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Within cropping season changes in soil

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Article in Soil and Tillage Research · March 2017

DOI: 10.1016/j.still.2016.10.015

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Soil & Tillage Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/still

Short communication

Within cropping season changes in soil physical properties under

no-till in Southern Brazil
Guilherme Anghinonia,* ,1 , Cássio Antonio Tormenab,1, Rattan Lalc,
Wagner Henrique Moreirad, Edner Betioli Júniora , Camila Jorge Bernabé Ferreiraa
a
Postgraduate Program in Agronomy, State University of Maringa, Av. Colombo 5790, CEP 87020-900 Maringa, Parana State, Brazil
b
Department of Agronomy, State University of Maringa, Av. Colombo, 5790, CEP 87020-900 Maringa, Parana State, Brazil
c
School of Environment and Natural Resources, 422B Kottman Hall, 2021 Coffey Rd., Columbus, OH 43210, USA
d
Federal Institue of Mato Grosso do Sul, MS473 road, KM 23, Fazenda Santa Barbara, Nova Andradina, Mato Grosso do Sul State, Brazil

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history:
Received 27 April 2016 Although opening a narrow furrow for seed placement and fertilizer application is the only mechanical
Received in revised form 27 September 2016 disturbance in soils under no-till (NT) production systems, the persistence of effects associated with that
Accepted 29 October 2016 disturbance on physical properties throughout the growing season has not been widely quantified. This
Available online xxx study tested the hypotheses that soil physical properties within the row (R) differ from those in the
interrow (IR) zone under long-term NT, and that the disturbance effects on soil in the R zone persist
Keywords: during the soybean (Glycine max) growing season. The objective of this study was to determine soil
Porosity physical properties under R and IR zones under NT soybean. Thirty undisturbed samples in each zone
Saturated hydraulic conductivity
were obtained during the growth cycle at 15, 52 and 115 days after sowing. Soil properties monitored
Soil air permeability
were bulk density (BD), total porosity (TP), soil water content and air-filled porosity at field capacity (FC
Soil bulk density
and ea, respectively), air permeability (Ka), pore continuity index (K1) and saturated hydraulic
conductivity (Ksat). There were significant differences in all soil physical properties among R and IR zones
when measured 15 days after sowing (DAS). At the 52 and 115 DAS samplings, K1 and Ksat did not differ
between R and IR positions, but significant differences persisted for BD, FC, ea, Ka and TP. BD in R and IR
remained different during the soybean growing season. Despite that, the large difference for BD found in
15DAS (1.34 and 1.04 Mg m 3 for IR and R, respectively), tended to disappear, resulting in values of 1.15
and 1.07 Mg m 3 for IR and R at 115DAS, respectively. A long-term NT soil thus had different physical
properties at R versus IR over a short term after sowing. Soil resilience was evident even over a short term,
improving soil physical quality at IR position. The large contrast in soil physical parameters between R
and IR positions was observed right after sowing, gradually decreasing over time and no longer being
detectable by the end of the growing season.
ã 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction storage and biological activity (Mbuthia et al., 2015), soil

aggregation (Six et al., 2004) and soil water storage (Jemai et al.,
No-till (NT) system is a global strategy for conservation 2013) are usually improved in soil under long-term NT manage-
agriculture (CA), adopted on approximately 155 Mha (Pittelkow ment.
et al., 2015). The soil mechanical disturbance involved in a NT Data obtained from previous research also indicate differences
system is limited to that by furrow opening for seed placement and in physical quality of soil within plant rows (R) and the interrow
fertilizer application. Compared to tilled soils, higher soil organic (IR) space (Betioli Júnior et al., 2014; Silva et al., 2014) under NT.
carbon (SOC) accumulation (Lal, 2015), nutrient cycling, nutrient Thus, it is probable that soil disturbance in the R zone, influenced
by the furrow opening, may be a critical factor to improve soil
physical quality (SPQ) under NT, an effect similar to that caused by
superficial chiseling. High SPQ requires non limiting penetration
* Corresponding author.
resistance to plant roots as well as a balance between soil aeration
E-mail address: gui.anghi@gmail.com (G. Anghinoni).
1
Sponsored by CNPq.
and water availability (Letey, 1985).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2016.10.015
0167-1987/ã 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 G. Anghinoni et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 166 (2017) 108–112 109

The effect of a limited disturbance on soil properties is a and penetration depth of 0.10–0.12 m and inclined at 20 angle. The
debatable issue. While some researchers believe that the effect of wheel traffic of tractors, harvesters and sprayers was randomized
disturbance may not persist for a long time and therefore in the area, as is practiced by farmers in the region.
understanding the mechanisms of these alterations occurring Soil samples were obtained at three times: beginning, middle
during the cropping season is an important question. Ojeniyi and and end of the 2012/2013 soybean cropping season. A transect of
Dexter (1983) reported seasonal changes in macroporosity and the approximately 13.5 m was established perpendicularly to the
percentage of microaggregates within a cropping season, due to soybean rows, where 60 undisturbed soil samples were obtained.
tillage and cover crops. In an experiment of 3 consecutive years in Each sampling position (R and IR) resulted in 30 undisturbed soil
Brazil, Moreira et al. (2016) reported that the effect of tillage in the samples, taken at 15 days after sowing (DAS). In each subsequent
R zone did not persist in the subsequent crop season, and was less sampling time (52 and 115 DAS), soil samples were obtained for the
significant than that caused by soil wetting and drying cycles. same R and IR sites, around 0.5 m away from the initial transect.
Nonetheless, changes in SPQ in a CA system, where tillage is Stainless steel cores (0.048 m internal diameter and 0.05 m high)
limited only in the R zone, has not been focused within a cropping were used to obtain the undisturbed soil samples. Fig. 1
season. Thus, it is critical to assess changes in SPQ in R and IR zones demonstrates the sampling procedure along the three samplings.
during a cropping season under NT. Soil samples were transported to the laboratory for measure-
This study was conducted to test the hypotheses that soil ment of bulk density (BD), soil water content and air-filled porosity
physical properties under R and IR zones differ during the soybean at field capacity (FC and ea, respectively), soil air permeability (Ka),
cropping season under long-term NT, and that the tillage-induced saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat), soil pore continuity index
changes in the R position persist during the same period. The (K1) and total porosity (TP). Soil cores were placed in trays and
specific objective of this study was to assess tillage-induced saturated by capillarity by water immersion to about two-third the
changes in SPQ in the row and inter-row zone during the growing height of the cores. Saturated samples were weighed and subjected
season of soybean in a Rhodic Ferralsol under long-term NT. to the matric potential (Cm) 10 kPa using a tension table (Ball
and Hunter, 1988). At hydraulic equilibrium, each soil sample was
2. Materials and methods weighed again to measure volumetric moisture content at 10 kPa.
According to Reichardt (1990) FC is most appropriately repre-
Soil samples were obtained from a commercial farm in Maringá sented when the soil water content is measured at 10 kPa, for
– PR, Brazil, at 450 m above sea level. The climate of the site is tropical soils of this region. Because of that, FC data in this study
classified as subtropical humid mesothermic (Cfa) according to followed this indication. Ka was determined using a constant air
Köppen classification, with annual average temperature and head permeameter (Figueiredo, 2010). K1 was calculated as
precipitation of 22  C and 1450 mm, respectively. The predominant proposed by Ball et al. (1988), and Ksat was measured using a
soil class of the experimental farm is classified as a Rhodic Ferralsol falling-head method (Reynolds and Elrick, 2002). After the
(WRB, 2006). The particle size analysis indicated 750 g kg 1 clay determination of Ka and Ksat, core samples were oven dried at
and 200 g kg 1 sand content for 0-0.10 m layer, indicating a clayey 105  C for 24 h, to determine BD according to Grossman and
texture. Reinsch (2002). The FC was obtained by the water content at
Land area of 50 ha has been under NT since 1980, and cropped to 10 kPa (Richards and Weaver, 1944), TP according to Danielson
corn (Zea mays)/oat (Avena sativa), soybean (Glycine max (L.) and Sutherland (1986) and ea by the difference between TP and FC.
Merrill)/corn, and soybean/wheat (Triticum aestivum) rotations. All statistical comparisons were performed using the PROC
The soybean crop was seeded on November 28th, 2012 at row TTEST (p < 0.05) of the SAS/STAT analysis package (SAS Institute,
spacing of 0.45 m. Fertilizers were applied in the plant row along 2004). Logarithmical transformation was performed when varia-
with seeding by using a seed drill equipped with frontal cutting bles did not present normal distribution, as proposed by Ball et al.
disc and parabolic shape rods. The rods had thickness of 20 mm (1988) and used by Mentges et al. (2016).

Fig. 1. Sampling methodology scheme of undisturbed soil samples along a transect perpendicular to the soybean rows in the sampling positions row (R) and interrow (IR) at
15 days after sowing (DAS), 52 DAS and 115 DAS.
110 G. Anghinoni et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 166 (2017) 108–112

Table 1 IR, while the remainder indicators (ea, Ka, K1, Ksat and TP) had
Soil physical indicators measured in the row (R) and interrow (IR) zones at 15, 52
higher means in the R zone. Betioli Júnior et al. (2014) also verified
and 115 days after sowing (DAS) of the soybean crop in a Brazilian Rhodic Ferralsol
under long-term NT. values of Ka, ea and K1 to be significantly greater and BD
significantly lower in the R zone for the same cropping region as of
Indicator Position 15 DAS 52 DAS 115 DAS
this study. In addition, Betioli Júnior and colleagues also found
BD IR 1.34 Aa 1.30 Aa 1.15 Ab inverse and direct correlations between BD and Ka, and between ea
R 1.04 Ba 1.05 Ba 1.07 Ba
and Ka, respectively, indicating accord with the results reported
TP IR 0.53 Bb 0.57 Ba 0.59 Ba
R 0.65 Aa 0.64 Aab 0.63 Ab
herein. Higher values of Ksat and Ka also indicate that soil in the R
FC IR 0.41 Ab 0.45 Aa 0.43 Aab zone had higher macroporosity, probably because of higher
R 0.35 Bb 0.39 Ba 0.40 Ba number of soil cracks (Reynolds et al., 2002) caused by the tillage
ea IR 0.11 Bb 0.13 Bb 0.16 Ba during the seeding operation. Therefore, SPQ in 15 DAS indicates
R 0.30 Aa 0.25 Ab 0.23 Ab
that soil in the R zone created a suitable environment for initial
Ka IR 0.33 Ba 0.35 Ba 0.34 Ba
R 1.88 Aa 1.05Ab 1.01Ab plant growth in comparison with that in the IR zone.
K1 IR 1.33 Ba 1.28 Aa 1.21 Aa In the soil sampled at 52 DAS and 115 DAS, BD and FC were still
R 2.44 Aa 1.67 Ab 1.69 Ab higher in the IR zone, as long as TP, K1 and ea maintained higher
Ksat IR 0.41 Bb 1.28 Aa 1.02 Aa
values in the R zone. On the other hand, the magnitude of
R 2.93 Aa 1.6793 Ab 1.291 Ab
difference between these indicators (BD, FC, TP, K1 and ea) in R and
TP, FC, BD, Ksat, Ka, K1 and e(m3 m 3), soil water content at field capacity (m3 m 3), IR zones declined at 115 DAS. For example, the difference in BD of
bulk density (Mg m 3), soil saturated hydraulic conductivity (mm h 1), soil air
soil in the R and IR positions decreased from 0.30 Mg m 3 (15 DAS)
permeability (mm2), soil pore continuity (adimensional), air filled porosity at field
capacity (m3 m 3), respectively. Ka, Ksat and K1 were transformed to logarithmical to 0.08 Mg m 3 (115 DAS). There were no statistical differences in
scale and one unit was added. Equal uppercase letters indicate absence of difference K1 and Ksat for soil in the R and IR positions at 52 DAS and 115 DAS
between positions (R and IR) and equal lowercase letters indicate absence of pointing out that the R position only maintains better soil water
difference between sampling times (15, 52 and 115 DAS) by the T test (p < 0.05).
flow capacity for a short period, just after seeding. This trend
indicates that the slight alterations in soil structure that occurred
between 15 DAS and 52 DAS occurred only in the most sensitive
3. Results and discussion and dynamic soil properties. Ball et al. (1997) reported a strong
impact of soil pore continuity and tortuosity on air permeability.
The data in Table 1 shows average values of soil physical Therefore, the decrease on Ka and Ksat differences during the
indicators for R and IR and each variable for the three samplings. sampling period may be because of the impact of soil pore
For sampling on 15 DAS, soil properties in the R and IR zones continuity, and that pore continuity is indicative of changes in soil
differed in all indicators measured, and SPQ had the clearest physical properties over a short term. Ball et al. (1988) proposed
contrast between sampling positions in comparison to those for the relationship between Ka and ea to estimate indices of pore
the other sampling times. At 15 DAS, BD and FC were higher in the continuity (K1), characterizing functional changes in the soil

a) b) c) IR R
1.5 1.5 1.5
BD (Mg m-3)

1.3 1.3 1.3

1.1 1.1 1.1

0.9 0.9 0.9

0 15 30 0 15 30 0 15 30

d)2.5 e) 2.5 f) 2.5

2.0 2.0 2.0
Ka (μm²)

1.5 1.5 1.5

1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5 0.5
0.0 0.0 0.0
0 15 30 0 15 30 0 15 30

g)0.4 h)0.4 i) 0.4

0.3 0.3 0.3
Ɛa (m3 m-3)

0.2 0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1 0.1
0.0 0.0 0.0
0 15 30 0 15 30 0 15 30
Location Location Location

Fig. 2. BD (a, b and c) Ka (d, e and f) and ea (g, h and i) values along the sampling transect at 15, 52 and 115DAS, respectively. The location axis refers to the location of the
sample on the transect, constituted of 30 R and IR pairs. Bold lines refer to the IR positions, and dashed lines refer to the R positions. Thicker dashed lines represent the
restrictive values (RV) of BD (1,32 Mg m 3), Ka (1 mm2) and ea (0.1 m3 m 3), respectively.
 G. Anghinoni et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 166 (2017) 108–112 111

porous system. Betioli Júnior et al. (2014) mentioned that Ka may Ka values along the transect was less apparent with progressive
reflect changes in soil structure that may not be well described by increase in the duration since seeding. A closer look at the BD, Ka
BD or TP. and ea critical limits at 15 DAS, indicate that soil in the IR position
In the R zone, values of Ka, Ksat, K1, TP and ea decreased during may have created a more restrictive environment to plant growth.
the sampling period, while that of FC increased, indicating Therefore, the critical values, and the lack of difference
probably, that decrease in macroporosity directly influenced air, between R and IR, of BD, Ka and ea attained at 115 DAS
and mostly, water flow through the soil porous system, and also demonstrate that soil conditions influence plant growth similarly
increased water retention. In the R zone, Ka, Ksat, K1, ea and FC in both the R and IR positions. Temporal changes in soil physical
differed between sampling periods of 15 DAS and 52 DAS, while TP attributes in the R and IR positions observed in this study may be
differed only for sampling between 15 DAS to 115 DAS. However, attributed to soil WD, biological factors (such as root growth,
there were no differences in BD in the R zone during the successive earthworm and termites), and possibly due to soil compaction by
samplings, indicating that soil disturbance during the sowing vehicular traffic during the harvesting and sowing operations. The
operation had a persistent effect on BD to the end of the soybean WD can break macroaggregates into microaggregates through
cropping cycle, with a positive impact on plant growth during that contraction, increasing soil porosity (Chinn and Pillai, 2008; Pires
period. et al., 2008). Moreira et al. (2016) observed that WD may impact
In the IR zone, the magnitude of TP, Ksat and ea increased during soil macropores, and macropores-related properties and process-
the sampling period, while that of BD decreased, a response exactly es even over a short time, as indicated by the data presented in
reverse to that observed in the R zone. this study.
Decrease in BD and the attendant increase in TP, ea and Ksat in Beyond the effect of sowing on soil properties in the R position,
the IR position are probably related to an increase in macro- harvesting and planting operations may have also influenced the
porosity, which is positively correlated with water transport in soil large differences observed between soil physical environments
(Reynolds et al., 2002). Kuncoro et al. (2014) also reported decrease between R and IR positions, because of soil compaction by traffic
in ea followed by a decrease in macroporosity. Zhao et al. (2015) (Merten et al., 2015), decreasing SPQ in the IR compared with that
observed an increase in daily infiltration rate as long as the soil was in the R position at 15DAS. Maintenance of SPQ in the R position,
submitted to wetting and drying cycles (WD), and attributed it to observed over the duration of the samplings, may be attributed to
an increase in macroporosity. Despite changes in soil structure, Ka the combination of factors that influence soil structure. These
did not differ statistically between the sampling periods for the IR factors include soil mobilization through furrow opening in a first
position. This trend indicates that soil physical changes did not moment, and in a second moment, the development of plant roots
affect the capacity of soil pore system for air flux in the IR zone, and during the crop development. Therefore, decrease in the difference
that the water transmission was more sensitive to changes in SPQ of SPQ between R and IR positions during the sampling period may
than was air flux. be attributed to the alteration in soil properties within the IR
Betioli Júnior et al. (2012) observed, for the same area, that the position. This alteration was caused probably by a combination of
critical BD (BDc) calculated as the BD in which the Least Limiting interacting factors such as biological activity of roots and micro-
Water Range (LLWR) equals zero was provisionally established to organisms, and WD.
be 1.32 Mg m 3. This value corresponds to the BD in which plants Over a short period after seeding, soil in the R zone had higher
may have restricted or limited root growth, water and nutrient soil pore volume, mostly as macroporosity (air filled porosity), and
uptake. Data in Fig. 2a, b and c shows BD values along the sampling lower BD. Higher air filled porosity also increased the gaseous
transect for each sampling period (15, 52 and 115 DAS, exchange and water transmission through the soil pore system
respectively). At 15 and 52 DAS, all (100%) BD values measured because of the greater soil pore continuity. However, larger flux of
in the R position were lower than the BDc, compared with only 97% water through the porous system did not persist to the end of the
of all values at 115 DAS. In the IR, 37%, 60% and 100% of BD values at cropping season, along with decline in the magnitude of differ-
15 DAS, 52 DAS and 115 DAS, respectively, were lower than the BDc. ences in SPQ in soil under R and IR positions over the growing
The decrease in the difference between the BD values for the R and season.
IR positions from 15 DAS to 115 DAS may be a result, mainly, of the
decrease in BD in soil under IR (0.20 Mg m 3) during this period. 4. Conclusion
Values of ea < 0.1 m3 m 3 (Grable and Siemer, 1968) and
Ka < 1 mm2 (McQueen and Shepherd, 2002) were used in these The hypothesis of this study was not proven. A long-term NT
respective studies as threshold values to analyze plant growth management leads to differences in soil physical properties in the
restriction, because the gaseous exchange reach insufficient levels R and IR positions over a short period after soybean seeding. The
to sustain adequate root oxygenation. Individual values of ea and large contrast in soil physical properties observed between the R
Ka in R and IR positions at 15, 52 and 115 DAS (Fig. 2d, e and f, and and IR positions immediately after seeding undergoes alterations,
Fig. 2g, h and i, respectively) for each sample indicate the decreases over time, and completely disappears by the end of the
percentage of indicators exceeding the critical limits. Response soybean cropping season. Soil resilience is exhibited over a short
similar to that for BD was also observed for Ka and ea. The large term, improving soil physical quality in the IR position. Even
range of Ka and ea values between R and IR positions observed at though the effect of soil disturbance is transient, and decreasing by
15 DAS decreased. The R position restrictive ea values only were the end of the soybean cropping cycle, soil under the R position
observed at 115 DAS (7%). On the other hand, the ea restrictive plays an important role in NT, with a positive effect on plant
values at IR (60%) in 15 DAS ceased into 80%, in 115 DA. The Fig. 2a–i growth.
indicate a possibility that the first sampling (15 DAS) had the
greatest difference in BD, Ka and ea values between R and IR Acknowledgements
positions along the sampling transect. R position was always the
farthest from the critical limits of BD and ea, and values of BD The authors are grateful to CNPq (Conselho Nacional de
exceeding the BDc of 1.32 Mg m 3 and ea < 0.1 m3 m 3 were Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico) and CAPES (Comissão
observed only in the IR zone. Ka values had a large variation de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior) for providing
along the sampling transect for all three sampling periods (15, 52 scholarships and research grants.
and 115 DAS), but a clearer separation between R and IR zones for
112 G. Anghinoni et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 166 (2017) 108–112

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