Kinetic Theory of Gases and Radiation PDF

JUNIOR SCIENCE COLLEGE
ANDHERI / BORIVALI / DADAR / NERUL / POWAI / THANE
9. KINETIC THEORY OF GASES AND

RADIATION
Q.1 What are the characteristics of an ideal gas? Write its equation.
Ans: The molecules of an ideal gas are assumed to have the following characteristics
(i) The actual volume of the molecules is negligible compared to the total volume of the gas,
so that the molecules can be considered as mere mass points and there are no
intermolecular forces.
(ii) It has no shape and size.
An ideal or perfect gas obey the equation of state,
PV = nRT
Where p = pressure of a enclosed gas
V = volume of enclosed gas
R = Molar gas constant or universal gas constant
n = number of moles
T = absolute temperature in Kelvin
For n = 1, PV = RT
Q.2 State the assumptions of the kinetic theory of gases

Ans: (i) A gas consists of a very large number of extremely small molecules.
(ii) The molecules in the gas are rigid and perfectly elastic spheres of very small diameter in the
order of 10-10 m.
(iii) The molecules of the same gas are identical in shape and size.
(iv) The actual volume occupied by the molecules is very small compared to the total volume of
the gas.
(v) The intermolecular forces of attraction between gas molecules are negligible.
(vi) The molecules are always in a state of random motion, i.e. they are constantly moving in all
possible directions with all possible velocities.
(vii) On account of their random motion, the molecules constantly collide with each other and
with the wall of the container. The collisions with the walls of the container give rise to the
pressure exerted by the gas.
(viii) The collisions are perfectly elastic, i.e. there is no loss of kinetic energy during the
collisions, the total kinetic energy remains constant.
(ix) Between two successive collisions, a molecule travels in a straight line with a constant
velocity. The distance covered by the molecule between two successive collisions is called
the free path.
(x) The time of impact, i.e. the time during which a collision occurs, is very small compared to
the time interval between successive collisions.
(xi) Though the molecules are constantly moving from one place to another, the average
number of molecules per unit volume of the gas remains constant.
(xii) At constant temperature, the average kinetic energy of the gas molecules remains constant.
The average kinetic energy is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
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Q.3 Explain the terms (i) Free path (ii) Mean free path,
Ans: (i)Free path : The molecules of a gas are in the state of random E
motion. Due to their random motion the molecules constantly

collide with each other and with the walls of the container. Molecules
experience forces only during collisions. Hence, between any two B C
successive collisions, a molecule travels with a uniform velocity in a

straight line.
“The distance covered by the molecules between two successive A D
collisions is called the free path”.

(ii) Mean Free path: The average distance traveled by a gas molecule between two successive
collision is known as the mean free path
Mean free path is measured in Angstrom unit or meter.
Let 1, 2, ……N be the free paths, then mean free path
  2  ......  N
 1
N
Q.4 Explain the terms:

(i) Mean velocity (Average Velocity ( C ) (ii) Mean square velocity ( C 2 )
2
(iii) Root-mean square (R.M.S.) velocity C
(i) Mean Velocity (Average Velocity ( C ) : Consider N molecules of an ideal gas in an
enclosure.
Let C1, C2, C3 …… CN, be the magnitudes of their velocities, then their mean velocity is
defined as at arithmetic mean of all these velocities.
C  C2  C3  .....  C N
 C 1
N
S.I. Unit : m/s
(ii) Mean Square Velocity ( C 2 ): The average value of the squares of the magnitudes of the
velocities of the molecules is called the mean square velocity.
2 C12  C22  C32  .....  C2N
 C 
N
2 2
S.I. Unit : m /s .
(iii) Root Mean Square (RMS) Velocity (C or CRMS): It is defined as the square root of the
mean square velocity, if ‘N’ molecules of an ideal gas are enclosed in a container of
volume V, and C1, C2 …….., CN be their velocities then.
C12  C22  ...  CN2
 C2RMS   C2
N
S.I. Unit : m/s
Q.5 On the basis of Kinetic Theory of gas, obtain an expression

for the pressure exerted by gas.
Ans: Consider a fixed mass of a perfect gas enclosed in a cube
having each side of length ‘l’Let m = mass of each
molecule, N = no. of molecules of the gas.
 Mass of gas M = Nm = total mass of the gas.
Area of the face of the cube = l2
Volume of the cube V = l3
M Nm
  3  Density of the gas
V l
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Let C1 , C 2 ,.... C N be the velocities of the molecules.

Each velocity can be resolved into components parallel to the three co-ordinate axes which
are along the edges of the container.
Let u1 , v1 , w1 be the components of the velocity ‘ C 1 ’ along x, y and z axes respectively.
Also u 2 , v 2 , w2 be the components of the velocity C 2 …. and u n , v n , wn be the components
of the velocity, C N then
C12  u12  v12  w12
C22  u22  v22  w22
C N2  u N2  vN2  wN2
Consider a molecule of mass ‘m’ moves with velocity C1 moving towards the wall PQRS. It
moves with velocity ‘u1’ along the x-axis.
Initial momentum of the molecule = mu1.
If molecule collides with surface PQRS, it will rebound with its x-component of velocity is
reversed. There will be no effect on v1 or w1.
The molecule collides with the wall PQRS and will move in opposite direction with velocity
– u1 .
Momentum after collision = mu1
 Change in momentum of the molecule in one collision = mu1 mu1 =  2mu1
Negative sign shows that molecule has lost the momentum during collision. Since momentum
is conserved, the change in momentum per collision of the surface PQRS is,
= + 2mu1
After collision, the molecule travels to the opposite wall making collision and again returns to
the wall ‘PQRS’ with same speed without striking any other molecule on the way. The
distance traveled by this molecule, between two successive collisions with the wall PQRS is
equal to ‘2l’
Therefore, time interval (t) between two successive collisions with the wall ‘PQRS’ is given
by
Dis tan ce 2l 2l
time(t )   t 
Speed u1 u1
The force ‘f1’ exerted on the wall by this molecule is given by Newton’s second law.
f1 = Rate of change of momentum of the wall PQRS.
changein momentum of the wall PQRS

f1 
time
2mu1 2mu1 2mu12 mu12
=   
t  2l  2l l
 
 u1 
mu12
 f1  . This is the force exerted by the molecule of mass ‘m’ moving with speed u1, on
l
the wall.
Similarly the forces exerted by the molecules moving along the x-axis with velocities u2, u3,
….., un are given by
mu22 mu32 mu N2
f2  , f3  , .... f N 
l l l
Resultant force fx on the wall PQRS perpendicular to x-axis is
f x  f1  f 2  ....  f N
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mu12 mu22 muN2

fx    ....
l l l
m 2
 fx 
l

u1  u22  ....  u N2 
---------------(I)
Similarly the resultant fy and fz perpendicular to Y-axis and Z-axis on the walls are given by
m 2
fy 
l

v1  v22  ....  vN2 
m 2
fz 
l

w1  w22  ....  wN2 
Now pressure exerted by gas molecule on the walls of the cubical vessel is given by
Force
Pressure (P) =
Area
Pressure Px acting on the wall perpendicular to x-axis is given by.
f f
Px  x  2x
A l
m
Px  3 [u12  u22  .... u N2 ] using equation (i)
l
Similarly pressure Py and Pz acting on the walls perpendicular to Y axis and Z axis
respectively are given by,
f f m
Py  y  2y  3 v12  v22  ....  vN2
A l l
 
using enquation
fz f m
Pz 
A l l

 2z  3 w12  w22  ....  wN2  using equation
As pressure exerted by the gas molecules is the same in all directions,
Px  Py  pz  p
Px  Py  Pz  3P
PX  PY  PZ
P
3
m
p  3 [u12  u22  ....  u N2 ] 
3l
[v1  v22  ....  vN2 ] 
2
[w12  w22  ....  wN2 ]

1 m
P
3 v

[ u12  u22  ....  u N2  
 v1  v22  ....  vN2  
2
w 2
1  w22  ....  wN2 ] 
1 m
P [(C12  C22  ....  C N2 )]
3 v
But by definition root mean square velocity is given
2 C12  C22  .....  C N2
by C 
N
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2 C12  C22  .....  C N2

CRMS  C 
N
2 C1  C2  .....  CN2
2 2
CRMS 
N
CRMS N  C1  C22  .... C N2
2 2
Using this, in equation we, get,
1 m 2
P [CRMS N ]
3 v
1 mN 2
 CRMS
3 v
M
But M = m. N and  
V
1 M 2
P CRMS
3 V
1 2
P   CRMS
3
Q.6 Deduce Boyle’s law on the basis of Kinetic Theory of gases:
Ans: Statement: At constant temperature, the pressure exerted by a fixed mass of a gas is inversely
proportional to volume occupied by the gas.
1
 P at constant temperature
V
PV = constant, where
P = pressure of a enclosed gas
V = Volume of a enclosed gas.
Consider a gas of volume ‘V’ with ‘N’ molecules, each of mass ‘m’
Mass of gas M = Nm
According to kinetic theory of gases, pressure expression is given by equation
1 2
P CRMS
3
1 M 2
P CRMS
3 V
1 1
 PV  MC2RMS  NmC2RMS
3 3
2 1 
 PV  N  mC 2RMS 
3 2 
1
For a given mass of a gas 1) ‘N’ is constant 2) The quantity mC2RMS the average kinetic energy of
2
molecule remains always constant at constant temperature according to the assumption. Of ktnetic
theory of gases
 PV = constant
1
 P Which is Boyle’s law.
V
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Q.7 On the basis of Kinetic Theory of gases Show that the RMS velocity of a gas molecule is directly
proportional to the square root of absolute temperature.
Ans: Consider one mole of an ideal gas enclosed in volume V with pressure P and temperature T. The
pressure of gas, is given by,
1 M 2
P CRMS
3 V
1 2
PV  MCRMS
3
For an ideal gas, for one mole PV = RT
Mass of the gas=molecular weight = M 
1
RT  M C 2 RMS
3
3RT
C 2 RMS 
M
3RT
 CRMS 
M
 3R 
As   is constant  C RMS a T
 M
Thus R.M.S. velocity of molecule of gas is directly proportional to square root of its absolute
temperature.
Q.8 Prove that, the average kinetic energy per molecule of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature.
Ans: Consider one mole of a perfect gas. According to the kinetic theory, the pressure P exerted by the gas
is:
1 Nm 2
P C
3 V
1
 PV  NmC 2
3
By the ideal gas equation, PV = nRT
1
 NmC2  nRT
3
2 1 
 N  mC2   nRT
3 2 
1 3 nR 3 R
 mC2  T  nKT whereK  is called Boltzman’s constant.
2 2 N 2 N
Since, R,n and N are constant.

1
mC2  T
2
Thus, the average K.E. per molecule is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of
the gas.
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Q.9 Obtain Expression for (i) Kinetic energy of a gas (ii) Kinetic energy per unit volume
(iii) Kinetic energy per mole or kilomole (iv) Kinetic energy per molecule
(v) Kinetic energy per unit mass.
Ans: (i) Kinetic energy of a gas: Using kinetic theory of gasses

1 M 2
P CRMS
3 V
 3PV  MC2RMS
3 1
 PV  MC2
2 2
1
But MC2RMS  kinetic energy of a gas
2
3
Kinetic energy of a gas  PV
2
(ii) Kinetic energy per unit volume: Kinetic energy per unit volume
kinetic energy of a gas

 [energy density of a gas]
Volume of a gas
3
PV
3
 2  P
V 2
(iii) Kinetic energy per mole or kilomole: for an ideal gas PV = nRT we have, kinetic energy of
3
a gas  PV
2
3
Kinetic energy of a gas  nRT
2
As n, R are constant  kinetic energy  T For one mole or kilomole of gas (n = 1)
Kinetic energy of a gas = kinetic energy per mole or kilomole
3
Kinetic energy per mole or kilomole  RT  PV  nRT
2
(iv) Kinetic energy per molecule: Kinetic energy per molecule =

kinetic energy per kilomole or mole

Avogadros number N o
3 RT

2 N0
R
But  K, where K is called Boltzmanns constant
N0
3
Kinetic energy per molecule  KT
2
(v) Kinetic energy per unit mass: Kinetic energy per unit mass (K.E. per gm or kg)
3
RT
kinetic enery per kilomole or mole 2 3RT
 `  
Molecular weight Mo 2M o
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Q.10 State Charle’s law and Dalton’s law.

Ans. Charle’s law : If the pressure is constant, the volume of a dry gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature.
i.e. V  T
Dalton’s law : The resultant (total ) pressure of a mixture of ideal gases is the sum of partial
pressures. This is Dalton’s law of partial pressures.
P= P1+P2+ ----------------- where P1 .P2 ---------are partial pressures.
Q.11 Explain Maxwell distribution of molecules speeds with necessary graph.

Ans. For a gas, due to collisions of molecules the speeds
and the directions of the molecules change. At a given
temperature the root mean square speed of the
molecules of a gas is constant.
Maxwell solved the problem of the distribution of
speeds in a gas containing a large number of
molecules.
The mathematical relation for the most probable
distribution of speeds molecules of a gas given by Maxwell is called Maxwell’s law of distribution of
molecule speeds or “Maxwell distribution”.Let ‘dN’be the of molecules with speeds between v and v
+ dv, which is proportionate to dv. The graph of nv , the interval between v and v + dv against v is as
shown in the figure. The fraction of the molecules with speed v and v + dv is equal to the area of the
strip as shown in graph.
Q.12 Define Principal specific heats of a gas

Ans: (i) Principal Specific heat at constant volume(Cv): It is the quantity of heat required to raise
the temperature of a unit mass of a gas through 1oC or 1 K, when its volume is kept
constant.
(ii) Principal Specific heat at constant pressure (Cp): It is the quantity of heat required to
raise the temperature of a unit mass of gas through 1oC or 1 K, when its pressure is kept
constant.
Q.13 Define Molar heats at constant volume and Molar specific heat at constant pressure:
Ans: (i) Molar specific heat at constant volume (Cv): It is defined as the quantity of heat required
to raise the temperature of one mole of a gas through 1 K or 1oC at constant volume.
(ii) Molar specific heat of a gas at constant pressure (CP): It is defined as the quantity of
heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of a gas through 1 K or 1oC at constant
pressure.
Q. 14 Explain the degree of freedom.
Ans. Degree of freedom – The total number of possible independent ways in which the position and
configuration of a mechanical system may change is called the degree of freedom of that system.
If molecule is constrained to move along a line, it requires one co-ordinate to locate it i.e. it has one
degree of freedom for motion in a line.
If a molecule is free to move in a plane, its position at any instant is completely known by
knowing its displacement along x-axis and y-axis. So it has two degrees of freedom.
Similarly three degrees of freedom for a motion in a space.
In general, the number of degrees of freedom of mechanical system is equal to the total number of
coordinates required to specify the positions of all the constituent particles minus the number of
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independent relations between the constituents particles. If A be the number of particles in asystem
and R the number of independent relation between them, then the number N of degrees of
freedom is given by
N  3A  R
e.g. I) monoatomic gas - He, Ne, Li etc
A = 1
R = 0
N = 3  1  0  3 degrees of freedom (3 Translational)
II) Diatomic gas - O2 , N 2 , H 2 etc R = 1
R = 1 O O
A = 2
N = 3  2  1  5 degrees of freedom (3 ranslational + 2 Rotational)
III) Triatomic gas
a) Linear triatomic molecule
R = 2 R R
A = 3
N = 3  3  2  7 degrees of freedom
b) Non- linear triatomic gas
R = 3 R R
A = 3
N - 3  3  3  6 degrees of freedom
R
Q.15 State and explain law of equipartition od energy :
Ans. Law of equipartion of energy : For a dynamical system in thermal equilibrium, the energy of the
system is equally distributed amongst the various degree of freedom and the energy associated with
1
each degree of freedom per molecule is KT , where K is Boltzmann constant.
2
Proof: Consider one mole of a monoatomic gas in thermal equilibrium at temperature T. In this case
each gas molecule has three degrees of freedom due to translational motion.
According to the Kinetic theory of gasses, the average translational Kinetic energy of a gas
molecule is given by
1 2 3
mc  KT       (I)
2 2
The rms velocity ‘c’ can be resolved into three rectangular compounds v x , v y and v z such that
equation (I) may be written as
1 3
m (v 2x  v 2y  v 2z )  KT       (II)
2 2
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Since the average K.E. of the molecule along each of three axes is the same
1 1 1
m v 2x  mv 2y  mv z2        (III)
2 2 2
combining equation (II) and (III)
1 1 1 1
mv 2x  mv 2y  mv2z  KT
2 2 2 2
1
 energy associated with each molecule per degree freedom = KT (constant)
2
Q.16 Explain application of specific Heat Capacities of gases.
Ans. (a) Monoatomic Gases : The molecule of monoatomic gas has only three translational degrees
of freedom.
3
 The average energy of a molecule at temperature T is K B T and the total internal energy of a
2
3 3
mole of such a gas is U  K B T  N A  RT
2 2
If CV is the molar specific heat at constant volume, then dU  CV d T
dU 3
 CV (monoatomic gas)   R
dT 2
For an ideal gas, C p  Cv  R
Where C P is the molar specific heat at constant pressure.
3 5
 CP  CV  R  R  R  R and the ratio of specific heats
2 2
5
R
CP 5
   2 
CV 3 3
R
2
(b) Diatomic Gases : A diatomic molecule is considered as a rigid rotator, has 5 degrees of
freedom like dumbbell.
Using the law of equipartition of energy, the total internal energy of a mole of diatomic gas is
5 5
U  K B T  N A  RT
2 2
If CV is the molar specific heat at constant volume, then dU  CV d T
dU 5
 CV (diatoatomic gas)   R
dT 2
5 7
For an ideal gas, C p  Cv  R  CP  CV  R  R  R  R and the ratio of specific heats
2 2
Where C P is the molar specific heat at constant pressure.
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For molar specific heats at constant pressure and constant volume for rigid diatomic molecule are
7 5
given as CP  R and CV  R
2 2
7
  (for rigid diatomic) 
5
If the diatomic molecule is not rigid, then it has additional vibrational mode.
5 
 U   K B T  K BT  N A
2 
7
U  RT
2
7 9 9
and CV  R, CP  R and  
2 2 7
(c) Polyatomic Gases : A polyatomic molecule has 3 translational, 3 rotational degrees of
freedom and a certain number (f) of vibrational modes.
By the law of equipartition of energy, one mole of such a gas has
3 3 
U   K BT  K BT  f K BT  N A
2 2 
dU
CV   (3 / 2 R  3 / 2  fR)
dT
i.e CV  (3  f ) R
and CP  (4  f ) R
4 f
  
3 f
Note : The relation C P  CV  R is true for any ideal gas, whether mono, di or polyatomic.
Q.17 Using law of equipartition of energy, determine specific heat of solid and water.
Ans. Consider a solid of ‘N’ atoms, each vibrating about its mean position.
1
An oscillation in one dimension has average energy of 2  K B T  K B T
2
For a mole of solid, N  N A
 Total energy U = 3 K B T  N A
 U  3RT
At constant pressure dQ  dU  PdV
dQ dU
Since for solid dV is negligible,  C    3R
dT dT
If we treat water like a solid, then for each atom, average energy is 3 K B T . Water
molecule has three atoms.  U  3  3K B T  N A  9 RT
dQ dU
C    9R
dT dT
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Q.18 State Zeroth Law , first law and second law of thermodynamics.
Ans. (A) Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics : Zeroth law of thermodynamics can be stated as “ If two
bodies P and Q are in thermal equilibrium and also P and R are in thermal equilibrium then Q and R
also in thermal equilibrium.” This law introduces the the concept of temperature to measure the
coldness and hotness of the body.
First law of Thermodynamics : When a quantity of heat is supplied to system then the quantity
of heat absorbed by the system is equal to the sum of the increase in the internal energy of the
system and the external work done by the system.
d Q  dU  dW
Second law of Thermodynamics : Mechanical work can be converted completely into heat but
heat cannot be completely converted into mechanical work.
OR
It is impossible to make heat flow from a body at lower temperature to a body at a higher
temperature without doing external work on the working substance.
Q.19 What is Isothermal process and Adiabatic process?

Ans. Isothermal Process : A process in which the temperature of the system is kept fixed throughout
is called an isothermal process.
For an isothermal process (T fixed), the ideal gas equation gives, PV = constant, which is
Boyle’s law.
Adiabatic Process : It is an insulated system from the surrounding and heat absorbed or released
is zero. For an adiabatic process of an ideal gas, PV Y = constant.
Q.20 What is heat engine? Describe its working and find formula for its thermal efficiency.
Ans. Heat engine : Heat engine is a device used for converting heat energy into mechanical energy.
A heat engine consists essentially of the following parts.
i) Source or heat reservoir : It is the supplier of heat energy and is always at higher temperature.
ii) Sink or cold reservoir: That heat which has not been converted into work is rejected to the
sink at lower temperature.
iii) Working substance: It absorbs a certain quantity of heat from the source, converts a part of it
into work and rejects the removing heat to the sink. At the end of each cycle, the working
substance is restored to its original condition and there is no change in its internal energy. The
block diagram of heat engine is shown in following fig.
Thermal efficiency of heat engine : It is defined as the ratio of the net external work done by the
engine during one cycle to the heat absorbed from the source during that cycle. It is denoted by  .
output W
Efficiency    Where Q1 is the heat input i.e.heat absorbed by the system in one
input Q1
cycle and w is the work done on environment in a cycle.
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Since in a cycle a certain amount of heat Q 2 may also be rejected to the environment (sink). So
applying first law of thermodynamics, we get
W  Q1  Q 2
i.e. W Q
 1 2
Q1 Q1
For Q 2  0,   1 i.e. engine will have 100% efficiency in converting heat into work which is
impossible for any type of heat engine.
Q.21 What is refrigerator? Describe its working and coefficient of performance.

Ans. Refrigerator is a device which works just in reverse order of heat engine.
In actual refrigerator, the vapors of some low boiling point liquid like ammonia or freon act as the
working substance. The working substance absorbs a certain quantity of heat Q 2 from cold body
(sink) at lower temperature T2 . In a household refrigerator the ice cubes in the freezer compartment
and food constitute the cold body. A certain amount of work W is performed by the compressor of
the refrigerator on the working substance. The compressor is operated by an electric motor. The
quantity of heat Q1 is rejected to the hot body (atmosphere) at temperature T1K by the
radiator.
Coefficient of Performance : It is defined as the ratio of the quantity of heat extracted per cycle
from the contents of the refrigerator to the mechanical work W done by the external agency to do
so. It is denoted by  .
Q
 2
W
Applying first law of thermodynamics
Q2
W  Q1  Q 2 or 
Q1  Q2
In actual practice,  can be greater than 1 (from 2 to 6)
Q.22 What are the different modes of heat transfer?
Ans: Heat is a form of energy and it can transfer from one point to another point.
(i) Conduction: Conduction is a mode of heat transfer through material medium without
actual migration of medium particles. It generally occurs in solids.
(ii) Convection: Convection is a mode of heat transfer from one region to another region of
medium by actual motion of heated medium particles. It generally occurs in fluids.
(iii) Radiation: Radiation is a made of heat transfer by which heat is transferred from one
point to another point in the form of electromagnetic waves.
It does not require any material medium. The heat transferred by radiation process is
known as radiant heat. It is denoted by Q.
Page 115
Q.23 What is radiation? What are its properties?

Ans: Transfer of heat energy from one place to another in the form of electromagnetic waves is called as
radiation.
(i) These waves do not require any medium for propagation.
(ii) They are transmitted equally in all directions
(iii) Heat energy is propagated in the form of electromagnetic waves.
(iv) They travel in a straight line.
(v) These wave have the same properties as of light, that is, rectilinear propagation, reflection,
refraction, interference, diffraction.
(vi) Velocity of radiant heat in vacuum is equal to velocity of light in vacuum i.e., 3  108 m/s.
(vii) When the radiant energy is incident on a surface, it is absorbed and is converted into heat and
the temperature of the substance is raised.
(viii) The wavelength of these waves ranges from 106 m to 103 m.
(ix) It is not deflected by electrical or magnetic field.
1
(x) It obeys the inverse square law i.e. I  2 .
d
(xi) Does not heat the medium appreciably.
(xii) They can be polarized.
Q.24 What is a perfectly black body? State is properties. Give suitable examples.
Ans: The body which completely absorbs all heat radiations incident on it, is called as a perfectly black
body.
Properties:
(i) It absorbs all the heat radiations incident on it, i.e., a = 1
(ii) It does not reflect or transmit heat radiation, i.e. r = 0 and t = 0.
(iii) Its coefficient of emission is equal to one, i.e. e=1. It is a very good emitter of heat.
(iv) At a given temperature, its emissivity is greater than any other body.
(v) It cannot exist in nature.
Example:
(i) Lamp black platinum black are treated as perfectly black bodies for practical purposes. For
lamp black, ‘a’ is near about 0.96 and for platinum black, ‘a’ is near about 0.98.
Q.25 Define the coefficient of absorption ‘a’ coefficient of reflection ‘r’ and coefficient of transmission ‘t’.
Hence show that a + r + t = 1
Ans: Coefficient of absorption or absorptive power or absorptive (a):
The coefficient of absorption of a body is defined as the ratio of the quantity of radiant energy
absorbed by the body in a given time to the quantity of radiant energy incident on the body in the
same time.
Q
Coefficient of absorption a  a
Q
Coefficient of reflection or reflecting power or reflectivity (r):
The Coefficient of reflection of a body is defined as the ratio of the quantity of radiant energy
reflected by the body in a given time to the quantity of radiant energy incident on the body in the
same time.
Q
Coefficient of reflection r  r
Q
Coefficient of transmission or transmissive power or transmissivity (t):

The Coefficient of transmission of a body is defined as the ratio of the
quantity of radiant energy transmitted through the body in a given time to
Page 116
the quantity of radiant energy incident on the body in the same time.
Q
Coefficient of transmission t  t
Q
Relation between coefficient a,r and t (i.e. a + r + t = 1)
Let Q unit of radiant heat be incident on the surface of a body. Part of the heat is reflected (Qr), a part
of the heat is transmitted (Qt) and the remaining heat is absorbed (Qa)
From the principle of conservation of energy
Q  Qr  Qa  Qt
Dividing the above equation by Q, we get
Q Qr Qa Qt
  
Q Q Q Q
Q Q Q
1 r  a  t
Q Q Q
Q
Since r  r (coefficient of reflection)
Q
Qt
 t (coefficient of transmission)
Q
Qa
 a (coefficient of absorption)
Q
 a  r  t 1
Q.26 Explain ferry’s perfectly black body:

Ans: It is a double-walled hollow metallic sphere having a small aperture through which heat can enter.
The space between the walls is evacuated. The inner surface has a small conical projection in front of
aperture. Its interior is coated with lamp black. The hole is directed towards the source of radiation.
Any heat which enters this sphere undergoes multiple reflections. At each reflection, 98% of the
incident heat is absorbed.This continues till the entire heat entering the sphere is absorbed after a few
reflections.
Any heat which is incident along the axis of the sphere or along the diameter is not allowed to
be reflected back by providing a conical projection exactly in front of the opening. This cone scatters
the heat inside the sphere where it is completely absorbed. The effective area of the perfectly black
body, is the area of the apertureIn this way a perfectly black body can be realized in practice.
Q.27 Explain the spectrum of black body radiation in term of wavelength.

Ans. The study of spectrum of black body radiation in terms of wacelength was carried out by Lummer
and Pringsheim maintaining the black body at different temperatures. The intensity of radiation
corresponding to the different wavelengths was measured at different fixed temperaturesof the
source. A graph of the variation of intensity of radiation ( E ) with the wave length  at different
constant temperatures was plotted.The following conclusion can be drawn fromthe graph (curves)
i) At each temperature, the black body emits continuous heat radiation spectrum.
Page 117
ii) The energy associated with the radiation ofa particular

wavelength increases with increase in temperature of the black
body.
iii) At a given temperature of the black body, the amount of energy
associated with the radiation initially increases with
wavelength and after becoming maximum corresponding to a
wavelength max , it decreases. In other words, the energy
distribution is not uniform.The wavelength max corresponding
to which energy associatedis maximum is called the
wavelength of the maximum emission.iv) The area under each
curve represents the total energyemitted by the perfect black
body per second per unit area over the complete wavelength
range at that temperature.
v) peak of E versus  curve shifts towards the left it means as
temperature increases, value of max decreases.
Q.28 State Wien’s displacement law.

Ans: Wien’s displacement law states that the wavelength for which emissive power of blackbody is
maximum is inversely proportional to the temperature of the black body. This law is called
displacement law because as temperature increases the maximum intensity of radiation emitted by
it gets shifted or displaced towards the shorter wavelength side.
1
max 
T
1
 max  b  where b is called as Wien's constant and its values is 2.898 × 10-3 mK
T
Q 29. What are athermanous substances and diathermanous substance.
Ans: Athermanous substances: substances which do not transmit any incident heat radiations
(i.e. opaque to heat radiations) are called as athermanous substances. For athermanous substances
a + r = 1 and coefficient of transmission t = 0.
Water, Wood, Iron, Copper, Lamp black water vapour are athermanous substances.
Diathermanous substances: The substances which are transparent to heat radiations (through which
heat radiations can pass) are called as diathermanous substances. A diathermanous substances body
is neither a good absorber nor a good reflector.Glass, quartz, sodium chloride, hydrogen, oxygen, dry
air, rock salts are diathermanous substances.
Q 30. Define the emissive power and the emissivity of a body. State clearly the factors on which they
depend. State their units.
Ans: Emissive power: Emissive power of a body at a given temperature is defined as the quantity of
radiant energy emitted by the body per unit time per unit surface area of the body at that
temperature, Every body radiates energy at all temperatures except at the absolute zero
temperature.
If Q = amount of radiant energy emitted
A = surface area of body
t = time for which body radiates energy.
Q
The emissive power of the body at given temperature is E  ….(i)
At
Page 118
SI Unit of emissive power is J/m2 s or W/m2

It has dimensions [M1 L0 T3]
Emissive power of a body depends on:
(i) temperature of the body
(ii) nature of the body
(iii) surface area of the surroundings
(iv) nature of the surroundings
Emissive power of perfectly black body is always greater than any other body at same
temperature. The emissive power of some surface are given below Lamp black-98%, Aluminium
paint-33%, platinum-11%, copper-5%, silver-3%
Coefficient of emission (emissivity)

Coefficient of emission of the body is the ratio of emissive power of the body at a given
temperature to the emissive power of a perfectly black body at the same temperature.
Coefficient of emission is also called as emissivity.
E
Coefficient of emission e  ……(ii)
Eb
Where E = Emissive power of a body. at given temperature.
Eb = Emissive power of perfectly black body at same given temperature.
For perfectly black body, e = 1
For perfectly reflector, e = 0
For ordinary bodies, e < 1
Good absorber is good emitter of heat.
Q.31 Define Absorptive power.

Ans: Absorptive power of a body at a given temperature is defined as the amount of radiant energy
absorbed per unit area per unit time by a surface at that temperature.
Q 32. State Kirchhoff’s law of radiation and give a simple theoretical proof of it.
Ans: Kirchhoff’s law of radiation states that the coefficient of absorption of a body is equal to its
coefficient of emission at any given temperature.
a =e
E
But coefficient of emission e 
Eb
E E
 a  or  E b
Eb a
Theoretical proof (Thought experiment):
(i) Consider an ordinary body O and a perfectly black
body B suspended in a constant temperature
Constant
enclosure of same surface area temp.
(ii) Bodies O and B radiate heat to enclosure and
enclosure also radiates heat to the bodies, after O B
Black body
sometime, temperature of both the bodies will
become same as that of temperature of
enclosure.
(iii) Let,
a = coefficient of absorption of body O, Ordinary
body
e = coefficient of emission of body O,
E = emissive power of body O,
Eb = emissive power of black body B,
Q = amount of heat radiation incident on each body per unit area per unit time.
Page 119
For ordinary body O:

(i) The radiant heat energy absorbed per unit time per unit area by an ordinary body O = a Q
(ii) The radiant heat energy emitted per unit time per unit area by ordinary body O = E
(iii) As the temperature of body O remains constant, i.e at thermal equilibrium.
 E=aQ ….(i)
For perfectly black body B:
(i) The radiant heat energy absorbed per unit time per unit area by perfectly black body B = Q.
(ii) The radiant heat energy emitted per unit time per unit area by perfectly black body B = Eb
(iii) As the temperature of body B remains constant,
 Eb = Q ….(ii)
(iv) Dividing equation (i) by (ii), we get
E aQ

Eb Q
E
 a
Eb
E
But,  e  coefficient of emission
Eb
 e=a
 ae
i.e. coefficient of absorption = coefficient of emission

Hence, Kirchhoff’s law is proved.
Q.33. State and explain Stefan’s Law of radiation.

Ans: The amount of radiant heat emitted by a perfectly black body per unit area per unit time (Eb) is
directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
Let,
Eb = emissive power of perfectly black body.
T = absolute temperature of perfectly black body.
 Eb  T 4
 Eb = (constant) T4
 Eb =  T4
Where,  = Stefan’s constant
= 5.67  108 J/m2 sK4.
Explanation:
Let, Q = amount of heat radiation emitted by perfectly black body
A = area of perfectly black body
t = time for which perfectly black body emits energy
T = absolute temperature of perfectly black body
Q
Eb 
At
Page 120
According to Stefan’s law,

 Eb  T 4
Q
 T4
At
Q
   T4
At
 Q  A t T 4
This law is also known as Fourth power law or Stefan’s law.

If To is the absolute temperature of the surroundings, then the net rate of loss of heat is
given as,
dQ
  A (T 4  T04 )
dt
dQ d
The net rate of loss of heat is also given as, m s ( dQ  ms d )
dt dt
where d / dt is the rate of fall of temperature or the rate of cooling.
d
 ms   A(T 4  T04 )
dt
From this relation, the rate of cooling (d / dt ) can be found i.e.
d  A 4
 (T  T04 )
dt ms
The emissive power (E) of any ordinary body can be found by using the relation.
E = e ( T4)  E = e .  . T4
where e is the emissivity of the given body.
dQ
For this body the rate of radiation is given as  e  A T4
dt
dQ
The net rate of radiation is given as  e  A (T 4  T04 )
dt
Q.34 State and explain Newton’s Law of cooling. Write its limitations.
Ans: Newton’s law of Cooling states that the rate of loss of heat by the body is directly proportional to
the excess of temperature of the body over the surroundings provided the excess is small.
Let  be the temperature of the body and 0 be the temperature of the surroundings.
dQ
The rate of loss of heat  (   0 )
dt
dQ
  K (   0 )
dt
Where K is the constant of proportionality.
Page 121
d
If m is the mass of the body, S be the specific heat of body and is the rate of fall of temperature then
dt
rate of loss of heat = mass  specific heat  rate of fall of temperature.
dQ  d 
 ms  
dt  dt 
dQ
But  K (  0 )
dt
d K
  (   0 )
dt ms
As K. m and s are constant
d
  (   0 )
dt
Alternative statement of Newton’s Law of cooling is, the rate of fall of temperature or rate
of cooling of the body is directly proportional to the excess of temperature of the body over
surroundings, provided the excess is small.
Limitations of Newton’s law of cooling:

(i) It can be used only when the excess temperature of the body over surrounding is small.
(ii) This law is not a radiation law since energy is also lost by convection and conduction.
Q.35 Write a note on Greenhouse Effect.

Ans. Earth’s surface absorbs thermal energy from sun and becomes a source of thermal radiation. The
wavelength of this radiation lies in infrared region. A large portion of this thermal radiation is
absorbed by greenhouse gases, namely carbon dioxide (CO2 ) , methane (CH 4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N 2 O )
, Chlorofluorocarbons and tropospheric ozone (O3 ) , which heats up the atmosphere and gives more
energy to earth, resulting in warmer surface. Due to this, the intensity of radiation increases, from the
earth’s surface. The above process is repeated until no radiation is available for absorption. This
heating up of earth’s surface and atmosphere is known as Greenhouse effect. Without the
Greenhouse effect, the temperature of the earth would have been - 180 C.
Concentration of Greenhouse gases have enhanced due to human activities, making the earth
warmer. According to a an estimate, average temperature of earth has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 0 C,
since the beginning of this century and by the middle of the next century, the earth’s global
temperature may be 10 C to 30 C higher than today.
This global warming may cause many problems for human life, plants and animals. Due to global
warming ice caps are melting faster, sea level is rising and weather pattern is changing, commom
coastal cities are at the risk of getting submerged. The increase in Greenhouse effect may result in
expansion of deserts. Efforts are being made to minimise the effect of global warming.
Page 122
Formulae
S.I. Unit
1. 1 N/m2 or Pa
P  C2
3
2. kg/m3
-A O A
3. mean 
N mB

m/s
position S N B
mB
S
4. 3P m/s
C

5. C1 T1

C2 T2
6. C1 M2

C2 M1
7. C1 T1M 2

C2 T2 M 1
8. 3P J/m3
K.E. / unit volume 
2
9. 3 J/mole
K.E. / mole  RT
2
10. 3 RT 3 J/molecule
K.E. molecule   kT
2 N0 2
11. 3 RT J/kg
K.E. / kg =
2 M'
12. PV = nRT N-m
13. m N-m
PV= RT
M'
14. Specific heat of gases J/mol K
5 3
1. for monoatomic gases CP = R Cv  R
2 2
9 7
2. For diatomic Gases C p  R CV  R
2 2
Specific heat of Solid C = 3R
Specific heat of Water = C  9 R
15 a+r+t=1
No unit
16 Qa
a No unit
Q
17 Q
r r No unit
Q
18 Q
t t No unit
Q
Page 123
19 Q
E J/m2s or kcal/m2 – s
At
20 E
Emissivity e  For a perfectly body, e = 1 No unit
Eb
21 Kirchhoff’s law states that Coefficient of absorption = Coefficient
No unit
of emission i.e. a = e
22 dQ
Rate of loss of heat due to radiation by a body,   e AT 4 J/s or watt
dt
23 dQ
The net loss of heat due to radiation   e A [T 4  T04 ] J/s or watt
dt
24 Q
Specific heat is given by C  J/kg oC
m 
25 d K o
   0  C/sec
dt ms
26 b
Wien’s Displacement Law: max  where b = 2.898  103 mK m
T
Problems.
1. If the R.M.S. velocity of hydrogen molecules at N.T.P. is 1840 m/s; determine the R.M.S. velocity
of oxygen molecules at N.T.P.
[Ans: 460 m/s]
2. Find the mean square speed of three molecules having speed 10 m/s, 20 m/s and 30 m/s
respectively.
[Ans: 466.7 m2/s2]
3. Calculate the R.M.S. velocity of oxygen molecules at N.T.P. (Density of oxygen at N.T.P. = 1.43
kg/m3, Density of mercury = 13600 kg/m3, Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/s2).
[Ans: 461 m/s]
4. The R.M.S velocity of oxygen molecules at 0oC is 460.9 m/s. Find the R.M.S. velocity of
hydrogen molecules at the same temperature. The molecular weights of oxygen and hydrogen are
32 and 2 respectively.
[Ans: 1843.6 m/s]
5. Calculate the R.M.S. value of hydrogen at 227oC, if its R.M.S. velocity at N.T.P. is 1845 m/s.
6. At what temperature will oxygen molecules have the same R.M.S. velocity of oxygen molecules at
900 K. (M.W. of hydrogen = 2.M.W. of oxygen = 32)
[Ans: 2184 K]
7. Find the number of molecules in 1 cm3 of oxygen at N.T.P., if the mass of an oxygen molecule is
5.28  1026 kg and its R.M.S. speed at N.T.P. is 426 m/s (normal pressure = 1.013  105 N/m2]
[Ans: 3.172  1019]
8. Compare the R.M.S. velocity of hydrogen molecules at 400 K with the R.M.S. velocity of oxygen
molecules at 900 K. (M.W. of hydrogen = 2 M.W. of oxygen = 32)
[Ans: CR.M.S. (H2) : CR.M.S. (O2) = 8 : 3]
9. At normal pressure, 1 kg of ice occupies 1.1  103 m3. The volume changes to 103 m3 when it is
melted. Find the internal latent heat of ice. (Latent heat of fusion of ice = 80 kcal/kg, Density of
mercury = 13600 kg/m3, J 4200 J/kcal)
[Ans: 80.0024 kcal/kg]
Page 124
10. Find the kinetic energy (i) per cm3 (ii) per mole (iii) per gram and (iv) per molecule of oxygen
[Ans: (i) 1.519  106 ergs/cm3 (ii) 3.405  1010 ergs/mole
(iii) 1.064  109 ergs/ gram (iv) 5.653  1014 erg/molecule]
11. A copper sphere has surface area 3.142  102 m2 and its emissivity is 0.018. Find the energy
radiated by the sphere per second, when its temperature is 100oC. ( = 5.67  108 W/m2K4)
[Ans: 0.6207 J]
12. The emissive power of a sphere of area 0.02m2 is 0.5 kcal/sm2. What is the amount of hear
radiated by the spherical surface in 20 seconds?
[Ans: 0.2 Kcal]
13. The energy of 6000 J is radiated in 5 minutes by a body of surface are 100 cm2. Find emissive
power of a body.
[Ans: 2000 J/m2s]
14. Compare rate of radiation of radiation of metal sphere at 627oC and 327oC.
[Ans: 5.0625 :1]
15. Calculate the energy radiation in one minute by a black body of surface area 100 cm2 when it is
maintained at 227oC. Given  = 5.67  108 J/m2sk4
[Ans: 30oC]
16. A hot metal sphere cools from 60oC to 52oC in 5 minutes and from 52oC to 44oC in next 7.5
minutes. Determine its temperature in the next 10 minutes.
[Ans: 38oC]
17. A body cools from 60oC to 52oC un 10 minutes and to 45oC in the next 10 minutes find the
temperature of surrounding.
[Ans: 28oC]
18. A hot body is kept in cooler surrounding. It’s rate of colong is 2o C/min, when it’s temperature is
60oC and 10 C/min. When it’s temperature is 45oC. Determine the temperature of surrounding and
find the rate of cooling when the temperature of body is 40oC.
[Ans: 30oC, 0.6666o c/min]
19. A body cools from 80oC to 70oC in 5 minutes and to 62oC in the next 5 minutes. Calculate
temperature of the surrounding.
[Ans: 30oC]
20. The velocities of three molecules of a gas are 2 ms-1 , 3 ms-1 and 4 ms-1 . Find, The
mean velocity and RMS velocity of the molecules. [March 2008]
19. A heated ball is placed in cooler surroundings. Its rate of cooling is 2 C per minute when
its temperature is 60 C and 1.2 C per minute when its temperature is 52 C . Determine
the temperature of the surroundings; and the 0.6 C per minute. [March 2008]
20. If the r.m.s. velocity of oxygen molecules at N.T.P. is 460 m/s, determine the r.m.s. velocity of
hydrogen molecules at N.T.P. [ Molecular weight of oxygen = 32, molecular weight of hydrogen =
2] [Oct 2009]
21. A metl sphere cools at the rate of 4 C per minute at the temperature of 60 C. calculate the rate of
cooling at 40 C, if temperature of the surrounding is 30 C. [March 2010]
3
22. Calculate the kinetic energy of helium molecules in 1 cm at pressure 2 atmosphere.
(I atmosphere = 1.013 x 105 N/m2) [March 2011]
23. A copper bll cools from 60 C to 50 C in 10 minutes and 42 C in the next 10 minutes. Calculate the
temperature of the ball at the end of next 8 minutes. [March 2011]
Page 125
24. Assuming stefan’s law. Compare the rate of loss of heat by the body at temperature 527 C and 127
C. if the temperature of the surrounding is 27° C. [Oct 2011]
25. Calculate the kinetic energy of 10 gram of Argon moles at 127 C.(universal gas constant R =8320
J/K mole K atomic weight of Argon = 40) (Ans: K.E=1248 J) [March 2013]
6
26. The kinetic energy of nitrogen per unit mass at 300 K is 2.5 x 10 J/Kg. Find the kinetic energy of 4
kg oxygen at 600 k. ( Molecular weight of nitrogen = 28, Molecular weight of oxygen = 32)
(Ans =1.75x107 J) [Oct 2013]
27. Calculate the average molecular kinetic energy: a. per kilomole b.per kilogram of oxygen at 27 C
[R= 8320 J/K mole K, Avogadros number = 6.03 x 1026 molecules / K mole]
(Ans: K.E/Kmole =3.744x10 6 J K.E/Kg =1.17x105 J) [Oct 2014]
28. A pinhole is made in a hollow sphere of radius 5 cm whose inner wall is at temperature 727 C . Find
the power radiated per unit area.[ Stefan’s constant = 5.7 x 10-8 J/m2sK4 emissivity (e) = 0.2]
(Ans: 1.14x104 watt/m2) [Oct 2015]
29. Compute the temperature at which the r.m.s. speed of nitrogen molecules is 832 m/s.[universal gas
constant, R 8320 J/k mole K, molecular weight of nitrogen = 28.]
(Ans T= 776.6K) [Oct 2015]
30. A metal sphere cools at rate of 4 C/ mim. When its temperature is 50 C. Find its rate of cooling at
45 C if the temperature of surrounding is 25 C.
(Ans:3.2 0 C/min) [ Oct 2016]
0 0
31. A body cools at the rate of 0.5 C / min. when it is 25 C above the surroundings. C alculate the rate
of cooling when it is 150c above the same surroundings
(Ans ; 0.3 0c /min) [March 2017]
Page 126

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JUNIOR SCIENCE COLLEGE

ANDHERI / BORIVALI / DADAR / NERUL / POWAI / THANE

9. KINETIC THEORY OF GASES AND

Q.2 State the assumptions of the kinetic theory of gases

motion. Due to their random motion the molecules constantly

successive collisions, a molecule travels with a uniform velocity in a

collisions is called the free path”.

Q.4 Explain the terms:

Q.5 On the basis of Kinetic Theory of gas, obtain an expression

Let C1 , C 2 ,.... C N be the velocities of the molecules.

changein momentum of the wall PQRS

mu12 mu22 muN2

As pressure exerted by the gas molecules is the same in all directions,

[w12  w22  ....  wN2 ]

2 C12  C22  .....  C N2

Using this, in equation we, get,

Since, R,n and N are constant.

Ans: (i) Kinetic energy of a gas: Using kinetic theory of gasses

kinetic energy of a gas

(iv) Kinetic energy per molecule: Kinetic energy per molecule =

Q.10 State Charle’s law and Dalton’s law.

Q.11 Explain Maxwell distribution of molecules speeds with necessary graph.

Q.12 Define Principal specific heats of a gas

Q. 14 Explain the degree of freedom.

Similarly three degrees of freedom for a motion in a space.

a) Linear triatomic molecule

b) Non- linear triatomic gas

combining equation (II) and (III)

Q.16 Explain application of specific Heat Capacities of gases.

Q.19 What is Isothermal process and Adiabatic process?

Q.21 What is refrigerator? Describe its working and coefficient of performance.

Q.22 What are the different modes of heat transfer?

Q.23 What is radiation? What are its properties?

Coefficient of transmission or transmissive power or transmissivity (t):

Q.26 Explain ferry’s perfectly black body:

Q.27 Explain the spectrum of black body radiation in term of wavelength.

ii) The energy associated with the radiation ofa particular

Q.28 State Wien’s displacement law.

Q 29. What are athermanous substances and diathermanous substance.

SI Unit of emissive power is J/m2 s or W/m2

Coefficient of emission (emissivity)

Q.31 Define Absorptive power.

For ordinary body O:

i.e. coefficient of absorption = coefficient of emission

Q.33. State and explain Stefan’s Law of radiation.

According to Stefan’s law,

This law is also known as Fourth power law or Stefan’s law.

Limitations of Newton’s law of cooling:

Q.35 Write a note on Greenhouse Effect.

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