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1.) Pressure

Pressure is defined as the physical force exerted on an object. The force applied is
perpendicular to the surface of objects per unit area. The basic formula for pressure is F/A
(Force per unit area). Unit of pressure is Pascals (Pa). Types of Pressures are Absolute,
Atmospheric, Differential, and Gauge Pressure. While sipping beverages from a straw, have
you noticed that you actually suck the air out of the straw? While you sip the beverage, you’re
actually applying ‘Pressure’. But, what does it mean? Let’s study more about it.

What is Pressure?
The amount of force exerted (thrust) on a surface per unit area is defined as ‘Pressure’. It
can also be defined as the ratio of the force to the area (over which the force is acting).

Formula and Unit of Pressure

Pressure (P) = Thrust/ Area

The SI unit is ‘pascals (Pa)’. 1 Pa = 1N/m2 

Example: It is easier to hammer a sharp pin than to hammer a blunt pin. This is because the
area at the end of the sharp pin is smaller than the area at the end of a blunt pin. This leads to
an increase in pressure leading to hammer the sharp pin easily.

Types of Pressure
 Atmospheric Pressure
 Absolute Pressure
 Differential Pressure
 Gauge Pressure

Atmospheric Pressure
The earth’s atmospheric air is surrounded by a layer of gases and so this air surrounding the
earth exerts a pressure known as the ‘atmospheric pressure’.  Its value at sea level
is 101325 Pa. 
It is measured using a mercury barometer (hence atmospheric pressure is also known
as barometric pressure), indicating the height of a column of mercury which exactly
balances the weight of the column of atmosphere over the barometer.  It can be expressed in
several different systems of units such as millimeters (or inches) of mercury, pounds per
square inch (psi), dynes per square centimeter, millibars (mb), standard atmospheres, or
kilopascals.
The atmospheric pressure decreases near Earth’s surface, with height at a rate of about 3.5
millibars for every 30 meters (100 feet).

Pressure on walls of the container

The liquid at the bottom of the container (in which it is

filled) exerts some pressure which depends upon the
height of water filled in the container. The value of
pressure exerted by the liquid at the side walls of the
container; at any point depends upon the amount of water
above that point. Since in a container the height of liquid
above a surface is same for all the points, therefore, liquid
exerts same pressure at a particular level.

Gases too exert pressure on the wall of the container containing them. A gas consists of
molecules and every molecule has some kinetic energy. These molecules when colliding
with the walls of a container, apply pressure on it.

2.) Force

Force is a quantitative description of an interaction that causes a change in an object's

motion. An object may speed up, slow down, or change direction in response to a force.
Put another way, force is any action that tends to maintain or alter the motion of a body
or to distort it. Objects are pushed or pulled by forces acting on them.

Contact force is defined as the force exerted when two physical objects come in direct
contact with each other. Other forces, such as gravitation and electromagnetic forces can
exert themselves even across the empty vacuum of space.
Key Takeaways: Key Terms

 Force: A description of an interaction that causes a change in an object's motion.

It can also be represented by the symbol F.
 The Newton: The unit of force within the International system of units (SI). It
can also be represented by the symbol N.
 Contact forces: Forces which take place when objects touch each other. Contact
forces can be classified according to six types: tensional, spring, normal reaction,
friction, air friction, and weight.
 Noncontact forces: Forces that take place when two objects do not touch. These
forces can be classified according to three types: gravitational, electrical, and
magnetic.

Units of Force

Force is a vector; it has both direction and magnitude. The SI unit for force is

the newton (N). One newton of force is equal to 1 kg * m/s2 (where the "*" symbol
stands for "times").

Force is proportional to acceleration, which is defined as the rate of change of velocity. In

calculus terms, force is the derivative of momentum with respect to time.

Contact vs. Noncontact Force

There are two types of forces in the universe: contact and noncontact. Contact forces, as
the name implies, take place when objects touch each other, such as kicking a ball: One
object (your foot) touches the other object (the ball). Noncontact forces are those where
objects do not touch each other.

Contact forces can be classified according to six different types:

 Tensional: such as a string being pulled tight

 Spring: such as the force exerted when you compress two ends of a spring
 Normal reaction: where one body provides a reaction to a force exerted upon it,
such as a ball bouncing on a blacktop
 Friction: the force exerted when an object moves across another, such as a ball
rolling over a blacktop
 Air friction: the friction that occurs when an object, such as a ball, moves
through the air
  Weight: where a body is pulled toward the center of the Earth due to gravity

Noncontact forces can be classified according to three types:

 Gravitational: which is due to the gravitational attraction between two bodies

 Electrical: which is due to the electrical charges present in two bodies
 Magnetic: which occurs due to the magnetic properties of two bodies, such as the
opposite poles of two magnets being attracted to each other

3.) Motion

Motion involves a change in the position of an object over time. Motion influences when
objects move and the forces necessary to make them move. Classical mechanics is the
branch of physics that studies motion. The study of classical mechanics is quite expansive
and includes the study of motion at the nanoscale and microscopic level (protein folding,
enzymes) macroscopic level, all the way to the motion of aviation crafts, planets and
satellites in the solar system. Most of our laws concerning motion and relativity come
from the works of Sir Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein.

4.) Energy

Energy Around Us

We use the concept of energy to help us describe how and why things behave the way
they do. We talk about solar energy, nuclear energy, electrical energy, chemical energy,
etc. If you apply a force to an object, you may change its energy. That energy must be
used to do work, or accelerate, an object. Energy is called a scalar; there is no direction
to energy (as opposed to vectors). We also speak of kinetic energy, potential energy, and
energy in springs. Energy is not something you
can hold or touch. It is just another means of
helping us to understand the world around us.
Scientists measure energy in units called joules. 

Active Energy vs. Stored Energy

Kinetic and potential energies are found in all
objects. If an object is moving, it is said to
have kinetic energy (KE). Potential energy (PE)
is energy that is "stored" because of the position and/or arrangement of the object. The
classic example of potential energy is to pick up a brick. When it's on the ground, the
brick had a certain amount of energy. When you pick it up, you apply force and lift the
object. You did work. That work added energy to the brick. Once the brick is in a
higher/new position, we would say that the increased energy was stored in the brick as
PE. Now the brick can do something it couldn't do before; it can fall. And in falling, can
exert forces and do work on other objects. 

Season of Springs

The study of springs is a whole section of physics. A

spring that just sits there doesn't do much. When you
push on it, you exert a force and change the arrangement
of the coils. That change in the arrangment stores energy
in the spring. It now contains energy and can expand and
do work on other things. Anything that is elastic (can
change its arrangement and then restore itself), such as a
rubber band, can store energy in the same way. 

A rubber band can be stretched and then it is ready to do something. That stretching
involves work and increases the potential energy. You can flatten a solid rubber ball and
it will want to bounce back up. You can also pull the drawstring of a bow and the work
done stores the energy that can make the arrow go flying. Those are all examples of your
putting energy in, and then something happening when the energy comes out. 

Gases Storing Energy

Gases? What can they do? Gases are great because they can compress and expand. They
act as if they were elastic. If the pressure increases and compresses gas molecules, the
amount of stored energy increases. It's similar to a spring, but slightly different.
Eventually that energy in the compressed gas can be let out to do something (work). 

In your car, there are shock absorbers. Some shocks have compressed gas in the cylinders
rather than springs. The energy in those cylinders keeps your car from bouncing too
much in potholes. Think about wind. Wind is caused because of pressure differences in
the atmosphere. When the wind blows it can do anything - turn windmills, help birds fly,
make tornadoes, and do all types of work.
5.) Newton’s Laws

Force and Newton's Laws of Motion

The concept of force was originally defined by Sir Isaac Newton in his three laws of
motion. He explained gravity as an attractive force between bodies that possessed mass.
However, gravity within Einstein's general relativity doesn't require force.

Newton's First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia) says that an object will continue to
move at a constant velocity unless it is acted upon by an external force. Objects in motion
remain in motion until a force acts on them. This is inertia. They won't speed up, slow
down, or change direction until something acts on them. For example, if you slide a
hockey puck, it will eventually stop because of friction on the ice.

Newton's Second Law of Motion (Law of Force and Acceleration) says that force is
directly proportional to acceleration (the rate of change of momentum) for a constant
mass. Meanwhile, acceleration is inversely proportional to mass. For example, when you
throw a ball thrown onto the ground, it exerts a downward force; the ground, in response,
exerts an upward force causing the ball to bounce. This law is useful for measuring
forces. If you know two of the factors, you can calculate the third. You also know that if
an object is accelerating, there must be a force acting on it. 

Newton's Third Law of Motion (Law of Action and Reaction) relates to interactions

between two objects. It says that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
When a force is applied to one object, it has the same effect on the object that produced
the force but in the opposite direction. For example, if you jump off a small boat into the
water, the force you use to jump forward into the water will also push the boat backward.
The action and reaction forces happen at the same time.

Fundamental Forces

There are four fundamental forces that govern the interactions of physical systems.

Scientists continue to pursue a unified theory of these forces:

1. Gravitation: the force that acts between masses. All particles experience the force of
gravity. If you hold a ball up in the air, for example, the mass of the Earth allows the ball
to fall due to the force of gravity. Or if a baby bird crawls out of its nest, the gravity from
the Earth will pull it to the ground. While the graviton has been proposed as the particle
mediating gravity, it has not yet been observed.
2. Electromagnetic: the force that acts between electrical charges. The mediating
particle is the photon. For example, a loudspeaker uses the electromagnetic force to
propagate the sound, and a bank's door locking system uses electromagnetic forces to
help shut the vault doors tightly. Power circuits in medical instruments like magnetic
resonance imaging use electromagnetic forces, as do the magnetic rapid transit systems in
Japan and China—called "maglev" for magnetic levitation.

3. Strong nuclear: the force that holds the nucleus of the atom together, mediated by
gluons acting on quarks, antiquarks, and the gluons themselves. (A gluon is a messenger
particle that binds quarks within the protons and neutrons. Quarks are fundamental
particles that combine to form protons and neutrons, while antiquarks are identical to
quarks in mass but opposite in electric and magnetic properties.)

4. Weak nuclear: the force that is mediated by exchanging W and Z bosons and is seen

in beta decay of neutrons in the nucleus. (A boson is a type of particle that obeys the rules
of Bose-Einstein statistics.) At very high temperatures, the weak force and the
electromagnetic force are indistinguishable.

6.) Law of Gravitational Force

The gravitational force is a force that attracts any two objects with mass. We call the
gravitational force attractive because it always tries to pull masses together, it never
pushes them apart. In fact, every object, including you, is pulling on every other object in
the entire universe! This is called Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation. Admittedly,
you don't have a very large mass and so, you're not pulling on those other objects much.
And objects that are really far apart from each other don't pull on each other noticeably
either. But the force is there and we can calculate it.

Universal Gravitation Equation

This equation describes the force between any two objects in the universe:

In the equation:

 F is the force of gravity (measured in Newtons, N)

 G is the gravitational constant of the universe and is always the same number
 M is the mass of one object (measured in kilograms, kg)
 m is the mass of the other object (measured in kilograms, kg)
 r is the distance those objects are apart (measured in meters, m)
So if you know how massive two objects are and how far they are apart, you can figure
out the force between them.

Inverse Square Law

Notice that the distance (r) on the bottom of the

equation is squared. This makes it an inverse square
law. Because of this, if you double the distance between
two objects, you reduce the gravitational force between
them to a quarter of what it was. Or if you triple the
distance between them, you reduce the force to a ninth
of what it was. Or if we go the other way, halving the
distance between two objects multiplies the force by a
factor of four. This can be used to make rough
comparisons between situations.