Rocks

1. IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous rocks are formed from solidification and cooling of magma. This magma can be derived from
partial melts of pre-existing rocks in either a planet's mantle or crust. Typically, the melting of rocks is
caused by one or more of three processes namely; an increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or
a change in composition. Igneous comes from word “ignis” meaning fire, it is therefore not surprising
that igneous rocks are associated with volcanic activity and their distribution is controlled by plate
tectonics. One of the appealing aspects of the plate tectonics is that it accounts for reasonably well for
the variety of igneous rocks and their distribution (Carlson et al, 2008). Divergent plates are usually
associated with creation of basalts and gabbros especially in the oceanic crust e.g. in the mid-Atlantic
ridges. While in the intra-continental areas you can have wide aray of rocks from basic, intermediate to
the acidic rocks. In the convergent plates usually granites and andesites magmas are produced e.g. In
the South America, Indonesia etc.
Igneous rocks are divided into two main categories: Plutonic (intrusive) rock and volcanic (extrusive).
Plutonic or intrusive rocks result when magma cools and crystallizes slowly within the Earth's crust. A
common example of this type is granite. Volcanic or extrusive rocks result from magma reaching the
surface either as lava or fragmental ejecta, forming rocks such as pumice or basalt. The chemical
abundance and the rate of cooling of magma typically form a sequence known as Bowen's reaction series
(Figure 1), after the Canadian petrologist Norman L. Bowen. The Bowens reaction series explain
sequences of crustal formation. The Bowens series is important because it forms basis for explaining
igneous mineral and textures.
FIGURE

Types of Igneous Rock

 Texture
When magma cools slowly large crystals form and rock forms phaneritic texture on the other hand if
magma cools fast then small crystals form sometime a glassy texture where no minerals form can be
achieved this way. It is based on the textural difference that igneous rocks can be divided into either
extrusive or intrusive rocks. Examples of both extrusive and extrusive rocks are given in Figure 2 below.
Intrusive are rocks that form by magma solidifying before reaching the surface hence forming coarse
grained texture while extrusive are those that magma solidify on surface forming fine grained rocks
Textures of igneous rocks
Phaneritic Texture
Phaneritic textured rocks are comprised of large crystals that are clearly visible to the eye with or without
a hand lens or binocular microscope. The entire rock is made up of large crystals, which are generally
1/2 mm to several centimetres in size; no fine matrix material is present. This texture forms by slow
cooling of magma deep underground in the plutonic environment.
Aphanitic Texture
Aphanitic texture consists of small crystals that cannot be seen by the eye with or hand lens. The entire
rock is made up of small crystals, which are generally less than 1/2 mm in size. This texture results from
rapid cooling in volcanic or hypabyssal (shallow subsurface) environments.
Porphyritic Texture
Porphyritic rocks are composed of at least two minerals having a conspicuous (large) difference in grain
size. The larger grains are termed phenocrysts and the finer grains either matrix or groundmass (see the
drawing below and image to the left). Porphyritic rocks are thought to have undergone two stages of
cooling; one at depth where the larger phenocrysts formed and a second at or near the surface where the
matrix grains crystallized.
Glassy Texture
Glassy textured igneous rocks are non-crystalline meaning the rock contains no mineral grains.
Glassresults from cooling that is so fast that minerals do not have a chance to crystallize. This may
happen
when magma or lava comes into quick contact with much cooler materials near the Earth's surface. Pure
volcanic glass is known as obsidian.
Vesicular Texture
This term refers to vesicles (cavities) within the igneous rock. Vesicles are the result of gas expansion
(bubbles), which often occurs during volcanic eruptions. Pumice and scoria are common types of
vesicular rocks.
Fragmental (Pyroclastic) Texture
Pyroclastic are rocks blown out into the atmosphere during violent volcanic eruptions. These rocks are
collectively termed fragmental. If you examine a fragmental volcanic rock closely you can see why.
You will note that it is comprised of numerous grains or fragments that have been welded together by
the heat of volcanic eruption. If you run your fingers over the rock it will often feel grainy like sandpaper
or a sedimentary rock. You might also spot shards of glass embedded in the rock.

 Colour
A rock with majorly dark minerals form mafic rocks but with more fractionation during magma cooling
lighter coloured mineral are able to form based on Bowens series. Based on this colour difference the
rocks can be either mafic or felsic in Figure 2 below shows that as you move from right to left you have
more ultra-mafic due to fractionation.
 Composition
Igneous rocks can also be classified based on chemistry. This is mainly based on silica content as
highlighted in Figure 2 below .When silica is above 75% main minerals that form are feldspars while
with reduction of silica more mafic minerals form, hence basis for rock difference.
FIGURE
2.METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Metamorphic rocks are basically rocks that have experience change due to high pressure and temperature
below zone of diagenesis. Protolith refers to the original rock, prior to metamorphism. In low grade
metamorphic rocks, original textures are often preserved allowing one to determine the likely protolith.
As the grade of metamorphism increases, original textures are replaced with metamorphic textures and
other clues, such as bulk chemical composition of the rock, are used to determine the protolith. Below
is an examination of the role of two agents of metamorphism.

The Role of Temperature

Changes in temperature conditions during metamorphism cause several important processes to occur.
With increasing temperature, and thus higher energy, chemical bonds are able to break and reform
driving the chemical reactions that changes the rock's chemistry during metamorphism. Increasing in
temperature can also result in the growth of crystals. In a rock, a small number of large crystals have a
higher thermodynamic stability than do a large number of small crystals. As a result, increasing
temperature during metamorphism, even in the absence of any chemical change, will generally result in
the amalgamation of small crystals to produce a coarser grained rock. It is a fact that individual minerals
are only stable over specific temperature ranges. Thus, as temperature changes, minerals within a rock
become unstable and transform through chemical reactions to new minerals. This property is very
important to our interpretation of metamorphic rocks. By observing the mineral assemblage (set of
minerals) within a metamorphic rock, it is often possible to make an estimate of the temperature at the
time of formation. That is, minerals can be used as thermometers of the process of metamorphism.

The Role of Pressure

Pressure, the second of the two physical parameters controlling metamorphism and occurs in two forms.
The most widely experienced type of pressure is lithostatic. This "rock-constant" pressure is derived
from the weight of overlying rocks. Lithostatic pressure is experienced uniformly by a metamorphic
rock. That is, the rock is squeezed to the same degree in all directions. Thus, there is no preferred
orientation to lithostatic pressure and there is no mechanical drive to rearrange crystals within a
metamorphic rock experiencing lithostatic conditions. The second pressure is the directed pressure, this
is pressure of motion and action. Plate tectonics provide the underlying mechanical control for all forms
of directed pressure. Thus, metamorphism is closely linked to the plate tectonic cycle and many
metamorphic rocks are the products of tectonic interactions. As was the case with changes in
temperature, changes in pressure, either lithostatic or directed, have important impacts upon the stability
of minerals. Every mineral is stable over a range of pressures, if pressure conditions during
metamorphism exceed a mineral’s stability range the mineral will transform to a new phase. Many of
these solid-state reactions involve polymorphic transformation – changes between minerals with the
same chemistry and different crystallographic structures. Just as with temperature, mineral assemblages
within a metamorphic rock can be used as a barometer to measure pressure at the time of formation.

Classification
Classification of metamorphic rocks depends on textures and its degree of metamorphism. Three kinds
of criteria are normally employed in the classification of metamorphic rock. These are:

Mineralogical - The most abundant minerals are used as a prefix to a textural term. Thus, a schist
containing biotite, garnet, quartz, and feldspar, would be called a biotite-garnet schist. A gneiss
containing hornblende, pyroxene, quartz, and feldspar would be called a hornblende-pyroxene gneiss.
A schist containing porphyroblasts of K-feldspar would be called a K-spar porphyroblastic schist.
Chemical - If the general chemical composition can be determined from the mineral assemblage, then
a chemical name can be employed. For example a schist with a lot of quartz and feldspar and some
garnet and muscovite would be called a garnet-muscovite quartzo-feldspathic schist. A schist consisting
mostly of talc would be called a talc-magnesian schist.
Texture- Most metamorphic textures involve foliation. Foliation is generally caused by a preferred
orientation of sheet silicates. If a rock has a slatey cleavage as its foliation, it is termed a slate, if it has
a phyllitic foliation, it is termed a phyllite, if it has a shistose foliation, and it is termed a schist. A rock
that shows a banded texture without a distinct foliation is termed a gneiss. All of these could be
porphyroblastic (i.e. could contain porhyroblasts).A rock that shows no foliation is called a hornfels if
the grain size is small, and a granulite, if the grain size is large and individual minerals can be easily
distinguished with a hand lens.

Metamorphic Grade
The intensity of a metamorphic event through the use of the concept of metamorphic grade (Figure 3).
With increasing depth in the Earth, ambient temperature and pressure conditions rise steadily. Thus,
within the continental crust, temperatures vary from approximately 200 °C at 5 km to 800°C at 35 km.
While these temperatures are extreme relative to our everyday experiences, they are significantly below
the melting point of most rocks. Likewise, lithostatic pressure increases with increasing depth. At 5 km
the pressure is approximately 2 kilo bars, or about 2000 times atmospheric pressure. Deeper within the
crust, at about35 km, the pressure increases to some 10 kb. This trend of increasing temperature and
pressure within the Earth is defined by a region of commonly encountered metamorphic conditions. Low
temperature and pressure setting as low-grade metamorphism usually gneisses, while high temperature
and intense pressure is known as high-grade metamorphism in schist environment.

Types of Metamorphism

Contact Metamorphism

Contact metamorphism occurs adjacent to igneous intrusions and results from high temperatures
associated with the igneous intrusion (Figure 4). Since only a small area surrounding the intrusion is
heated by the magma, metamorphism is restricted to the zone surrounding the intrusion, called a
metamorphic or contact aureole. Outside of the contact aureole, the rocks are not affected by the intrusive
event. The grade of metamorphism increases in all directions toward the intrusion.
Because the temperature contrast between the surrounding rock and the intruded magma is larger at
shallow levels in the crust where pressure is low, contact metamorphism is often referred to as high
temperature, low pressure metamorphism. The rock produced is often a fine-grained rock that shows no
foliation, called a hornfels.

Regional Metamorphism

Regional metamorphism occurs over large areas and generally does not show any relationship to igneous
bodies. Most regional metamorphism is accompanied by deformation under non-hydrostatic or
differential stress conditions. Thus, regional metamorphism usually results in forming metamorphic
rocks that are strongly foliated, such as slates, schists, and gneisses. The differential stress usually
results from tectonic forces that produce compressional stresses in the rocks, such as when two
continental masses collide. Thus, regionally metamorphosed rocks occur in the cores of fold/thrust
mountain belts or in eroded mountain ranges. Compressive stresses result in folding of rock and
thickening of the crust, which tends to push rocks to deeper levels where they are subjected to higher
temperatures and pressures.

Cataclastic Metamorphism

Cataclastic metamorphism occurs as a result of mechanical deformation, like when two bodies of rock
slide past one another along a fault zone. Heat is generated by the friction of sliding along such a shear
zone, and the rocks tend to be mechanically deformed, being crushed and pulverized, due to the shearing.
Cataclastic metamorphism is not very common and is restricted to a narrow zone along which the
shearing occurred.

Hydrothermal Metamorphism

Rocks that are altered at high temperatures and moderate pressures by hydrothermal fluids are
hydrothermally metamorphosed. This is common in basaltic rocks that generally lack hydrous minerals.
The hydrothermal metamorphism results in alteration to such Mg-Fe rich hydrous minerals as talc,
chlorite, serpentine, actinolite, tremolite, zeolites, and clay minerals. Rich ore deposits are often formed
as a result of hydrothermal metamorphism.

Burial Metamorphism

When sedimentary rocks are buried to depths of several hundred meters, temperatures greater than
300oC may develop in the absence of differential stress. New minerals grow, but the rock does not
appear to be metamorphosed. The main minerals produced are often the Zeolites. Burial metamorphism
overlaps, to some extent, with diagenesis, and grades into regional metamorphism as temperature and
pressure increase.
Shock Metamorphism (Impact Metamorphism)

When an extra-terrestrial body, such as a meteorite or comet impacts with the Earth or if there is a very
large volcanic explosion, ultrahigh pressures can be generated in the impacted rock. These ultrahigh
pressures can produce minerals that are only stable at very high pressure, such as the SiO2 polymorphs
coesite and stishovite. In addition they can produce textures known as shock lamellae in mineral grains,
and such textures as shatter cones in the impacted rock.

Metamorphic Facies

The changes in mineral assemblages are due to changes in the temperature and pressure conditions of
metamorphism. Thus, the mineral assemblages that are observed must be an indication of the
temperature and pressure environment that the rock was subjected to. This pressure and temperature
environment is referred to as Metamorphic Facies (Eskola, 1920). The sequence of metamorphic facies
observed in any metamorphic terrain, depends on the geothermal gradient that was present during
metamorphism. Figure 5 below highlights metamorphic faces depending on temperatures and presures
(Winter, 2001). Each facies has specific index minerals as described of Tabel 1 below (Spear, 1993).

2. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition of material at the Earth's surface and (or) within bodies
of water. Sedimentation is the collective name for processes that cause mineral and/or organic particles
(detritus) to settle and accumulate or minerals to precipitate from a solution. Sediments can be detrital,
chemical or organic sediments. Detrital sediments are mechanically eroded from pre-existing rocks.
Chemical sediments on the other hand are fluid precipitates or evaporates deposited in various
environments. Sedimentary rocks are important in regard to resources like limestone deposits, coal and
oil. They are also important geologically in interpretation of earth’s history (Carlson et al, 2009). Below
is table 2 with descriptions of some common sedimentary rocks which include; sandstone, limestone,
shale, conglomerate, and gypsum.
Kinds of Sedimentary Rocks and Description
Limestone
The rock is classified as chemical or organic sediment depending on how it forms. It is composed
primarily of calcium carbonate. The rock can form in two ways either by organically from the
accumulation of shell, coral, algal and fecal debris or from chemically from the precipitation of calcium
carbonate from lake or ocean water. Limestone is used in many ways. Some of the most common are:
production of cement, crushed stone and acid neutralization.
Conglomerate
This is a clastic sedimentary rock that contains large (greater than 2 millimetres in diameter) rounded
particles. The space between the pebbles is generally filled with smaller particles and/or chemical cement
that bind the rock together.

Sandstone

This primarily a clastic sedimentary rock made upmainly of sand-size (1/16 to 2 millimetre diameter)
weathering debris. Environments where large amounts of sand can accumulate include beaches, deserts,
flood plains and deltas

Coal
This purely organic sedimentary rock that forms mainly from plant debris. The plant debris usually
accumulates in a swamp environment. Coal is combustible and is often mined for use as a fuel.

Processes Involved in Rock Formation

Cementation- The process by which clastic sediment is lithified by precipitation of mineral cement, such
as calcite cement, among the grains of the sediment.

Compaction- Tighter packing of sedimentary grains causing weak lithification and a decrease in
porosity, usually from the weight of overlying sediment.

Deposition- The settling of materials out of a transporting medium.

Erosion- The processes that loosen sediment and move it from one place to another on Earth's surface.
Agents of erosion include water, ice, wind, and gravity.

Lithification- The processes by which sediment is converted into sedimentary rock. These processes
include cementation and compaction.

Magma- Molten rock, generally a silicate melt with suspended crystals and dissolved gases.

Melting- To go from a solid state to a liquid state.

Metamorphism- Alteration of the minerals and textures of a rock by changes in temperature and
pressure, and/or by a gain or loss of chemical components.

Pressure- The force per unit of area exerted upon something, such as on a surface.

Sediment- Material (such as gravel, sand, mud, and lime) that is transported and deposited by wind,
water, ice, or gravity; material that is precipitated from solution; deposits of organic origin (such as coal
and coral reefs).

Transportation- The processes that carry sediment or other materials away from their point of origin.
Transporting media include wind, water and mantle convection currents

Uplift-A structurally high area in the crust, produced by movements that raise the rocks, as in a broad
dome or arch.

Weathering- The processes by which rocks are chemically altered or physically broken into fragments as
a result of exposure to atmospheric agents and the pressures and temperatures at or near Earth's surface,
with little or no transportation of the loosened or altered materials.