A2 Biology Notes - Grey Matter Chrissie Mayiati

The Nervous System & Nerve Impulses

 Neurones are single cells; although there are different types they have the same
basic structures: cell body contains a nucleus, dendrites which conduct impulses
towards cell body and the axon which transmits impulses away from the cell body.
 There is an insulating layer called the myelin sheath around the axon which is made
up of Schwann cells wrapped around the axon – the sheath affects how quickly
never impulses travel through the axon.
 Not all organisms have myelinated axons.
A2 Biology Notes - Grey Matter Chrissie Mayiati

Motor Neurone

 Cell body is always situated within the CNS, the axon conducts impulses from the
CNS to the effectors (muscles or glands). Vey long neurones.

Sensory Neurone

 Sensory neurones carry impulses form sensory cells to the CNS

Relay Neurone

 Found mostly in the CNS – they have a large number of connections with other nerve
cells.
A2 Biology Notes - Grey Matter Chrissie Mayiati

Reflex Arcs

 Reflex arcs are responsible for reflexes – rapid, involuntary responses to stimuli
 Receptors firstly detect a stimulus (e.g. hot cup) and generate a nerve impulse.
 The sensory neurone conducts the nerve impulse to the CNS along the sensory
pathway.
 The sensory neurones enter the spinal cord through the dorsal route.
 Sensory neurones from a synapse with a relay neurone.
 Relay neurones form a synapse with motor neurone that leaves the spinal cord
through the ventral route
 Motor neurone carries impulses to an effector (such as muscle) which produces a
response (movement).

Receptor Sensory Neurone Enter dorsal

route of spine

Exit through ventral route of spine

Motor Neurone Relay Neurone

Effector
A2 Biology Notes - Grey Matter Chrissie Mayiati

The Pupil Reflex

 The iris controls the size of the pupil: it contains a pair of antaganostic muscles:
radial and circular muscles (controlled by autonomic nervous system)
 Radial muscles controlled by a sympathetic reflex (fight vs flight) and circular muscles
are controlled by parasympathetic reflex (rest & digest)
 When the pupil constricts the radial muscles relax while the circular muscles contract
(high light)
 When the pupil dilates the radial muscles contract while the circular muscles relax
(low light)

 When high light strikes the photoreceptors present in the retina (back of eye) nerve
impulses pass along the optic nerve to sites within the CNS
 Includes the group of coordinating cells in midbrain – cells from here send impulses
along parasympathetic motor neurones to the circular muscles in the iris causing
them to relax.
 Constricts pupil = reducing amount of light entering the eye.
A2 Biology Notes - Grey Matter Chrissie Mayiati

Key Biological Principle: Explaining the potential difference of a neurone

 The resting potential of an axon is – 70 mV

 It is caused by the uneven distribution of ions across the cell surface membrane – it
is achieved by the action of sodium-potassium pumps in cell surface membrane.
 Na+ pumped out of cell while K + is pumped into the cell – act against concentration
gradients and use energy from the hydrolysis of ATP
 Once concentration gradients set up: K + diffuses out of cell down the gradient making
the outside of the cell membrane positive and the inside negative.
 More K+ that diffuse out the larger the potential difference across the membrane.
The increased negative charge inside the cell attracts potassium ions back across the
membrane and into the cell.
 At -70mV the electrical gradient balances chemical gradient – no net movement of K +
maintaining potential

Action Potentials

 Depolarisation occurs once an electrical current changes the potential difference –

this causes a change in the shape of Na + gate opening some of the voltage dependent
channels. Na+ enters the axon more depolarisation occurs causing more gates to open.
The potential difference across the membrane is now +40mV
 Repolarisation occurs after about 0.5 ms the voltage dependent Na + channels close.
K+ channels open due to depolarisation of the membrane. K + ions move out of axon
causing a negative charge inside membrane,
 Restoring Resting Potential the K+ ions continue to move out of the cell making the
potential difference more negative than the resting potential – this is called
hyperpolarisation of the membrane. The resting potential is re-established by the
closing of K+ channels causing the ions to move back into the membrane.

Propagation of a nerve impulse

 Part of the membrane depolarises causing a local electrical current to be created:

Na+ flow to the adjacent resting region of the membrane spreading depolarisation
and Na+ gates to open – more action potentials generated (nerve impulse)
 A new action potential cannot be generated in the same section of membrane for
about five milliseconds – refractory period, lasts until sodium and potassium
channels have returned to their normal state in which they are closed and resting
potential is restored.
 The refractory period ensures that nerve impulses only go in one direction
A2 Biology Notes - Grey Matter Chrissie Mayiati

Impulse size

 The size of a stimulus affects: the frequency of impulses and number of neurones in
a nerve conducting the impulse.
A2 Biology Notes - Grey Matter Chrissie Mayiati

Speed of impulse conduction

 The speed of impulse conduction is very fast, allowing fast responses to stimuli. They
are affected by 3 factors.
 Temperature – the higher temperature, the faster the speed. Homoeothermic
(warm-blooded) animals have faster responses than poikilothermic (cold-blooded)
ones.
 Axon Diameter – the wider the diameter, the faster the impulse travels. Marine
invertebrates who live at low temperatures have developed thick axons to speed up
their responses.
 Myelin Sheath – only vertebrates have a myelin sheath which acts as an electrical
insulator along most of the axon, it prevents any flow of ions across the membrane.
Gaps known as nodes of Ranvier occur in the myelin sheath at regular intervals and
they are the only places where depolarisation can occur. The action potential can
jump from one node to the next – increases the speed of propagation. The process is
called salutatory conduction.

Synapses

 A synapse is where two neurones meet. The gap between the two neurones is a
synaptic cleft.

Axon

Presynaptic Membrane

Synaptic vesicles
containing
neurotransmitter

Postsynaptic Membrane
A2 Biology Notes - Grey Matter Chrissie Mayiati

Synapses & Transmission of impulses

 There are three stages leading to the nerve impulse passing along the post synaptic
neurone.
 Neurotransmitter Release – the presynaptic membrane becomes depolarised due to
the action potential travelling down the membrane. Ca 2+ channels open and diffuse
into the membrane, the increased calcium concentration cause the synaptic vesicles
which contain neurotransmitters to fuse with the presynaptic membrane and release
their contents into the synaptic cleft by exocytosis.
 Stimulation of the Postsynaptic membrane – the neurotransmitter diffuses across
the synaptic cleft and reaches the postsynaptic membrane. Embedded in the
postsynaptic membrane are specific receptor proteins that have binding sites with
complementary shape to the neurotransmitter. The neurotransmitter binds to the
receptor changing the shape of the protein and opens cation channels making the
membrane permeable to Na+ ions – the flow of the Na+ across the postsynaptic
membrane causes depolarisation producing an action potential which is propagated
along the postsynaptic neurone. The extent of the depolarisation depends on the
volume of neurotransmitter.
 Inactivation of neurotransmitter – some neurotransmitters are taken up by the
presynaptic membrane and the molecules are used again. With others the
neurotransmitter rapidly diffuses away from the synaptic cleft or is taken up by other
cells. In the case of acetylcholine, acetylcholinesterase at the post synaptic
membrane breaks it down so it can no longer bind to receptors. Some breakdown
products are reabsorbed by the presynaptic cleft and reused.
A2 Biology Notes - Grey Matter Chrissie Mayiati

The role of synapses in nerve pathways

 Synapses have two main roles: the control of nerve pathways, allowing flexibility of
response and the integration of information from different neurones allowing a co-
ordinated response.
 The posynaptic cell can receive inputs from many synapses at the same time. The
overall effect of the synapses determines whether an action potential will be
generated, affected by: type of synapse & the number of impulses received.

Excitatory synapses

 Excitatory synapses make postynaptic membrane more permeable to Na + ions.

 Summation – refers to the idea that each impulse adds to the effect of the others.
(One does not have an enough of an effect).There are two types of summation:
 Spatial Summation – this is where impulses from different synapses, from different
neurones. The number of different sensory cells stimulated can be reflected in the
control of the response.
 Temporal Summation – this is where several impulses arrive at a synapse after
travelling along a single neurone one after another. The combined release of
neurotransmitter generates an action potential in the postsynaptic membrane.
A2 Biology Notes - Grey Matter Chrissie Mayiati

Inhibitory Synapses

 These synapses make it less likely that an action potential will occur – they cause
hyperpolarisation. The neurotransmitter from these synapses opens channels for Cl -
and K+ ions in the postsynaptic membrane. As a result chloride ions will enter the
membrane and potassium ions will leave the membrane so there will be a greater
potential difference across the membrane as the inside becomes more negative than
usual.
 Subsequent depolarisation cannot occur and more excitatory synapses will be
required to depolarise the membrane

Key biological principle: Comparing nervous and hormonal coordination

 The body is not only co-ordinated by the nervous system – hormones secreted into
the blood by the endocrine glands, send chemical messages to cells.
 Hormones are involved in long term changes e.g. growth/ sexual development.

Nervous Control Hormonal Control

Electrical transmission by nerve impulse and Chemical transmission through the blood
chemical transmission at synapses
Fast Acting Slower Acting
Associated with short term changes e.g. Associated with long term changes such as
muscle contraction growth/sexual development
Action potentials carried by neurones with Blood carries the hormones to all cells but
connections to specific cells only specific cells can respond
Response is very local , such as a specific Response may be widespread such as in
muscle cell or gland growth and development
A2 Biology Notes - Grey Matter Chrissie Mayiati

Key biological principle: Co-ordination in plants

 Plants lack a nervous system so use chemicals to control growth, development and
responses to the environment.
 These chemicals are called plant growth regulators or plant growth substances –
they are produced in the plant in very low concentrations and transported to where
they cause a response – auxins.
 Experiments were conducted on phototropism (bending of plants towards a light
source). Such experiments showed that an oat coleotopile with the tip cut off stops
bending towards the light and replacing the tip causes re-growth
 It was concluded that: influence (a chemical of some kind) made in the tip and was
passed down the tip to the rest of the plant.
 The chemical is indoleacetic acid (auxin) and its main function to stimulate grow, the
growth response is a result of cell elongation
 Experiments as shown below show that there is no difference in the chemical
production between sides of the plant in light/dark however more auxin has passed
down the shaded side – the increased concentration of auxin increases cell
elongation and the reduced concentration on the illuminated side inhibits cell
elongation
 As a result the shoot grows towards the light
A2 Biology Notes - Grey Matter Chrissie Mayiati

 Explaining growth curvature as a result of unequal distribution of auxin due to lateral

transport of auxin is known as Cholodny-Went model – criticised for small sample
sizes & the difficulty of measuring small concentrations involved.
 Auxins are synthesised in actively growing plant tissues (known as meristems) such
as shoot tips, developing leaves, seeds and fruits.
 The auxins are then actively transported away from such sites to where they bring
about a range of responses through their effect on cell elongation.
 By binding with receptors on the plasma membranes in the zone of shoot
elongation, auxins produce second messenger signal molecules that bring about
changes in gene expression: transcription of genes coding for enzymes then results
in metabolic changes.
 It is believed that the auxin causes acidification of the cell wall by indirectly
simulating the activity of proton pumps that move H+ out of the cytoplasm.
 The low pH affects an enzymes in the cell walls that causes bond between cellulose
microfibrils to break allowing the cell walls to expand.
 The increased potential difference across the membrane enhances uptake of ions
into the cell – this in turn causes uptake of water by osmosis, resulting in cell
elongation.

Reception of stimuli – how the eye is stimulated

A2 Biology Notes - Grey Matter Chrissie Mayiati

 Stimuli are any changes that occur in an animal’s environment, they are detected by
receptor cells which send electrical impulses to the central nervous system.
 Many receptors are grouped together – sense organs such as the eyes.
 Sense organs help to protect the receptor cells and improve their efficiency;
structures within the sense organ ensure that the receptor cells are able to receive
the appropriate stimulus.
 In the eye: the lens and cornea refract (bend) the light so that is focused on the
retina where the photoreceptor cells are located.

Part of Eye Function

Ciliary muscle Alters the thickness of the lens for focussing
Choroid A black layer that prevents internal
reflection of light
Vitreous Humor Transparent jelly
Retina Contains light sensitive cells
Fovea Most sensitive part of retina located within
the macula, central area of retina
Optic nerve Sends impulses to the brain
Blind Spot No light sensitive cells where optic nerve
leaves the eye
Sclera Protective layer
Iris Controls the amount of light entering the
eye
Lens Focuses light on the retina
Cornea Refracts light
Conjuctiva Protects the cornea
A2 Biology Notes - Grey Matter Chrissie Mayiati

Photoreceptors

 The retina contains two types of photoreceptor cells which are sensitive light: rods
and cones.
 Cones allow colour vision in bright light
 Rods only give black and white vision but can work in dim light
 The image below shows the arrangement of the 3 layers of cells which make up the
retina: the rods and cones synapse with the bipolar neurone cells which synapse
with ganglion neurone – this makes up optic nerve
A2 Biology Notes - Grey Matter Chrissie Mayiati

 In rods and cones a photochemical pigment absorbs the light entering the eye
resulting in a chemical changes.
 In rods the pigment is rhodopsin ( it is contained within vesicles)

In the dark

 Sodium ions flow into the outer segment through non-specific cation channels
 The sodium ions move down the concentration gradient into the inner segment
where pumps transport them out of the cell. This influx of sodium ions produces a
slight depolarisation of cell (-40mV)
 The slight depolarisation triggers the release of a neurotransmitter, glutamate, from
the rod cells.
 In the dark rod cells release this neurotransmitter continuously – it binds to the
bipolar cell preventing it from depolarising.

In the light

 Light causes rhodopsin to break down into retinal and opsin

 The breakdown causes Na+ channels to close, however the cell continues to pump it
out therefore the inside of the cell becomes more negative.
 The cell becomes hyperpolarised and glutamate stops being released.
 The lack of glutamate results in depolarisation of the bipolar cell with which the rod
synapses.
 The neurones that make up the optic nerve are depolarised and produce an action
potential

‘Dark Adaptation’

 Once the rhodopsin molecule has been broken down it needs to be reconverted to
rhodopsin so more stimuli can be received (takes a few minutes to do so)
A2 Biology Notes - Grey Matter Chrissie Mayiati

 The higher the light intensity the more rhodopsin molecules broken down and longer
it takes to reform
 The reforming of rhodopsin molecules is known as ‘dark adaptation’

Plants and Environmental Cues

 Plants also detect and respond to stimuli adapting their growth and development to
make sure they survive.
 Plants detect the quantity, direction and wavelength of light using photo receptors
and respond to changes in light conditions.
 All messages in a plant are chemical and responses are slower
 Phytochromes are plant photoreceptors which consis of protein component to a
non-protein light absorbing pigment molecule
 The five phytochromes differ in protein component while the non protein
component exist in two forms which are different isomers:
A2 Biology Notes - Grey Matter Chrissie Mayiati

Pr Phytochrome Red – absorbs red light

(660nm)
Pfr Phytochrome Far-red – absorbs far red light
(730nm)

 The two isomers are photoreversible.

 Plants synthesise Pr – absorption of red light from sunlight converts it into Pfr – it can
be reconverted in the dark.
 Phytochromes regulate: seed germination, stem elongation, leaf expansion,
chlorophyll formation and flowering.

Germination

 Red light triggers germination while far red inhibits germination.

 The last flash of light to a seeds determines what happens.

Flowering

 The photoperiod, relative length of the day, determines time of flowering. The ratio
of Pr and Pfr present enables the plant to determine the length of day and night.
 Longer winter nights allow Pr to be formed while shorter summer nights may leave
some Pfr.
 Long day plants – only flower when day length exceeds a critical value (darkness for
less than 12 hours) they require Pfr to stimulate flowering.
 Short day plants – only flower when the period of uninterrupted darkness is greater
than 12 hours. Pr is required and Pfr inhibits flowering in short day plants.

Greening

 Greening occurs once a shoot has broken through soil into sunlight changes occur.
 Once in light the phytochromes promote the development of primary leaves, leaf
unrolling, and production on pigments.

How do phytochromes work?

 Exposure to light causes the molecules to change shape

 Activated phytochromes interacts with other proteins – may bind to protein or
disrupt binding to protein
 The proteins may be signal proteins which act as transcription factors or activate
transcription factors which bind to DNA allowing transcription of genes.
 The transcription and translation of proteins results in the plant’s response to light.
A2 Biology Notes - Grey Matter Chrissie Mayiati

The Brain

 The outer layer of the brain is known as grey matter.

 The cortex is the largest part of the brain – it is divided into left, right and cerebral
hemispheres. Each hemisphere is composed of 4 regions: frontal lobe, pariental lobe,
occipital lobe and temporal lobe.
 Each lobe interprets and manages its own sensory inputs. The two cerebral
hemispheres are connected by white matter (nerve axons) called corpus callosum.
A2 Biology Notes - Grey Matter Chrissie Mayiati

 The thalamus is responsible for routing all the incoming sensory information to the
correct part of the brain (via axons of white matter)
 The hypothalamus lies below the thalamus and contains the thermoregulatory
centre, sleep control, endocrine gland.
 The hippocampus is involved in long term memory.
 The basal ganglia are a collection of neurones that lie deep within each hemisphere
and are responsible for selecting and initiating stored programmes for movement.

Cerebellum  Responsible for balance

 Co-ordinates movement as it is being
carried out
 Constantly checks whether the motor
programme being used is the correct
one.
A2 Biology Notes - Grey Matter Chrissie Mayiati

Midbrain  Relays information to the cerebral

hemispheres, including auditory
information to the temporal lobe and
visual information to occipital lobe
Medulla Oblongata  Regulates those body processes that
we do not control such as heart rate,
breathing and blood pressure

Effects of strokes

 Neural plasticity refers to the potential of neurones to change in structure and

function

Brain Imaging

(CAT scans – computerised axial tomography)

 Use thousands of narrow beam X-rays rotated around that patient to pass through
the tissue from different angles.
 Each narrow beam is reduced in strength according to the density of the tissue in its
path.
 The x rays are detected and used to produce an image of the brain in which different
soft tissues can be distinguished

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

 Use a magnetic field and radio waves to detect soft tissues.

 When placed in a magnetic field the nuclei of atoms line up with the direction of the
magnetic field.
 Hydrogen atoms in water are monitored as there is a high water content in the
tissues under investigation.
 In a scanner: a magnetic field runs down the centre of the tube which the patient lies
– another magnetic field is superimposed on this which comes from the magnetic
component of the high frequency radio waves.
 The combined fields cause the direction and frequency of spin of the hydrogen
nuclei to change taking in energy to do so.
 When the radio waves are turned off the hydrogen nuclei release the energy
absorbed – this energy is detected and sent to a computer which analyses it.
 Different tissues respond differently to the magnetic field so produce contrasting
signals and distinct regions.
 Used in: diagnosis of tumours, strokes, brain injuries and infection.
A2 Biology Notes - Grey Matter Chrissie Mayiati

Functional Magnetic Resonance Images

 Looks at the function of the different areas of the brain by following the uptake of
oxygen in active brain areas.
 Deoxyhaemoglobin absorbs the radio wave signal where as oxyhameoglobin does
not.
 Increased neural activity in the brain results in an increased demand for oxygen and
hence increased blood flow.
 Less radio signals are absorbed so it will be highlighted according to when they are
active.

Eyesight and the brain

 The axons of the ganglion cells that make up the optic nerve pass out of the eye and
extend to several areas of the brain – the thalamus.
 The impulses are then sent along further neurones to the primary visual cortex
where the information is processed further.
 Before reaching the thalamus some of the neurones in the optic nerve branch off to
the midbrain where they connect to motor neurones involved in controlling the pupil
reflex and movement of eye.
 Audio signals also arrive at the midbrain so we can quickly turn our eyes in the
direction of a visual or auditory stimulus.
 Axons of the neurones from the retina grow to the thalamus where they form
synapses with neurones
 Axons from these thalamus neurones grow towards the visual cortex in the occipital
lobe
 The visual cortex is made of colums of cells – axons from the thalamus synapse with
these columns.
A2 Biology Notes - Grey Matter Chrissie Mayiati

 Columns are created before birth however there is a critical period in which
dendirites and synapses are stimulated by light
 Axons compete for target cells in visual cortex – every time a neurone fires onto a
target cell the synapses of another neurone sharing the target cell are weakened and
release less neurotransmitted
 Synapses not firing will be lost.