidence about pottery production. House 3
further studies. The strength of the base lies not only is the most striking example, with evidence on manu-
in a very high degree of detailed information regard- facture of utilitarian graphite painted pottery, which
ing material attributes, but also, due to coupling, in apparently was reserved for the household itself. Ex-
contextual information bridging the past with the change between the households was limited and prob-
present. Answering the questions regarding pottery ably exclusively symbolic in nature. Detailed pottery
variability posed at the beginning of this chapter, the analysis has also revealed that technological superior-
following conclusions can be made regarding the Lı̂ga ity cannot be assumed on the basis of pottery decor-
2 settlement. ation and surface treatment. The chief difference be-
Firstly, since cultural transmission operates in a tween plain and decorated pottery is the investment
hierarchical order, the most important feature is of time. Thus, burnished graphite painted pottery
shape, or rather its idealised version, often termed a needed the longest period of manufacture, but was no
mental template. Secondary morphological attributes technological necessity.
such as handles are often integrated into the general This raises questions about the composition of the
perception of vessels but their place is not always de- household, assuming that women were responsible for
termined, as they drift between demands of the prac- the pottery. If each household required a more or less
tical and cultural constructs (which again can over- stable number of vessels per member, how can it be
lap). Temper, decoration, and method of manufacture explained that some households could afford to invest
also take a secondary significance in the broader cul- three times or more energy in pottery production?
tural perspective, reflecting different technological The issue of human resources needs further clarifi-
traditions or ‘‘technological styles’’, helping to deter- cation, while the value of visually outstanding pottery
mine social rather than cultural boundaries (cf. Stark as a medium of socially loaded messages remains be-
et al. 1995, with references). There is a number of yond doubt. Active pottery display even in the most
ethnographic examples of potters changing the reper- casual situations, like fetching water, can be seen as
toire of their production as they move to new places an instrumental non-verbal claim to maintain the so-
or when market demands change, while they preserve cial position of household members.
Investigations of shard materials have resulted in nificant part of the information may still be lacking),
two basic conclusions. Stylistic variation taken separ- there is apparently no niche left for organic tools. The
ately has a very coarse chronological sensitivity, more presence of ceramic spoons – the most usual type of
coarse than is desired by archaeologists. What seems artefact rendered in bone or wood – underlines the as-
to ensure greater confidence in chronological sensi- sumption that pottery production has covered most of
tivity is the percentage of decoration styles and tech- the needs in terms of containers etc., except for vol-
niques represented. Quite remarkably, even super- uminous and light baskets.
ficial studies of Late Copper Age pottery from the The potters of Lı̂ga were familiar with the main-
Vaksevo tell in the Sruma valley has already produced stream of pottery production, both locally and else-
evidence supporting this assumption, although with- where. Cultural replication can be seen through the
out full acknowledgement of the excavator (Čochadži- shapes and composition of vessels types recovered in
ev 2001). each house. But this did not exclude the manifestation
The wealth of pottery even allows us to question the of an individual fingerprint, telling about varying
widely accepted assumption that much prehistoric evi- skills, motoric abilities, and, not least, varying tastes
dence – such as bone and in particular wooden items – and artistic talents. Much archaeological fine-ty-
has vanished and left a serious artefactual gap. Looking pology is simply household variation. The Lı̂ga inves-
at the numbers of vessels represented, the distribution tigation has brought the individual Copper Age
of their shapes and sizes (with the reservation that a sig- household, and its members, into historical focus.

V. Pottery As Source of Information

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V.

ket and satisfying the demands of the well-

occasionally Group VI (organic matter). Such consist-

towards the edges. Such implements were discovered

but nevertheless opening new possibilities to get closer

TYPOLOGY, MENTAL TEMPLATES AND

the same type and position of the handles can be

VESSEL SHAPES not included). This marked statistical difference must

tery function is surface treatment. In many cases sur-

tive diagnostic features. One of the jugs found in

Fig. V.14. Fragmented vessel with centrally placed bottom perfor-

exclusion, comprised by miscellaneous vessel types or

foration is also known); both items are from House 1

Fig. V.15. Double-conic clay item discovered at the oven in House 3.

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