Heat Transfer

1 Heat transfer
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 What is heat transfer
Heat transfer is the process of the movement of energy due to a temperature difference. The
calculations we are interested in, include determining the final temperatures of materials and
how long it takes for these materials to reach these temperatures. This can help inform the
level of insulation required to ensure heat is not lost from a system. Typically, heat loss is
proportional to a temperature gradient (driving force or potential).
Heat transfer can be achieved by conduction, convection or radiation.
1.1.2 Conduction
Conduction is the form of heat that exists due to direct contact without movement. A
temperature gradient within a substance causes a flow of energy from a hotter to colder region.
These gradients can exist in solids, liquids and gases; provided there is no movement in the
fluid phases, i.e. fluids which are not well mixed. Over time the temperature difference will
reduce and approach thermal equilibrium (same temperature). Conduction occurs in a solid,
liquid or gas; provided there is no bulk movement.
Examples of conduction include the end of a metal rod placed in a fire heating up from one end
to the other, hot coffee heating through the mug or ice-cream cooling the bowl it is placed in.
1.1.3 Convection
Convection is the transfer of heat due to the bulk movement of fluids. As such convection only
applies to heat transfer within a fluid or between a solid and a fluid but not the heat transfer
within a solid. This heat transfer is achieved by the movement of molecules within the fluid.
The term convection can refer to either mass transfer and/or heat transfer. Typically, when
referred to as “convection”, heat transfer is meant.
Convection is the sum of advection and diffusion:

Advection is the heat transported by large-scale movement of currents in the fluid; and
Diffusion is the random Brownian motion of individual particles in the fluid.
Examples of convection include the effect of hot air rising and falling (convection currents) or
the large-scale convection currents of the atmosphere and oceans.
1.1.4 Radiation
Radiation is the transfer of energy due to electromagnetic waves when thermal energy is
converted by the movement of the charges of electrons and protons in the material. When a
body radiates, the energy comes from the entire depth of the body, not just the surface.
Radiation does not require a temperature gradient. A person standing some distance from the
Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za)

School of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg (South Africa)
1
ORCID - research profile ResearchGate - publications & lecture notes YouTube - lecture videos
source will still feel the effects of the heat, e.g. a person near a fire is heated by the fire, not by
the air surrounding them.
Examples include infra-red radiation such as, an incandescent light bulb emitting visible light,
the infrared radiation emitted by a common household radiator or electric heater, as well as the
sun heating the earth.
1.2 Conductive heat transfer

1.2.1 Fourier’s Law
Conduction is governed by Fourier’s Law: The energy flux (rate of energy transfer per unit
area; W/m) is proportional to the temperature gradient.
∆T
q′ ∝ 1.1
∆x
where:
q’ = Heat flux (W/m2)
T = Temperature difference (K)
x = direction in which there is a temperature gradient (direction of heat transfer) (m)
Including a proportionality constant, this can be written as:

dT
q′ = −k dx 1.2
where:
k = thermal conductivity (W/(m.K))
Or more conveniently:
dT
q̇ = −k. A dx 1.3
where:
q̇ = Heat (W)
A = Cross sectional area (m2)

2
Thot
Tcold
q̇
Assumptions:
- Thot is at the same temperature across entire area;
- Use area perpendicular to the direction of heat transfer; and
- x is the direction from hot to cold (direction of temperature gradient).
1.2.2 Thermal conductivity

The constant, k, is the thermal conductivity of the material through which heat is transferring.
Simply, thermal conductivity is the property of a material to conduct heat. Materials with a
good heat transfer ability, e.g. metals, have a high conductivity, while those with a poor
conductivity (gases) have a low k value (Table 1.1).
Table 1.1: Typical thermal conductivities
Material Thermal conductivity (W/(m.K))

Air 0.025
Wood 0.04 - 0.4
Hollow fill fibre insulation 0.042
Alcohols and oils 0.1 - 0.21
Polypropylene 0.25
Mineral oil 0.138
Rubber 0.16
LPG 0.23 - 0.26
Cement, Portland 0.29
Water (liquid) 0.6
Thermal grease 0.7 - 3
Thermal epoxy 1-7
Glass 1.1
Soil 1.5
Concrete, stone 1.7
Ice 2
Stainless steel 12.11 ~ 45.0
Lead 35.3
Aluminium 237 (pure)
120 — 180 (alloys)
Gold 318

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Copper 401
Silver 429
In reality, k is not a constant but dependent on temperature:
Good conductors have high thermal conductivity, e.g. copper.

Poor conductors, i.e. good insulators, have low thermal conductivity, e.g. asbestos.
1.2.3 Conduction through a wall

Case 1: Conduction through a single slab
Consider the heat transfer across a single slab.
Th
Tc
k
q̇
L
x=0 x=L
where:
Th: Hot temperature on one side of the slab (K)
Tc: Cooler temperature on other side of the slab (K)
q̇ : Heat Flow (W)
A: Area perpendicular to heat flow (m2)
L: Length of the slab (m)
x: Direction in which heat flows (m)
k: Thermal conductivity of the slab (W/(m.K))
From Fourier’s Law:

dT
q̇ = −k. A dx 1.3
Assumptions:
- Area through slab is constant
- k is constant
- Steady state conditions
- “Energy in one face of the slab” = “Energy out other face of the slab”
This is a separable differential equation:

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Rearranging:
q̇
dx = dT 1.4
−kA
Therefore:
x=L q̇ T
∫x=0 dx = ∫T c dT 1.5
−kA h
Since none of q̇ , k or A are functions of temperature or x, we can remove these from the
integral:
q̇ x=L T
∫ dx = ∫T c dT 1.6
−kA x=0 h
And integrate:
q̇
(L − 0) = (Tc − Th ) 1.7
−kA
Therefore:
kA(Th −Tc )
q̇ = 1.8
L
Example 1.1: Conduction through a single slab
An aluminium plate (k = 215 W/m°C) is heated to 300°C. If the heat flux is 8.6 MW/m2, how hot is the other
face, if the metal is 5 mm thick?
Solution:
dT
𝑞 ′ = −k
dx
Assuming constant k and A:
k(Th − Tc )
𝑞′ =
L
𝑞′L
∴ = Th − Tc
k
𝑞′L (8600000)(0.005)
∴ Tc = Th − = 300 −
k 215
∴ Tc = 100
Case 2: Conduction through 2 slabs

Consider the heat transfer across two slabs.

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T1
Th
Tc
k1 k2
q̇
L1 L2
x=0 x = L1 x = L 1 + L2
where:
T1: Temperature at the end of slab 1 (K)
Tc: Cold temperature on the other side of slabs (K)
q̇ : Heat Flow (W)
L1: Length of slab 1 (m)
k1: Thermal conductivity of slab 1 (W/(m.K))
k2: Thermal conductivity of the slab 2 (W/(m.K))
Assumptions:
- k1 ≠ k 2
- Steady state conditions; therefore, “Energy in one face of the slab” = “Energy out other face of
the slab”
From single slab calculation:

kA(Th −Tc )
q̇ = 1.9
L
Therefore:
k1 A(Th −T1 )
Slab 1: q̇ = 1.10
L1
k2 A(T1 −Tc )
Slab 2: q̇ = 1.11
L2
Re-arranging, this gives:

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q̇ L1
Th − T1 = 1.12
k1 A
q̇ L2
T1 − Tc = 1.13
k2 A
Adding these equations, we are left with an expression without T1 and can calculate q̇ :
q̇ L1 q̇ L2
Th − T1 + T1 − Tc = + 1.14
k1 A k2 A
q̇ L1 q̇ L2
Th − T1 + T1 − Tc = + 1.15
k1 A k2 A
q̇ L1 L
Th − Tc = ( + k2 ) 1.16
A k1 2
q̇ Th −Tc
= L L 1.17
A ( 1+ 2)
k1 k2
To determine T1, either of the original heat transfer equations can then be used.
Example 1.2: Conduction through two slabs
The wall of a furnace is constructed from an inner steel layer of 0.5 cm (k = 40 W/m.K) and a brick outer layer of 10 cm (k
= 2.5 W/mk). The inner surface temperature is 900K and the outside surface temperature is 460K. What is the temperature
between the steel and the brick?
Solution:
Assumptions:
- Steady State (energy in = energy out)
- Linear heat transfer (ignore the effects of edges)
𝑑𝑇
From Fourier’s Law: 𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥
𝑞 𝑇𝑖𝑛 −𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡
For 2 slabs this simplifies to: = 𝐿1 𝐿2
𝐴 +
𝑘1 𝑘2
Therefore:
𝑞 (900 − 460) 440
= = = 10965.732 … 𝑊/𝑚2
𝐴 0.005 0.1 (0.000125 + 0.04)
+
40 2.5
If we let 𝑇1 be the temperature between the steel and the brick and:
𝑄.𝐿1
𝑇1 = 𝑇𝑖𝑛 − = 900 − (10965)(0.000125) = 898.629 … 𝐾
𝐴.𝑘1
The temperature between the brick and steel is approximately 625°C
Case 3: Conduction through n-slabs

Consider the heat transfer across multiple slabs.

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T1 T2 T3 Tn-1
Th
k1 k2 kk33 ... kknn Tc
q̇
L1 L2 L3 Ln
x=0 x = L1 x = L 1 + L2 + L3
x = L 1 + L2 x = L 1 + L2 + L3 + … + L n
where:
Ti: Temperature at the end of slab i (K)
q̇ : Heat Flow (W)
Li: Length of slab i (m)
ki: Thermal conductivity of slab i (W/(m.K))
n: Number of slabs
Assumptions:
- ki ≠ ki +1
- Steady state conditions; therefore “Energy in one face of the slab” = “Energy out other face of
the slab”
As before we can solve for the heat flow through each slab:
k1 A(Th −T1 )
Slab 1: q̇ = 1.18
L1
k2 A(T1 −T2 )
Slab 2: q̇ = 1.19
L2
k3 A(T2 −T3 )
Slab 3: q̇ = 1.20
L3
kn A(Tn−1 −Tc )
Slab n: q̇ = 1.21
Ln
Rearranging as before:

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q̇ L1
Th − T1 = 1.22
k1 A
q̇ L2
T1 − T2 = 1.23
k2 A
q̇ L3
T2 − T3 = 1.24
k3 A
q̇ Ln
Tn−1 − Tc = 1.25
kn A
Adding these equations, we are left with an expression without Ti and can calculate q̇ :
q̇ L1 L L Ln
Th − Tc = ( + k2 + k3 + ⋯ + ) 1.26
A k1 2 3 kn
This is more commonly written as:

L L L Ln
Th − Tc = q̇ (k 1A + k 2A + k 3A + ⋯ + ) 1.27
1 2 3 kn A
Which can also be expressed as:

∆T
q̇ = Li 1.28
∑n
i=1 k A
i
Example 1.3: Conduction through multiple layers
On a chilly winter day, you decide to add on a few layers of clothes to stay warm. What heat flux do you
experience for each successive layer added as below? Assume your skin is at 36°C and the temperature outside
is at 4°C:
1) T-Shirt (k = 0.05 W/mK; Thickness = 0.75 mm)
2) Jersey 1 (k = 0.06 W/mK; Thickness = 2 mm)
3) Jersey 2 (k = 0.05 W/mK; Thickness = 2 mm)
4) Jacket (k = 0.005 W/mK; Thickness = 3 mm)
5) Overcoat (k = 0.02 W/mK; Thickness = 4.5 mm)
It is estimated that the body released between 90-140 W of heat. Further, the body has an average surface
area of between 1.6 and 1.9 m2. Given this information, what would be a reasonable number of layers to wear?
Solution:
∆T ∆T
q̇ = Li OR 𝑞 ′ = Li
∑n
i=1 ∑n
i=1
ki A ki
′ ∆T 32
1) 𝑞 = L1 = 0.75×10−3
= 2133.3 𝑊/𝑚2
k1 0.05
∆T 32
2) 𝑞 ′ = L1 L = 0.75×10−3 2×10−3
= 662.1 𝑊/𝑚2
+ 2 +
k1 k2 0.05 0.06
∆T 32
3) 𝑞 ′ = L1 L L = 0.75×10−3 2×10−3 2×10−3
= 362.2 𝑊/𝑚2
+ 2+ 3 + +
k1 k2 k 3 0.05 0.06 0.05
∆T 32
4) 𝑞 ′ = L1 L L L = 0.75×10−3 2×10−3 2×10−3 3×10−3
= 46.5 𝑊/𝑚2
+ 2+ 3+ 4 + + +
k1 k2 k 3 k4 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.005
∆T 32
5) 𝑞 ′ = L1 L L L L = 0.75×10−3 2×10−3 2×10−3 3×10−3 4.5×10−3
= 35 𝑊/𝑚2
+ 2+ 3+ 4+ 5 + + + +
k1 k2 k 3 k4 k5 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.005 0.02

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From the average body data, it can be shown that the body releases between 47 and 87 W/m2. Therefore, is
would be a reasonable assumption that the average person would be most comfortable with four layers as
calculated.
Temperature profile through n-slabs

From the calculation of heat transfer in one slab it was show that:
kA(Th −Tc )
q̇ = 1.8
L
Rearranging:
q̇ L = kA(Th − Tc ) 1.29
q̇ L
= Th − Tc 1.30
kA
−q̇ L
Tc = + Th 1.31
kA
When 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, plot of T vs. x gives a straight-line temperature profile (for a constant k,

at steady state). An insulator has a LOW thermal conductivity, therefore (-q̇ /k.A) is LARGE,
and the slope is great, i.e. not much temperature change. NOTE: Only applicable for a constant
heat transfer constant.
k
Th
Tc
x
0 L
In the same way, this can be extended for n-slabs in series. The temperature profile in each
slab is linear (provided k is constant), with a different linear slope depending on the value of
k.

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T
k1 k2 k3 ... kn
Th
Tc
x
x1 x2 x3 xn-1 xn
0
1.2.4 Conduction through a cylinder

Case 1: Conduction through a single cylinder
Consider the heat transfer across a single cylinder.
Tin
Tout
ri
Ro
q̇
where:
Tin: Temperature on the inside of the cylinder (K)
Tout: Temperature on the outside of the cylinder (K)
q̇ : Heat Flow (W)
ri: Inner radius of the cylinder (m)
ro: Outer radius of the cylinder (m)
k: Thermal conductivity of the slab (W/(m.K))
Assumptions:
- Cylinder thickness is constant throughout
- k is constant

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- Steady state conditions; therefore, “Energy in one face of the slab” = “Energy out other face of
the slab”
- No axial heat flow
- Area through which heat flows is NOT constant!
From Fourier’s Law:

dT
q̇ = −k. A dx 1.3
But we do not have an x-direction in a cylinder. Therefore, convert Fourier’s Law into
cylindrical equivalent:
dT
q̇ = −k. A dr 1.32
The area is that which is perpendicular to the direction of heat transfer. Therefore:
A = 2π.r.L (circumference of a cylinder × length) 1.33
And Fourier’s Law becomes:

dT
q̇ = −k. (2πrL) dr 1.34
Assuming k is constant and solving the separable differential equation:

q̇ ro dr T
∫ = ∫T out dT 1.35
−k2πL ri r in
Integrating:
q̇ r
ln ( ro ) = Tout − Tin 1.36
−k2πL i
Or:
q̇ r
Tin − Tout = k2πL ln ( ro ) 1.37
i
Example 1.4: Conduction through a cylinder
Water enters a pipe at a temperature of 60°C. Assuming the pipe is made of stainless steel (k = 30 W/m 2) and
that the pipe has an inner and outer diameter of 20 and 25 cm respectively, what is the outer temperature of
the pipe if heat is lost at a rate of 15 kJ/m.s? Assume the temperature is constant down the length of the pipe.
Solution:
𝑞̇ 𝑟𝑜
𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑘2𝜋𝐿 𝑟𝑖
𝑞̇ 𝑟𝑜 15000 25
𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑙𝑛 ( ) = 60 − 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑘2𝜋𝐿 𝑟𝑖 (30)2𝜋 20
𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 42.2°𝐶

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1.2.5 Conduction through an irregular shape
When the heat flows through a material which is not a uniform shape, the area term can no
longer be taken out of the integral term as was done previously.
From the Fourier form as before:

x=L q̇ T
∫x=0 dx = ∫T c dT 1.5
−kA h
Now:
q̇ x=L 1 T
∫ dx = ∫T c dT 1.38
−k x=0 A h
Typically, area will be given as a function of x, e.g. A = x + 3; or A = 2x2 – 4 or others, and

needs to be integrated appropriately.
Example 1.5: Conduction when area is not constant
In a building in a hot climate (45°C), the inside is cooled to 15°C. The walls of the building include an irregular
shaped steel girder which forms a structural member of the wall. If no heat is lost or gained to or from the
insulation through the sides of the girder, calculate the heat flow from the room from a single girder.
Given: Thickness of the wall, 20 cm; k = 45 W.m-1.K-1; A = -50.x2 +3
Solution:
𝑑𝑇
𝑞̇ = −𝑘. 𝐴
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑇
𝑞̇ = −𝑘. (−50𝑥 2 + 3)
𝑑𝑥
𝑞̇
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑇
−𝑘(−50𝑥 2 + 3)
𝑥=𝐿 𝑇ℎ
𝑞̇
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑇
−𝑘(−50𝑥 2 + 3)
𝑥=0 𝑇𝑐
𝑥=𝐿 𝑇ℎ
𝑞̇ 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑇
𝑘 50𝑥 2 − 3
𝑥=0 𝑇𝑐
𝐿
𝑞̇ 2 2 × 3𝑥
[ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ] = 𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐
𝑘 √4 × 50 × 3 √4 × 50 × 3 0
𝑞̇ 2 6𝑥 0.2
[ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ] = 45 − 15 = 30
45 √600 √600 0
(30 × 45)
𝑞̇ =
2 6(0.2) 2 6(0)
( 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 )− ( 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 )
√600 √600 √600 √600
1350
𝑞̇ =
1.2
(0.081 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 )− 0
24.5
1350
𝑞̇ = = 810.6 𝑊
1.665

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1.2.6 Conduction when thermal conductivity is not constant
Typically, thermal conductivity is not constant, but a function of temperature. As such:
From the Fourier form as before:

x=L q̇ T
∫x=0 dx = ∫T c dT 1.5
−kA h
Now:
q̇ x=L 1 T
− A ∫x=0 dx = ∫T c kdT 1.39
A h
Typically, k will be given as a function of temperature, e.g. k = T + 30; or k = 2T2 – 4 or others,

and needs to be integrated appropriately.
Example 1.6: Conduction when conductive heat transfer coefficient is not constant
A furnace wall has a thickness of 0.5 ft, with inner and outer temperatures of 200°F and 100°F respectively.
The thermal conductivity is given by: K(BTU/h.ft.°F) = 0.1 + 0.001T(°F).
Calculate the heat transfer per square foot through the furnace wall.
Solution:
𝑑𝑇
𝑞̇ = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑇2
𝑞̇
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑘𝑑𝑇
0 𝐴 𝑇1
𝑞̇ 𝑥 𝑇2
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ (0.1 + 0.001 𝑇)𝑑𝑇
𝐴 0 𝑇1
𝑞̇ 0.001𝑇2 2 0.001𝑇1 2
(𝑥 − 0) = − [(0.1𝑇2 + ) − (0.1𝑇1 + )]
𝐴 2 2
𝑞̇ 0.001(100)2 0.001(200)2
(0.5) = − [(0.1(100) + ) − (0.1(200) + )]
𝐴 2 2
𝑞̇ ((10) − (40))
=−
𝐴 0.5
𝑞̇
= 60 BTU/hr.ft2
𝐴
1.2.7 Thermal Resistance

From the slab calculations, it was shown that:
L L L Ln
Th − Tc = q̇ (k 1A + k 2A + k 3A + ⋯ + ) 1.40
1 2 3 kn A
Or:
Th −Tc
q̇ = L1 L2 L L 1.41
( + + 3 +⋯+ n )
k1 A k2 A k3 A kn A
∆T
q̇ = Li 1.42
∑n
i=1 k A
i

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This can be simplified to:
∆T
q̇ = 1.43
R
where:
T: Temperature difference (K)
R: Thermal resistance (K/W)
Li
For slab calculations, R = ∑ni=1 , however, R can represent the resistance for any range of
ki A
shapes.
Example 1.7: Conduction through an irregular shape (1)
A circular pipe of 20 cm is enclosed centrally in a square section insulator of side 36 cm. The thermal
conductivity of the material is given as 8.5W/mK. The inside surface is at 200°C; while the outside is at 30°C.
Determine the heat flow for a length of 5 m.
Given::
1 1 1.08𝑎
𝑅= [ 𝑙𝑛 ]
2𝜋𝑙 𝑘 2𝑟
where:
a = side length of length of square section
l = length
r = radius of inner portion
k = 8.5 W/m.K
30°C
0.2 m
b=5m
200°C
a = 0.36m
Solution:
∆𝑇
𝑞̇ =
𝑅
1 1 1.08 × 0.36
𝑅= [ 𝑙𝑛 ] = 0.002489362 °C/W
2𝜋 × 5 8.5 0.2
2.
2
∆𝑇 200 − 30
∴ 𝑞̇ = = = 68290.59 = 68 000 W
𝑅 0.002489 …
Example 1.8: Conduction through an irregular shape (2)
A pipe of 30 cm diameter is insulated by a material of thermal conductivity 0.45 W/mK. Due to space
restrictions, the pipe is placed slightly off-centre (5cm), resulting in a portion of insulation thicker than the rest

15
of the pipe (see diagram). The inner surface is at 250°C and the outer surface is at 60°C. Determine the heat
loss for a 5 m length of pipe.
Given:
1 √[(𝑟2 + 𝑟1 )2 − 𝑒 2 ] + √[(𝑟2 − 𝑟1 )2 − 𝑒 2 ]
𝑅= 𝑙𝑛
2𝜋. 𝑘. 𝑙 √[(𝑟2 + 𝑟1 )2 − 𝑒 2 ] − √[(𝑟2 − 𝑟1 )2 − 𝑒 2 ]
where:
e = eccentricity, m
60°C
0.15 m
0.05 m
0.3 m
250°C
k = 0.45 W/m.K
Solution:
∆𝑇
𝑞̇ =
𝑅
1 √[(0.15 + 0.3)2 − 0.052 ] + √[(0.15 − 0.3)2 − 0.052 ]
𝑅= 𝑙𝑛
2𝜋 × 0.45 × 5 √[(0.15 + 0.3)2 − 0.052 ] − √[(0.15 − 0.3)2 − 0.052 ]
1 0.4472 + 0.14142
𝑅= 𝑙𝑛 = 0.046325 ℃/W
2𝜋 × 0.45 × 5 0.4472 − 0.14142
250 − 60
∴ 𝑞̇ = = 4101 W
0.046325
1.3 Convective heat transfer

1.3.1 Newton’s Law of Cooling
Convection (film) heat transfer occurs through the bulk movement of fluid within a fluid or
between a solid and a fluid.
Conduction is governed by Newton’s Law of Cooling:

q̇ = h. A. ∆T 1.44
where:
h = Heat Transfer Coefficient (W/m2.K)
A = Area (perpendicular to heat flow) (m2)
T = Temperature difference (K)
Consider the convective heat from surface.

16
Ts
Tb
Solid surface Approximation: Linear temperature flow
through boundary layer
Film of fluid; stationary

(boundary layer)
where:
δ = thickness of stationary boundary layer
Ts = Surface temperature
Tb = Bulk temperature
If we assume that there is no movement in a boundary layer between the slab and bulk fluid (δ
– Greek delta), we can approximate the heat transfer to Fourier’s Law:
kA(Ts −Tb )
q̇ = 1.45
δ
Defining a heat transfer coefficient as h:

k
h= 1.46
δ
The equation for heat transfer becomes:

q̇ = hA(Ts − Tb ) 1.47
where:
h = Heat Transfer Coefficient (W/m2.K)
Note:
It is harder to measure wall temperatures compared to the bulk fluid temperatures. Therefore,
the equations are developed to use the bulk fluid temperatures and not intermediate wall
temperatures.
1.3.2 Convection from a wall

Case 1: Convection from a single slab:
17
Consider the convective heat from a single slab (ignoring the heat transfer through the wall).
T1
Tc
q̇
hc
where:
Tc: Cold temperature (K)
q̇ : Heat Flow (W)
hc: Heat Transfer coefficient on the cold side (W/m2.K)
Assumptions:
- The fluid has a heat transfer coefficients (h)
- Area through convective area is constant
- Steady state conditions, therefore, “Energy in” = “Energy out”
Convective heat transfer is given as:

q̇ = hA(Ts − Tb ) 1.47
Using the nomenclature here:
q̇ = h𝑐 A(T1 − Tc ) 1.48
Example 1.9: Convective heat transfer
A stainless steel plate is maintained at 150°C, while the surrounding temperature is 20°C. The heat transfer
coefficient is given as 11.2 W/m2.K. What is the convective heat loss per square meter?
Solution:
𝑞̇ = ℎ𝐴(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑞/𝐴̇ = ℎ(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑞/𝐴 ̇ = 11.2(150 − 20)
𝑞/𝐴 ̇ = 1456 𝑊/𝑚2 = 1.456 𝑘𝑊/𝑚2

18
Case 2: Convection on either side of 2 slabs:
Consider the heat across two slabs, considering both conduction and convection.
T0 T1 T2
Th
Tc
q̇
hh k1 k2 hc
L1 L2
x=0 x = L1 x = L 1 + L2
where:
T0: Temperature at the start of slab 1 (K)
q̇ : Heat Flow (W)
k1: Thermal conductivity of slab 1 (W/(m.K))
k2: Thermal conductivity of the slab 2 (W/(m.K))
hh: Heat Transfer coefficient on the hot side (W/m2.K)
hc: Heat Transfer coefficient on the cold side (W/m2.K)
Assumptions:
- The slabs have thermal conductivities (k); the fluids have heat transfer coefficients (h)
- Area through the slabs is constant
- k1 ≠ k2 (k1 and k2 are constant)
- Steady state conditions, therefore, “Energy in one face of the slab” = “Energy out other face of
the slab”
Heat transfer equations from inside to outside:

For inside convective film: q̇ = hh A(Th − T0 ) 1.49

19
k1 A(T0 −T1 )
Slab 1 (conduction): q̇ = 1.50
L1
k2 A(T1 −T2 )
Slab 2 (conduction): q̇ = 1.51
L2
For outside film: q̇ = hc A(T2 − Tc ) 1.52
Rearranging for each in terms of temperature:

q̇
Th − T0 = 1.53
hh A
q̇ L1
T0 − T1 = 1.54
k1 A
q̇ L2
T1 − T2 = 1.55
k2 A
q̇
T2 −Tc = 1.56
hc A
Then adding the last four equations, we are left with an expression without Tc and are able to
calculate q̇ :
q̇ q̇ L1 q̇ L2 q̇
Th − T0 + T0 − T1 + T1 − T2 + T2 −Tc = +k +k +h 1.57
hh A 1A 2A cA
q̇ q̇ L1 q̇ L2 q̇
Th − T0 + T0 − T1 + T1 − T2 + T2 −Tc = +k +k +h 1.58
hh A 1A 2A cA
q̇ 1 L L 1
Th −Tc = ( + k 1 + k2 + h ) 1.59
A hh 1 2 c
q̇ Th −Tc
= 1 L1 L2 1 1.60
A ( + + + )
hh k1 k2 hc
Given the area, heat transfer coefficients ad thermal conductivities, only need to know inner
and outer temperatures (NOT any of the inside temperatures) to solve for q.
Example 1.10: Convective heat transfer, with conduction, across multiple layers
A furnace is constructed of a 130 mm steel layer and an outer surface of bricks which is 170 mm thick. The
thermal conductivities of the steel and brick layers are 144 W/m.K and 4.38 W/m.K respectively, whilst the
heat transfer of the inner and outer surface are 18W/𝑚2 . 𝐾 and 73W/𝑚2 . 𝐾. Given that the temperature inside
the furnace is kept at 650°C and the temperature of the surroundings is 45°C, calculate the overall heat flow
and overall heat transfer coefficient. [reorder so this comes after where U is defined]
Solution:
Because the system is at steady state, with areas and thermal conductivities, it was shown earlier that:
𝑞 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎
=
𝐴 1 + 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 1
ℎ𝑖 𝑘1 𝑘2 ℎ0
Therefore:
𝑞
= 5552𝑊/𝑚. 𝐾
𝐴
Now: 𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎 )
𝑞
𝑈=
𝐴(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎 )
U = 9.18 W/𝑚2 . 𝐾

20
Reminder:
∆T
q̇ = 1.61
R
For the above equation:

∆T
q̇ = 1 L L 1 1.62
( + 1+ 2+ )
hh A k1A k2A hc A
∆T
q̇ = ( R1 +R2 +R3 +R4 )
1.63
where:
Ri = individual thermal resistances for different layers
Compare this to U as defined later.
Case 3: Convection on either side of n-slabs:

Consider the heat transfer across multiple slabs.
T0 T1 T2 T3 Tn-1 Tn
Th k1 k2 kk33 ... kknn Tc

hh hc
q̇
L1 L2 L3 Ln
x=0 x = L1 x = L 1 + L2 + L3
x = L 1 + L2 x = L 1 + L 2 + L3 + … + L n
Using similar derivations as above:

q̇ Th −Tc
= 1 Li 1 1.64
A ( +∑n
hh i=1k +hc )
i
1.3.3 Convection (and conduction) through a cylinder

Case 1: Convection (and conduction) through concentric cylinders
Consider the heat transfer across multiple layers of a cylinder.

21
Insulation
Pipe wall
Tout T2 T1 T0
Tin
hin k1 k2 hout
r2 r0
r1
where:
Tin: Temperature on the inside of the cylinder (K)
Tout: Temperature on the outside of the cylinder (K)
q̇ : Heat Flow (W)
r0: Inner radius of the cylinder (m)
r1: Outer radius of the 1st cylinder (pipe) (m)
r2: Outer radius of the 2nd cylinder (insulation) (m)
k1: Thermal conductivity of cylinder 1 (W/(m.K))
k2: Thermal conductivity of cylinder 2 (W/(m.K))
hin: Heat Transfer coefficient on the inside (inside) (W/m2.K)
hout: Heat Transfer coefficient on the outside (outside) (W/m2.K)
Assumptions:
- Cylinder thickness is constant throughout
- Steady state conditions; therefore Energy in one face of the slab = Energy out other face of the
slab
- Area through which heat flows is NOT constant!
- k1 ≠ k 2
- No axial heat transfer
Convection on inner surface:

q̇ = hin A0 (Tin − T0 ) 1.65
A0 = 2πr0 L 1.66
Area is the area in contact with the film (we don’t know how thick the film is so can’t use any
other area)
22
∴ q̇ = hin 2πr0 L(Tin − T0 ) 1.67
q̇
Tin − T0 = 1.68
hi 2πr0 L
Conduction across pipe:

dT
q̇ = −k1 . (2πrL) dr 1.69
Assuming k is constant and solving the separable differential equation:

q̇ r1 dr T
∴ ∫ = ∫T 1 dT 1.70
−k1 2πL r0 r 0
Integrating:
q̇ r
T0 − T1 = k ln (r1 ) 1.71
1 2πL 0
Conduction across insulation:

q̇ r
As above for conduction through pipe: T1 − T2 = k ln (r2 ) 1.72
2 2πL 1
Convection on outer surface:

As for convection on inner surface:
q̇ = hout 2πr2 L(T2 − Tout ) 1.73
Therefore:
q̇
T2 − Tout = 1.74
ho 2πr2 L
Consolidating for each layer:

q̇
Tin − T0 = 1.75
hin 2πr0 L
q̇ r1
T0 − T1 = k ln (r ) 1.76
1 2πL 0
q̇ r
T1 − T2 = k ln (r2 ) 1.77
2 2πL 1
q̇
T2 − Tout = 1.78
hout 2πr2 L
Adding equations these four equations:

q̇ q̇ r q̇ r
Tin − T0 + T0 − T1 + T1 − T2 + T2 − Tout = +k ln (r1 ) + k ln (r2 ) +
hin 2πr0 L 1 2πL 0 2 2πL 1
q̇
1.79
hout 2πr2 L
1 1 r 1 r
Tin − T0 + T0 − T1 + T1 − T2 + T2 − Tout = q̇ (h +k ln (r1 ) + k ln (r2 ) +
in 2πr0 L 1 2πL 0 2 2πL 1
1
) 1.80
hout 2πr2 L
1 1 r 1 r 1
Tin − Tout = q̇ (h +k ln (r1 ) + k ln (r2 ) + ) 1.81
in 2πr0 L 1 2πL 0 2 2πL 1 hout 2πr2 L

23
Tin −Tout
q̇ = 1 1 r 1 r 1
1.82
( + ln( 1 )+ ln( 2 )+ )
hin 2πr0 L k12πL r0 k22πL r1 hout 2πr2 L
Example 1.11:
Solution
1.3.4 Log Mean Radius and Log Mean Area

We define the log mean radius as follows:
r −r
rLM = 2 r21 1.83
ln
r1
where:
rLM = Log mean radius
r2 = outer radius
r1 = inner radius
Note:
r2 − r1 r2 − r1
r ≠ 1.84
ln 2 2
r1
From this we can define the log mean area:

ALM = 2πrLM L 1.85
where:
ALM = Log mean area
From the heat flow through two cylinders, (conduction and convection, it was shown that:
Tin −Tout
q̇ = 1 1 r 1 r 1
1.86
( + ln( 1 )+ ln( 2 )+ )
hin 2πr0 L k12πL r0 k22πL r1 hout 2πr2 L
Which we can re-write as:

Tin −Tout
q̇ = 1 1 r1 (r1−r0 ) 1 r (r −r ) 1
1.87
( + ln( ).(r + ln( 2 ).(r2 1 )+ )
hin 2πr0 L k12πL r0 1−r0 ) k22πL r1 2−r1 hout 2πr2 L
From the definition of RLM, and converting wherever possible to surface area instead of radius,
this becomes:
Tin −Tout
q̇ = 1 1 (r1−r0 ) 1 (r −r ) 1
1.88
( + . + . 2 1+ )
hin A0 k1 2πL rLM,10 k22πL rLM,21 hout A2
Tin −Tout
q̇ = 1 (r1−r0 ) (r −r ) 1
1.89
( + + 2 1 + )
hin A0 𝑘1 ALM,10 𝑘2ALM,21 hout A2
For n concentric circles:

24
Tin − Tout
q̇ = 1 n ∆Ri 1
1.90
( +∑i=1 + )
hin A0 ki ALM,i hout An
1.4 Overall heat transfer coefficient

Previously, heat transfer was expressed in terms of thermal resistance as:
∆T
q̇ = 1.91
R
where:
T: Temperature difference (K)
R: Thermal resistance (K/W)
For multiple slabs in series the thermal resistance was shown to be:
Li
R = ∑ni=1 1.92
ki A
Which can be re-written to include the convection as:

1 Li 1
R=h + ∑ni=1 +h 1.93
hA ki A cA
And for cylindrical systems:

1 ∆Ri 1
R= + ∑ni=1 k A +h 1.94
hin A0 i LM,i out An
A new term is now introduced for the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U):
1
U = A.R 1.95
∴ q̇ = UA(Tin − Tout ) 1.96
Note: Thermal resistance (R) includes the term for area (A), while the overall heat transfer
coefficient (A) does not. Further, R and U are inverse relationships.
Defining the overall heat transfer coefficient for cylinders:

q̇ = UA(Tin − Tout ) 1.97
We can measure heat and temperatures independently; UA can be calculated as a combined

measured value.
1
UA = 1 ∆ri 1
1.98
( +∑ni=1 k + )
hin i hout
We can then define different U values:

UA = U0A0 = UiAi 1.99
UA
U0 = For outer cylinder 1.100
A0
25
UA
Ui = For inner cylinder 1.101
Ai
Example 1.12:
Solution
1.5 Heat transfer through composite walls

1.5.1 Heat transfer through series configuration
It is possible to relate thermal resistance to the resistance in an electrical circuit. In this way
the resistance through solid slabs can be represented as below.
1 2 k33
hh hc
q̇
Rhh R1 R2 R3 Rhc
Where:
R = Thermal resistance through each layer (including convection and conduction)
Reminder:
∆T
q̇ = 1.91
R
Therefore, for the slab above:

∆T
q̇ = R 1.102
hh +R1 +R2 +R3 +Rhc
∆T
q̇ = 1 L L L 1 1.103
+ 1+ 2+ 3+
hhh. A k1 A k2 A k3 A hhc. A
1.5.2 Heat transfer through parallel configuration

Similarly, heat transfer through a parallel configuration can be equated to an electrical circuit.

26
L2
Th
Tc
k1 k2 k4
q̇ hh hc
k3
L1 L3 L4
Rhh R1 R2 R4 Rhc
R3
Scenario 1: Assuming the surfaces normal to the direction of heat flow are isothermal (i.e. the
entire length of slabs 1 and 4 have the same temperature), this gives:
Where:
R = Thermal resistance through each layer (including convection and conduction)
∆T
q̇ = 1.91
R
In a similar manner to calculating electrical resistance, the resistance through the parallel
section can be written as:
1 1 −1
R 2/3 = (R + R ) 1.104
2 3
k A k3 A −1
R 2/3 = ( L2 + ) 1.105
2 L3
Therefore:
∆T
q̇ = 1 L k A k A −1 L 1
1.106
+ 1 +( 2 + 3 ) + 4 +
hhh. A k1 A L2 L3 k4A hhc. A
Scenario 2: However, if we assume that the surfaces parallel to heat flow are adiabatic, i.e. no
heat flows from slab 2 to 3, a better approximation is given by:

27
Rhh R1 R2 R4 Rhc
Rhh R1 R3 R4 Rhc
Now:
∆T
q̇ = 1.91
R
Adding all the sections which are in series, inverting to account for addition of multiple parallel
sections and again inverting the sum of this:
∆T
q̇ = −1 1.107
1 1
( 1 L L L + L L L 1 )
+ 1 + 2 + 4 +hhc. A hhh. A+ 1 + 3 + 4 +
hhh. A k1 A k2 A k4 A k1 A k3 A k4 A hhc. A
1.6 Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces

1.6.1 Introduction
To cool something down, we may have a cooling fin. A hot object may have a long flat (or
thin) piece protruding from it to increase surface area and also the conductive and convective
heat transfer, thereby cooling the object down faster.
Fins may come in various forms:

- Straight Fins
o Rectangular
o Triangular
o Parabolic
- Annular Fins
- Pin Fins
o Rectangular
o Triangular
o Parabolic
1.6.2 Fins of Uniform Cross-Sectional Area

These could be rectangular (Figure 1.1) or pins.

28
TW TA
Convection
y
Conduction
TS
w
x x + x
Convection
Figure 1.1: Graphical representation of a rectangular fin protruding from a wall
Simplifying assumption: Assume thin slice of fin that has a temperature profile in x-direction
only, NOT in y-direction.
By an energy balance:
Energy in (left – conduction) = energy out (right - conduction) + energy out (top + bottom -
convection) 1.108
q̇ |x = q̇ |x+∆x + h(2w∆x)(Ts − TA ) 1.109
(Multiplied by 2 because there are 2 surfaces)
where:
q̇ : Conductive heat transfer
h: convective heat transfer coefficient
x: element through which heat flows
TS surface temperature
TA: Ambient/air temperature
Replacing q̇ terms with conductive heat flow terms:

dT dT
−kA dx | = −kA dx | + h(2w∆x)(Ts − TA ) 1.110
x x+∆x
dT dT
−k(w. y) dx | = −k(w. y) dx | + h(2w∆x)(Ts − TA ) 1.111
x x+∆x
Rearrange and divide by x

29
dT dT
−k(w.y) | +k(w.y) |
dx x+∆x dx x
= −h(2w)(Ts − TA ) 1.112
∆x
Taking limits as x → 0
dT dT
−k(w.y) | +k(w.y) |
dx x+∆x dx x
lim = −h(2w)(Ts − TA ) 1.113
x→0 ∆x
d dT
[−k(w. y) dx ] = −h(2w)(Ts − TA ) 1.114
dx
Assuming k is constant:
d2 T
−k(w. y) dx2 = −h(2w)(Ts − TA ) 1.115
Simplifying:
d2 T
ky dx2 = 2h(Ts − TA ) 1.116
And since there is no temperature profile in the y-direction, Ts = T at all x

Therefore Ts = T
And:
d2 T
ky dx2 = 2h(T − TA ) 1.117
d2 T 2h
= ky (T − TA ) 1.118
dx2
Let:
 = T – TA 1.119
And:
m = √2h/ky 1.120
d2 θ
= m2 θ 1.121
dx2
D2 − m2 θ = 0 1.122
(D − m)(D + m)θ = 0 1.123
θ = C1 emx + C2 e−mx 1.124
We have two constants, therefore need two boundary conditions (BC):

BC1: At x = 0,  = 1 Known temp at wall
BC2: At x = L, d/dx = 0 Temperature has stationary point at x = L
From BC1:
1 = C1 + C2 1.125

30
From BC2:
dθ
= C1 memx − C2 me−mx 1.126
dx
0 = C1memL – C2me-mL 1.127
C2 = C1e2mL 1.128
θ1
C1 = 1.129
1+ e2ml
θ1 .e2ml
C2 = 1.130
1+ e2ml
θ .emx θ1 .e2ml .e−mx

θ = 1+1 e2ml + 1.131
1+ e2ml
θ eml (e−ml .emx +eml .e−mx )
θ = 1+ e12ml [emx + e2ml . e−mx ] = θ1 1.132
eml (e−ml +eml )
θ e−ml .emx +eml .e−mx
= 1.133
θ1 e−ml +eml
θ cosh m.(L−x)
= 1.134
θ1 cosh mL
Re-introducing the temperature and h, k and y terms:

Reminder:
 = T – TA 1.119
m = √2h/ky 1.120
T−TA cosh √2h/ky.(L−x)

= 1.135
TW −TA cosh √2h/ky.L
where:
TW = Wall temperature
cosh √2h/ky. (L − x)
∴ T = (TW − TA ) ( ) + TA
cosh √2h/ky. L
1.7 Heat Exchangers

1.7.1 Introduction
In order to transfer heat efficiently, both for energy and cost savings, industrial processes
require heat transfer equipment. Hot fluids may also need to be cooled before being discarded
to the environment – either for environmental and/or personal safety reasons.
Various heat transfer equipment exists. These include:

- Heat Exchanger
- Fin Fan Cooler
- Cooling Towers
- Plate Heat Exchangers

31
- Radiators
A heat exchanger is a piece of equipment built for efficient heat transfer from one medium to
another.
A shell and tube heat exchanger is a class of heat exchanger most commonly used in oil
refineries and other large chemical processes. It consists of a shell with a bundle of tubes
inside. One fluid runs through the tubes, and another fluid flows over the tubes (through the
shell) to transfer heat between the two fluids.
1.7.2 Co-current Heat Exchangers

Two streams of fluid enter at the same end of the heat exchanger – one hot and one cold. The
two fluids exchange energy with the hotter getting colder and the colder getting hotter. The
temperature of the cold stream can never be greater than the hot stream and vice versa.
Temperature
Length
Figure 1.2: Temperature profile through a co-current heat exchanger
1.7.3 Counter Current Heat Exchangers

Two streams of fluid enter on opposite ends heat exchanger – one hot and one cold. The two
fluids exchange energy with the hotter getting colder and the colder getting hotter. The
temperature of the cold stream exiting can be hotter than the temperature of the hot stream
exiting.
Typically, the maximum temperature difference at any point can be no lower than 10°C. Note
in the counter current setup that the outlet temperature difference can be less than this.
Temperature
Length

32
Figure 1.3: Temperature profile through a co-current heat exchanger
1.7.4 Types of Heat Exchangers
Notes:
- Put dirtier fluid (fluid which foul) in the tubes as the tubes are easier to clean; replace
- To increase area, can increase the number of tubes.
1.7.5 Derivation of Heat Exchanger Equation

Consider two fluids flowing in a counter current fashion, one hot and one cold
Side 1 Th Th + dTh Side 2

Hot Th
Tc Cold
Tc + dTc Tc
dA
- Consider a temperature, Th on the hot stream and a temperature Tc on the cold stream
- Consider a small area dA, over which it can be assumed the temperature is constant
Assumptions:
- No phase change
- No reaction
- Constant pressure
- Constant specific heat (Cp)
From overall heat transfer equations:

q̇ = UA∆T (1) 1.136
For the portion over dA (assuming the hot and cold fluids don’t change over the length of the
heat exchanger – because the length is so small):
dq̇ = UdA(Th − Tc ) 1.137
For the hot stream: Energy balance

dq̇ = ṁh Ĉph [Th − (Th + dTh )] 1.138
dq̇ = −ṁh Ĉph . dTh (2) 1.139
For the cold stream: Energy balance

dq̇ = ṁc Ĉpc [Tc − (Tc + dTc )] 1.140
33
dq̇ = −ṁc Ĉpc . dTc (3) 1.141
(2) x ṁc Ĉpc

dq̇ (ṁc Ĉpc ) = −ṁh Ĉph . dTh (ṁc Ĉpc ) (4) 1.142
(3) x ṁh Ĉph

dq̇ (ṁh Ĉph ) = −ṁc Ĉpc . dTc (ṁh Ĉph ) (5) 1.143
(4) – (5)
dq̇ (ṁc Ĉpc ) − dq̇ (ṁh Ĉph ) = −ṁh Ĉph . dTh (ṁc Ĉpc ) + ṁc Ĉpc . dTc (ṁh Ĉph ) 1.144
dq̇ (ṁc Ĉpc − ṁh Ĉph ) = −ṁh Ĉph . ṁc Ĉpc (dTh − dTc ) 1.145
Substituting (1)
−UdA(Th − Tc )(ṁc Ĉpc − ṁh Ĉph ) = ṁh Ĉph . ṁc Ĉpc (dTh − dTc ) 1.146
Rearranging:
̂ pc −ṁh C
ṁc C ̂ ph dTh −dTc
−UdA ̇ ̂ ̇ ̂
= 1.147
mh Cph .mc Cpc Th −Tc
Now:
̂ pc −ṁh C
ṁc C ̂ ph
Let ̂ ph .ṁc C
̂ pc
=R (6) 1.148
ṁh C
Or
̂ pc −ṁh C
ṁc C ̂ ph 1 1
R= ̂ ph .ṁc C
̂ pc
= (ṁ ̂
− ṁ ̂ pc
) 1.149
ṁh C h Cph cC
dTh −dTc
∴ −RUdA = 1.150
Th −Tc
d(Th −Tc )
∴ = −RUdA 1.151
Th −Tc
Integrate:
∆T
ln(Th − Tc )∆T21 = −RUA 1.152
∆T2
ln = −RUA 1.153
∆T1
Or:
∆T
ln ∆T1 = RUA 1.154
2
∆T1
ln
∆T2
R= (7) 1.155
UA
Overall energy balance for each fluid:

ṁh Ĉph [Th,in − Th,out ] = ṁc Ĉpc [Tc,out − Tc,in ] = Q

34
Q
̂ ph
= [Th,in − Th,out ] (8) 1.156
ṁh C
Q
̂ pc
= [Tc,out − Tc,in ] (9) 1.157
ṁc C
(8) – (9)
1 1
Q (ṁ ̂
− ṁ ̂ pc
) = [Th,in − Th,out ] − [Tc,out − Tc,in ] 1.158
h Cph cC
1 1
Q (ṁ ̂
− ṁ ̂ pc
) = [Th,in − Tc,out ] − [Th,out − Tc,in ] 1.159
h Cph cC
Substituting (6):
QR = ∆T1 − ∆T2 1.160
∆T1 −∆T2
Q= 1.161
R
Substituting (7)
∆T1 −∆T2
Q = UA ( ∆T1 ) 1.162
ln
∆T2
where:
∆T1 −∆T2
( ∆T1 ) = ∆TLM 1.163
ln
∆T2
∴ Q = UA∆TLM 1.164
Assumptions:
i) Overall heat transfer co-efficient (U) is constant
ii) Heat exchanger is well insulated
iii) Physical properties of each fluid are constant
iv) Steady state
v) No phase change, no reaction, no mixing, constant pressure
If there is a phase change, deal with each phase separately

The TLM calculation can only be done on a fluid which does not have a phase change OR if
there is a phase change ONLY.

35
Can use TLM calculation
Phase change; no
temperature change
Can use TLM calculation
Steam; phase change,

water
Steam; phase change,
water
TLM,a
TLM,b
TLM,c
CAN NOT use TLM calculation BUT: If we break the problem into 3, can
use TLM calculation
Example 1.13: Heat exchanger – log mean temperature vs. temperature difference
Calculate the log mean temperature given the following information:

Temperature hot in: 90C
Temperature hot out: 65C
Temperature cold in: 40C
Temperature cold out: 70C
Solution:
90C
Temperature 65C
T2
70C T1
40C
Length
T1 = 25C; Thot,out – Tcold,in = 65 – 40C = 15C

36
T2 = 20C; Thot,in – Tcold,out = 90 – 70C = 20C
∆𝑇1 − ∆𝑇2 15 − 20
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 = ( )= ( ) = 17.38℃
∆𝑇1 15
𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( )
∆𝑇2 20
15+20
This is not the same as average temperature: ∆𝑇𝐴𝑉𝐸 = ( ) = 17.5℃
2
Example 1.14: Heat exchanger – log mean temperature undefined
Calculate the log mean temperature given the following information:

Temperature hot in: 90C
Temperature hot out: 60C
Temperature cold in: 40C
Temperature cold out: 70C
Solution:
90C
Temperature
T2 60C
70C
T1
40C
Length
T1 = 20C; Thot,out – Tcold,in = 60 – 40C

T2 = 20C; Thot,in – Tcold,out = 90 – 70C
∆𝑇1 − ∆𝑇2 20 − 20
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 = ( )= ( ) = 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
∆𝑇1 20
𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ( )
∆𝑇2 20
Since TLM is undefined, can use TAVE. Also: since T is constant across the length of heat exchanger (and also equal to
TAVE), TAVE can be used.
20 + 20
∆𝑇𝐴𝑉𝐸 = ( ) = 20℃
2
1.8 Heat Generation

Heat generation in terms of heat transfer:
Energy can be generated in a solid element by:

- Nuclear reaction;
- Catalyst and exothermic reactions; and
- Electrical current

37
1.8.1 Nuclear Reactions
Given in terms of G (per volume of radioactive material)
1.8.2 Catalysts
Metals are expensive. In order to maximize the surface area to volume ratio of a catalyst, we
typically use metal oxide supports which have a large surface area, e.g. activated carbon.
Reactants adsorb an react in the pores; products desorb and are released.
1.8.3 Electric Current
Example 1.15: Heat generation due to an electrical current
Consider an electric wire of circular cross section with radius R and electrical conductivity k e ohm-1cm-1.
Through this wire an electric current is passed with a current density of I amp/cm2. This process is an
irreversible process, converting some electrical energy into heat (thermal energy). The rate of heat production
per unit volume is given by the expression:
𝐼2
𝑆𝑒 =
𝑘𝑒
The quantity Se is the heat source resulting from electrical dissipation. It is assumed that the temperature rise
in the wire is not so large that the temperature dependence of either the electrical or thermal conductivity need
be considered. The surface of the wire is maintained at temperature T 0.
Find the radial temperature profile within the wire.

38
Solution:
R
L
r
For the system we take a cylindrical shell of thickness r and length L.
The contributors to the energy balance across this shell are:

Rate of heat across the cylinder at r (2πrL)(qr |r ) = (2πrLqr ) |r
Rate of heat out across cylindrical surface at r + r (2π(r + ∆r)L)(qr |r+∆r ) = (2πrLqr ) |r+∆r
Rate of thermal production by electrical dissipation (2πr∆rL)Se
By an energy balance: Energy in + Energy generated = Energy out

(2πrLq r ) |r + (2πr∆rL)Se = (2πrLqr ) |r+∆r
Re-arranging:
(2πrLq r ) |r+∆r − (2πrLqr ) |r = (2πr∆rL)Se
÷ 2Lr
(rqr ) |r+∆r − (rqr ) |r
= Se r
∆r
Taking limits as r → 0
(rqr ) |r+∆r − (rqr ) |r
lim = Se r
∆r→0 ∆r
d
(rq ) = Se r
dr r
This is a first order DE and can be integrated to:

Se r C1
qr = +
2 r
The integration constant C1 must be zero, since at r = 0, qr is not infinite

Se r
qr =
2
Now, from Fourier’s Law for heat transfer:

qr = −k. (dT/dr)
Equating:
dT Se r
−k. ( ) =
dr 2

39
Assuming k is constant, integrating:
Se r 2
T= + C2
4k
At r = R; T = T0
Se R2
C2 = + T0
4k
Se R2 r 2
T − T0 = [1 − ( ) ]
4k R
Maximum temperature is at r = 0
S e R2 S e R2
Tmax − T0 = OR Tmax = + T0
4k 4k
Average temperature:
2π R
∫0 ∫0 (T(r) − T0 )rdr. dθ Se R2
〈T〉 − T0 = 2π R =
∫0 ∫0 rdr. dθ 8k
1.9 Unsteady State Heat Transfer

A non-steady state system is on that has properties (state variables – independent of path) that
are changing with time.
Non-steady state conduction problem:
q̇ 1,in q̇ 2,out
q̇ 1,out q̇ 2,in
1 2
- Some of q used to heat up temperature

- q1 ≠ q2
- At the point where q no longer increases, then all of q1,in = q1,out = q2,in = q2,out
Example 1.16:
Solution:

40
EXAMPLES:
Example 1.17: Keeping a cup of coffee warm
The power is going to be down for the next 5 hours. You have just enough time to boil a cup of water for a cup
of coffee. However, you don’t really want a cup of coffee right now – but would rather have it in 30 min time.
Your colleagues come up with several suggestions on how to ensure the coffee is as warm as possible when
you want to drink it. Unfortunately, they are not sure if these will make the coffee hotter or colder. For each
suggestion indicate which would keep the coffee hotter for when you want to drink it. Explain why.
a) Pouring the (cold) milk in when the coffee has been made OR pouring the milk in just before drinking.
Assume the milk stays at the same temperature even with the power out due to good insulation of the fridge.
b) Covering the top of the coffee cup with something OR leaving the top of the cup open to the atmosphere.
c) Using a steel mug OR a ceramic mug.
d) Leaving a spoon in the coffee cup OR taking the spoon out.
e) Leaving the coffee near an open window where there is a slight draft OR where there is no wind.
Solution:
a) Pouring the cold milk in as soon as the coffee has been made will keep it warmer.
Pouring cold milk into the coffee after the coffee has been left to cool for some time results in a larger
temperature gradient and the coffee will cool down faster at the start.
b) Covering the top of the coffee cup will keep it warmer.
This will reduce convective heat transfer between surface of the coffee and the surrounding air.
c) Using a ceramic mug will keep it warmer.
Ceramic is a good insulator, while metal is a very good conductor. Convective heat loss from the coffee
through the walls of the mug to the surrounding air will be faster through metal walls than ceramic walls.
d) Taking the spoon out of the coffee mug will keep it warmer.
The spoon (assuming it is metal) is a good conductor and acts as a type of fin and increases the surface
area for heat transfer. This would increase the convective heat loss.
e) Leaving the coffee cup where there is no wind will keep it warmer.
A draft around the outside of the coffee mug will increase the rate of convective heat loss from the walls of
the mug and from the liquid surface. The draft moves heat away from the outer edges of the mug and the
liquid surface faster; thereby creating a larger temperature gradient. Heat will then be transferred from
the system more quickly.
Example 1.18: Conduction and convection through a furnace wall
The inner surface of a 23 cm brick furnace wall is kept at 820°C, while the temperature of the outer surface is
180°C.
a) Calculate the heat loss from the furnace, given a thermal conductivity of the brick of 0.865 W.m-1.K-1.
b) A further 23 cm is added to the furnace wall, consisting of insulating brick with a thermal conductivity of
0.26W.m-1.K-1. Calculate the reduction in the heat loss, and the maximum temperature to which the
insulating brick is exposed. Assume that the inner temperature remains at 820°C. The temperature of the
surrounding air is 20°C.
c) Re-calculate the heat loss and the maximum temperature to which the insulating is exposed, but allow for
a convective heat transfer coefficient on the outer surface of 11.9 W.m-2.K-1. Assume that the inner
temperature remains at 820°C, and the temperature of the surrounding air is 20°C.
d) How do the answers compare when convection is included?

41
Solution:
𝑑𝑇
a) 𝑞̇ = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥
𝐿 𝑇𝑜
𝑞̇
∴ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑇
−𝑘𝐴
0 𝑇𝑖
𝑞̇ 𝑘 0.865 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1
= (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇0 ) = (1093𝐾 − 453𝐾)
𝐴 𝐿 0.23𝑚
𝑞̇
= 2407 𝑊. 𝑚−2
𝐴
b) For wall 1:
𝑑𝑇
𝑞̇ = −𝑘1 𝐴
𝑑𝑥
𝐿1 𝑇𝑤
𝑞̇
∴ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑇
−𝑘1 𝐴
0 𝑇𝑖
𝑞̇ 𝐿1
⇒ = 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑤
𝑘1 𝐴
𝑞̇ 𝑘1
= (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑤 ) (1)
𝐴 𝐿1
For wall 2:
𝑑𝑇
𝑞̇ = −𝑘2 𝐴
𝑑𝑥
𝑞̇ 𝑘
= 2 (𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇0 ) (2)
𝐴 𝐿2
Equating (1) and (2)
𝑘1 𝑘2
(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑤 ) = (𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇0 )
𝐿1 𝑖 𝐿2
𝑘1 𝑇𝑖 𝑘2 𝑇𝑜 0.865 𝑊. 𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 . 1093 𝐾 0.26 𝑊𝑚−1 . 𝐾 −1 . 293 𝐾
( + ) ( + )
𝐿1 𝐿2 0.23𝑚 0.23𝑚
𝑇𝑤 = =
𝑘 𝑘 0.865 𝑊. 𝑚−1 . 𝐾 −1 0.26 𝑊. 𝑚−1 . 𝐾 −1
( 1 + 2) ( + )
𝐿1 𝐿2 0.23𝑚 0.23𝑚
𝑇𝑤 = 908 𝐾 = 635℃ is the maximum temperature to which the insulating brick is exposed
From (2):
𝑞̇ 0.26 𝑊. 𝑚−1 . 𝐾 −1
= (908 𝐾 − 293𝐾) = 695.2 𝑊. 𝑚−2
𝐴 0.23 𝑚
∆𝑞 = 2407 𝑊. 𝑚 −2 − 695 𝑊. 𝑚−2 = 1712 𝑊. 𝑚−2 reduction in heat loss
c) For wall 1:
𝑑𝑇
𝑞̇ = −𝑘1 𝐴
𝑑𝑥
𝑞̇ 𝑘1
= (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑤 ) (1)
𝐴 𝐿1
For wall 2:
𝑞̇ 𝑘2
= (𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑓 ) (2)
𝐴 𝐿2
For the film:
𝑞̇ = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇0 )
𝑞̇
𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇0 = (3)
ℎ𝐴
Add (1) + (2):
𝑞̇ 𝐿1 𝐿2
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑓 = ( + ) (4)
𝐴 𝑘1 𝑘2
Add (3) + (4)

42
𝑞̇ 𝐿1 𝐿2 1
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇0 = ( + + )
𝐴 𝑘1 𝑘2 ℎ
𝑞̇ 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇0
∴ =
𝐴 (𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 1)
𝑘1 𝑘2 ℎ
𝑞̇ 1093𝐾 − 293𝐾
= = 648 𝑊𝑚−2
𝐴 ( 0.23𝑚 0.23𝑚 1
+ + )
0.896 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 0.26 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 11.9 𝑊𝑚−2 𝐾 −1
From (2):
𝑞̇ 𝐿2
𝑇𝑤 = + 𝑇𝑓
𝑘2 𝐴
From (3):
𝑞̇
𝑇𝑓 = + 𝑇0
ℎ𝐴
𝑞̇ 𝐿2 𝑞̇ 𝑞̇ 𝐿2 1
∴ 𝑇𝑤 = + = 𝑇0 + ( + )
𝑘2 𝐴 ℎ𝐴 𝐴 𝑘2 ℎ
0.23𝑚 1
∴ 𝑇𝑤 = 293𝐾 + 648 𝑊𝑚−2 × ( + ) = 920.68𝐾 = 648℃
0.26 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 11.9 𝑊𝑚−2 𝐾 −1
−2
𝑞̇ 648 𝑊𝑚
𝑇𝑓 = + 𝑇0 = + 293𝐾 = 347.45 = 74.5℃
ℎ𝐴 11.9 𝑊𝑚−2 𝐾 −1
The maximum temperature is 648°C.
d) The heat loss was 695.2 W/m2 neglecting the convective film heat transfer on the outer surface of the
furnace wall. Taking the convective heat transfer into account (as calculated above), there is a 47.2 W/m 2
reduction in heat loss. The film acts as an additional insulating layer.
Example 1.19: Conduction through a cylinder
Saturated steam at 14 bar (195°C) condenses inside a nickel tube 10 m long with a 2 cm ID and 4 cm OD. The
temperature of the surrounding air is 25°C. The thermal conductivity of nickel is 140 W.m-1.K-1. The pipe is
covered with a 0.5 cm layer of insulation (thermal conductivity 0.21 W.m-1.K-1).
a) Calculate the conductive energy across the pipe and insulation.
b) Given a convective heat transfer coefficient on the outside of the insulation (10 W.m -2.K-1), determine the
overall heat transfer coefficient, Uo
c) Determine the mass of steam which condenses per hour.
d) How do answers compare when convection is included vs when it is not?
Solution:
Ta T3 T2 T1 r3
r1 r2

43
𝑑𝑇
a) 𝑞̇ = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑟
𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐿
𝑞̇ 𝑑𝑟
∴ = 𝑑𝑇
−2𝜋𝑘𝐿 𝑟
Across the pipe:
𝑟2 𝑇2
𝑞̇ 𝑑𝑟
∫ = ∫ 𝑑𝑇
−2𝜋𝑘𝑁 𝐿 𝑟
𝑟1 𝑇1
𝑞̇ 𝑟
∴ . 𝑙𝑛 ( 2) = 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 (1)
−2𝜋𝑘𝑁 𝐿 𝑟1
Across the insulation:
𝑞̇ 𝑟
. 𝑙𝑛 ( 3 ) = 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 (2)
−2𝜋𝑘𝐼 𝐿 𝑟2
Adding (1) + (2):
2𝜋𝐿(𝑇1 − 𝑇3 ) 2𝜋 × 10𝑚 × (468𝐾 − 298𝐾)
𝑞̇ = 𝑟2 𝑟3 = = 10 006𝑊 ≅ 10 𝑘𝑊
𝑙𝑛( ⁄𝑟1 ) 𝑛( ⁄𝑟2 ) 𝑙𝑛( 2𝑐𝑚⁄ ) 𝑛(2.5𝑐𝑚⁄2𝑐𝑚)
( + ) ( 1𝑐𝑚 + )
𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝐼 140 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 0.21 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1
The conductive energy across the pipe and insulation is approx. 10 kW.
b) For concentric cylinders with film heat transfer:

𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎
𝑞̇ =
1 𝑙𝑛 (𝑟2 ⁄𝑟1 ) 𝑙𝑛 (𝑟3 ⁄𝑟2 ) 1
( + + + )
2𝜋ℎ𝑖 𝑟0 𝐿 2𝜋𝑘1 𝐿 2𝜋𝑘2 𝐿 2𝜋ℎ0 𝑟3 𝐿
For this system, the overall heat transfer co-efficient (U0) is given by:
1
𝑈0 =
𝑙𝑛 (𝑟2 ⁄𝑟1 ) 𝑙𝑛 (𝑟3 ⁄𝑟2 ) 1
( + + )
2𝜋𝑘𝑁 𝐿 2𝜋𝑘𝐼 𝐿 2𝜋ℎ𝑟3 𝐿
𝑈0
1
=
𝑙𝑛 (2𝑐𝑚⁄1𝑐𝑚) 𝑙𝑛 (2.5𝑐𝑚⁄2𝑐𝑚) 1
( + + )
2𝜋 × 140 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 × 10𝑚 2𝜋 × 0.21 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 × 10𝑚 2𝜋 × 10𝑊𝑚−2 𝐾 −1 × 0.025𝑚 × 10𝑚
1
𝑈0 =
0.08065 𝑊 −1 𝐾
𝑈0 = 12.4 𝑊𝐾 −1
c) 𝑞̇ = 𝑈0 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎 )
𝑞̇ = 12.4 𝑊𝐾 −1 (468𝐾 − 298𝐾)
𝑞̇ = 2108 𝑊 = 2.108 𝑘𝐽𝑠 −1
Energy balance for a flow process:

∆𝑣 2
∆𝐻̂+ ̂𝑠
+ 𝑔∆𝑧 = 𝑞̂ + 𝑊
2
𝑞̇
̂ = 𝑞̂ =
∴ ∆𝐻
𝑚̇
𝑞̇
⇒ 𝑚̇ =
∆𝐻 ̂
For saturated steam at 14bar, Ts = 195°C, Hf = 830 kJ/kg and Hg = 2790 kJ/kg
∴ ∆𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝 = 1960 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
The enthalpy change is the heat of vaporization since the steam is condensing.

44
2.108 𝑘𝐽𝑠 −1
𝑚̇ = = 1.076 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔𝑠 −1 = 3.872 𝑘𝑔ℎ−1
1960 𝑘𝐽𝑘𝑔−1
d) The conductive energy is smaller than in the previous tutorial (2.108 kW compared to 10 kW)
Example 1.20: Conduction through irregular shape
The figure shows the plan view of a steel girder forming a structural member in the wall of a cold room. The
thickness of the wall is 30 cm. The width of the girder is 10 cm on the inside and 20 cm on the outside. Assuming
no heat transfer across the insulation on the sides, calculate the heat flow from the cold room per metre of the
girder. k = 45W.m-1.K-1
To = 25C
Ti = 5C
Solution:
Drawing the system in 3-D, with heat flowing perpendicular to the diagram, the surface area perpendicular to
the flow of heat will be rectangular, with the area increasing as the heat flows from the cold room to the outside
because of the tapering sides of the girder (the girder boundaries become increasingly further apart).
20 cm To = 25C
30 cm
10 cm x
Ti = 5C
Area
We need an expression to describe how the rectangular surface area perpendicular to the direction of heat
flow changes with distance through the wall. The sides of the girder can be described using the equation for
a straight line. Defining an x-y coordinate system such that at x = 0, y = 10 cm , and at x = 30 cm, y = 20 cm.
Given two points and knowing that y = mx + c, we can find:

1
𝑏(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 0.10, where b is the breadth of the rectangle
3
Now from Fourier’s law:

𝑑𝑇
𝑞̇ = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥
With: 𝐴 = 𝑙 × 𝑏(𝑥)
𝑥𝑜 𝑇𝑜
𝑞̇ 𝑑𝑥
∴ ∫ = ∫ 𝑑𝑇
−𝑘 1 𝑥 + 0.10
𝑥𝑖 3 𝑇𝑖
Let u = 1/3 x + 10
du = 1/3 dx
45
3du = dx
And at x = 0, u = 0.10
at x = 0.30, u = 0.20
0.20 𝑇𝑜
𝑞̇ 3
∴ ∫ 𝑑𝑢 = ∫ 𝑑𝑇
−𝑘 𝑢
0.10 𝑇𝑖
3𝑞̇ 0.20
. 𝑙𝑛 ( ) = 𝑇𝑂 − 𝑇𝑖
−𝑘 0.10
−𝑘(𝑇𝑂 − 𝑇𝑖 ) −45𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 (298𝐾 − 278𝐾)
𝑞̇ = = = −433 𝑊. 𝑚−1
3 × 𝑙𝑛 (2) 3 × 𝑙𝑛 (2)
The sign is negative because heat flow is conventionally down the temperature gradient (i.e. from hot to cold)
Example 1.21: Conduction through a sphere
Liquid ammonia at 0.5 atm (-45°C) is stored in a spherical container of ID 1 foot and OD 18 inches. The walls
of the sphere are filled with insulation (k = 0.0692 W.m-1.K-1), and the outer surface is at room temperature of
20°C. What is the heat transfer through the sphere? Assuming the temperature in the sphere remains constant,
how much ammonia is lost per hour by evaporation? H vap NH3: 1390 kJ/kg
Solution:
Fourier’s law:
𝑑𝑇
𝑞̇ = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑟
𝐴 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑞̇ 𝑑𝑟
∴ = 𝑑𝑇
−4𝜋𝑘 𝑟 2
𝑟𝑖 𝑇𝑖
𝑞̇ 𝑑𝑟
∫ 2 = ∫ 𝑑𝑇
−4𝜋𝑘 𝑟
𝑟𝑜 𝑇𝑜
𝑟𝑖
𝑞̇ −1
∴ [ ] = 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜
−4𝜋𝑘 𝑟 𝑟𝑜
𝑞̇ 1 1
( − ) = 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜
4𝜋𝑘 𝑟𝑖 𝑟𝑜
4𝜋𝑘(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 )
𝑞̇ =
1 1
( − )
𝑟𝑖 𝑟𝑜
4𝜋(0.0692𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 )(228𝐾 − 293𝐾)
𝑞̇ = = −25.84 𝑊 = −25.84 𝐽𝑠 −1 = −93.024 𝑘𝐽ℎ−1
1 1
( − )
0.1524𝑚 0.2286𝑚
−1
𝑞̇ 93.024 𝑘𝐽ℎ
𝑚̇ = = = 0.06692 𝑘𝑔ℎ−1 = 66.92 𝑔ℎ−1
∆𝐻̂𝑣𝑎𝑝,𝑁𝐻3 1390 𝑘𝐽𝑘𝑔−1
Example 1.22: Conduction with variable conductive heat transfer coefficient
A house in a cold climate with a flat insulated rook is heated and maintained at 23°C. The roof consists of
three layers that are in contact with one another: ceiling board (1.50 cm thick), insulation (40.0 cm thick) and
a waterproof layer on the outside (0.5 cm thick). The thermal conductivities of the ceiling board, insulation
and waterproof material are k1 = 0.690 W.m-1.K-1, k2 = 85.0 W.m-1.K-1 and k3 = 377 W.m-1.K-1. Lying on the
waterproof material is a layer of snow, which gets thicker as the snow falls. Due to compression of the snow
in contact with the roof, the thermal conductivity is a function of the thickness of the snow according to:
46
1
𝑘𝑠𝑛𝑜𝑤 =
𝑎𝑙 + 𝑏
Where:
l is the thickness of the snow in m, with a = 15.6 K.W-1 and b = 1.24 m.K.W-1
The film heat transfer coefficient on the inside is 18 W.m-2.K-1 and on the outside it is 50 W.m-2.K-1. If heat is
lost at a rate of 50.0 W.m-2 and the outside temperature is -5°C, what is the thickness of the snow on the roof
and the overall heat transfer coefficient?
Ta
h0 T4
L4
L (m)
L3 = 42cm
3
L2 = 41.5cm
2
1 L1 = 1.5cm
0cm
hi
Solution:
𝑞̇⁄ −2
𝐴 = 50.0 𝑊. 𝑚
𝑇𝑎 = −5℃ = 268𝐾
For the inner film:
𝑞̇ 𝑞̇
= ℎ𝑖 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇0 ) ⇒ 𝑇0 = 𝑇𝑖 −
𝐴 𝐴ℎ𝑖
∴ 𝑇0 = 293.22𝐾
For the ceiling board:
𝑞̇ 𝑑𝑇 𝑞̇
= −𝑘1 ⇒ (𝐿 ) = 𝑇1 − 𝑇0
𝐴 𝑑𝐿 −𝑘1 𝐴 1
∴ 𝑇1 = 292.13𝐾
For the insulation:
= −𝑘2 ⇒ (𝐿 − 𝐿1 ) = 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
∴ 𝑇2 = 291.89𝐾
For the waterproofing:
= −𝑘3 ⇒ (𝐿 − 𝐿2 ) = 𝑇3 − 𝑇2
∴ 𝑇3 = 291.89𝐾
For the snow:
𝑞̇ 1 𝑑𝑇
=−
𝐴 (𝑎𝐿 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝐿
𝑞̇
⇒ − (𝑎𝐿 + 𝑏)𝑑𝐿 = 𝑑𝑇
𝐴
Integrating, with L = thickness of the snow:
𝑞̇ 𝑎𝐿2
− ( + 𝑏𝐿) = 𝑇4 − 𝑇3 (1)
𝐴 2
For the outer film:
𝑞̇ 𝑞̇
= ℎ0 (𝑇4 − 𝑇𝑎 ) ⇒ 𝑇4 = 𝑇𝑎 +
𝐴 𝐴ℎ0
47
∴ 𝑇4 = 269𝐾
From (1):
15.6
−50𝑊. 𝑚−2 (( 𝐾𝑊 −1 ) 𝐿2 + (1.24 𝑚𝐾𝑊 −1 )𝐿) = 269𝐾 − 291.89𝐾
2
(7.8 𝐾𝑊 −1 )𝐿2 + (1.24 𝑚𝐾𝑊 −1 )𝐿 − 0.4578 𝑚𝐾. 𝑊 −1 = 0
Using the quadratic formula, and the positive result:

L =0 .1755m
The snow is 17.55 cm thick
And from 𝑞 = 𝑈∆𝑇

𝑞
𝑈=
∆𝑇
50
𝑈=
23 − (−5)
𝑈 = 1.78 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
Example 1.23: Non-steady state heat transfer through sphere
A well-stirred spherical vessel of diameter 6.5 cm containing water at 50C is placed in a constant temperature
bath at 20C. The overall heat transfer coefficient is 625 W/m2.K.
a) Assuming a constant heat loss over time, how much energy is lost from the sphere in 2 minutes?
b) What is the temperature of the water in the vessel after 2 minutes?
Solution:
a) 𝑞 = 𝑈0 𝐴(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇0 )∆𝑡
𝑞 = 625 𝐽𝑠 −1 𝑚−2 𝐾 −1 × 4𝜋(0.0325)2 𝑚2 × (323𝐾 − 293𝐾) × 120𝑠
𝑞 = 625 𝐽𝑠 −1 𝑚−2 𝐾 −1 × 4𝜋(0.0325)2 𝑚2 × (323𝐾 − 293𝐾) × 120𝑠
𝑞 = 29865 𝐽 = 29.865 𝑘𝐽
b) Set up a differential balance describing how the temperature of the water within the vessel (the system)
varies with time. This is a constant pressure system => ∆H = q
𝐻|𝑡 = 𝐻|𝑡+∆𝑡 + 𝑞̇ ∆𝑡
𝐻 = 𝑚𝐶̂𝑝 ∆𝑇 = 𝑚𝐶̂𝑝 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑏 )
where Tb is the basis temperature relative to which the Cp is calculated
Also note that q is a function of Ti

𝑚𝐶̂𝑝 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑏 )|𝑡 = 𝑚𝐶̂𝑝 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑏 )|𝑡+∆𝑡 + 𝑈0 𝐴(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇0 )∆𝑡
∴ 𝑚𝐶̂𝑝 (𝑇𝑖 )|𝑡+∆𝑡 − 𝑚𝐶̂𝑝 (𝑇𝑖 )|𝑡 = −𝑈0 𝐴(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇0 )∆𝑡
𝑚𝐶̂𝑝 (𝑇𝑖 )|𝑡+∆𝑡 − 𝑚𝐶̂𝑝 (𝑇𝑖 )|𝑡
= 𝑈0 𝐴(𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑖 )
∆𝑡
𝑑𝑚𝐶̂𝑝 𝑇𝑖
⇒ = 𝑈0 𝐴(𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑖 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑚𝐶̂𝑝
𝑑𝑇 = 𝑈0 𝐴𝑑𝑡
(𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑖 ) 𝑖

48
𝑇𝑓 𝑡
1
𝑚𝐶̂𝑝 ∫ 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑈0 𝐴 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑖 𝑖
323 0
where Tf is the final temperature of the water inside the sphere
𝑥 1 𝑥
Note: ∫𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = [− 𝑙𝑛(𝑎 − 𝑥)]𝑥12
1 𝑎−𝑥
𝑇
∴ 𝑚𝐶̂𝑝 [−𝑙𝑛 (𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑖 )]50𝑓 = 𝑈0 𝐴𝑡
𝑙𝑛 (𝑇0 − 323)
𝑚𝐶̂𝑝 = 𝑈0 𝐴𝑡
𝑙𝑛 (𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑓 )
𝑇0 − 323 𝑈0 𝐴𝑡
𝑙𝑛 ( )=
𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑓 𝑚𝐶̂𝑝
𝑈0 𝐴𝑡
𝑇0 − 323 ⁄𝑚𝐶̂
( )=𝑒 𝑝
𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑓
𝑈0 𝐴𝑡
⁄𝑚𝐶̂
𝑇0 − 323 = 𝑒 𝑝 × (𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑓 )
𝑈0 𝐴𝑡 𝑈0 𝐴𝑡
⁄𝑚𝐶̂ ⁄𝑚𝐶̂
𝑇0 − 323 = 𝑇0 . 𝑒 𝑝 − 𝑇𝑓 . 𝑒 𝑝
𝑈0 𝐴𝑡
⁄𝑚𝐶̂
𝑇0 (𝑒 𝑝 − 1) + 323
∴ 𝑇𝑓 = 𝑈0 𝐴𝑡
⁄𝑚𝐶̂
𝑒 𝑝
𝐴 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 4𝜋(0.0325)2 𝑚2

𝑡 = 2𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 120𝑠
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟 4⁄ 𝜋(0.0325)3 𝑚3
𝑚= = 3 = 0.14 𝑘𝑔
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 50℃ 0.001 𝑚3 𝑘𝑔−1
𝐶̂𝑝 = 4.182 𝑘𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 = 4182𝑘 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 𝑎𝑡 323𝐾 (50℃)
625×4𝜋(0.0325)2×120⁄
( 0.14×4182)
293 × (𝑒 − 1) + 323
𝑇𝑓 = 625×4𝜋(0.0325)2 ×120⁄
( 0.14×4182)
𝑒
𝑇𝑓 = 298.5𝐾 = 25.5℃
Example 1.24: Non-steady state heat transfer through sphere
Water flows through a 2” steel pipe (2.067” ID & 2.375” OD). The pipe is heated on the outside by steam at
230°F. The overall heat transfer coefficient is 250 Btu/hr ft 2 °F based on the outside area of the pipe. If the
inlet and outlet temperatures for a 1 ft length of pipe are 80°F and 180°F, what is the water flow rate?
Solution:
𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇𝐿𝑀
𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟0 𝐿
∆𝑇1 − ∆𝑇2 (𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚,𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝐻20,𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) − (𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚,𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑇𝐻2𝑂,𝑖𝑛 )

∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 = =
∆𝑇 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝐻2𝑂,𝑜𝑢𝑡 )
𝑙𝑛 1 𝑙𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚,𝑖𝑛
∆𝑇2
(𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚,𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑇𝐻2𝑂,𝑖𝑛 )

49
Assume that Tsteam,in = Tsteam,out = 230°F
(230℉ − 180℉) − (230℉ − 80℉)
∴ ∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 = = 91℉
(230℉ − 180℉)
𝑙𝑛
(230℉ − 80℉)
𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇𝐿𝑀
1𝑓𝑡
𝑄 = 250 𝐵𝑡𝑢 ℎ−1 𝑓𝑡 −2 ℉−1 × 2𝜋 × 1.1875𝑖𝑛 × × 91℉
12𝑖𝑛
1 𝑘𝐽𝑠 −1
𝑄 = 14 145.35 𝐵𝑡𝑢 ℎ−1 × = 4.146 𝑘𝐽𝑠 −1
3412 𝐵𝑡𝑢 ℎ−1
At T = 27°C, hf = 113.1 kJ/kg
At T = 80°C, hf = 334.9 kJ/kg

At T = 85°C, hf = 355.9 kJ/kg
By interpolation, hf = 343.3 kJ/kg at T = 82°C
Energy balance:
∆𝐻 ̂𝐻2𝑂 = 𝑞̂
∴ 𝑞̇ = 𝑚̇𝐻2𝑂 ∆𝐻̂𝐻2𝑂
𝑞̇ = 𝑚̇𝐻2𝑂 (ℎ𝑓,82℃ − ℎ̂𝑓,27℃ )
̂
𝑞̇ 4.146 𝑘𝐽𝑠 −1
⇒ 𝑚̇𝐻2𝑂 = = = 0.01801 𝑘𝑔𝑠 −1
(ℎ̂𝑓,82℃ − ℎ̂𝑓,27℃ ) (343.3 𝑘𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 − 113.1 𝑘𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 )
𝑚̇𝐻2𝑂 = 0.01801 𝑘𝑔𝑠 −1 × 2.205 𝑙𝑏𝑘𝑔−1 × 3600 𝑠 ℎ−1 = 143 𝑙𝑏 ℎ−1
Example 1.25: Heat loss and viscosity effects
As hot oil flows through a pipe it loses heat, thereby reducing its viscosity. In order for the oil to remain flowing, the
viscosity needs to remain above 6 508 cP, at which point it enters a heat exchanger to increase the temperature to 80°C.
a) How much water (at 95°C) is required in the heat exchanger if 100 kg/hr of oil is flowing through the pipe? Assume
the temperature of the steam drops by 10°C.
b) How many heat exchangers will be needed for a length of pipe 3 716 m long. Assume the oil needs to be at 80°C at
the start and end of the pipe, i.e. include a heat exchanger at each end of the pipe.
Given:
𝑇 = 25 + 55𝑒 −0.02𝑥 Units: °C
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 5000 + 5000𝑒 −0.01𝑥 Units: cP
Where x is the length down the pipe (in metres)
Cp, oil = 1.6 kJ/kg.K
Cp, steam = 2 kJ/kg.K
Solution:
a) At a viscosity of 6508 cP; x = 119.8653 m [2nd equation]
This also corresponds to a temperature of 30°C [1st equation]
Calculating the heat needed to raise the oil from 30°C to 80°C:
𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝∆𝑇 = 100 𝑘𝑔 ∗ 1.6 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔. 𝐾 ∗ (80 − 30)𝐾 = 7999.529 𝑘𝐽/ℎ𝑟
Since the heat gained by the oil must be equal to the heat lost by the hot water:
𝑄𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝑄𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 7999.529 𝑘𝐽/ℎ𝑟 = 𝑚 ∗ 4.1868 ∗ (10)
∴ 𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 399.976 ≈ 400 𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟
b) Length at which viscosity is at the limit = 119.86m (from above). Therefore need a heat exchanger every 119 m
Therefore (3716/119) = 31
Plus adding the initial heat exchanger to the start of the line, a total of 32 heat exchangers are needed.

50
Example 1.26: Heat transfer through composite slab
Assuming a section of composite material below, what is the inside wall temperature if the outside is maintained
at a temperature of 1000°C and the heat transfer is 4 kW/m. Give your answer to the nearest degree
Fahrenheit.
Aluminium
Outside Inside
Ceramic
Air
1m
5 mm
40 mm 20 mm 500 mm 24 mm
k-values (W/mK):
Aluminium: 200 Ceramic: 0.52 Air: 0.0234
Assumptions to be used:
- Ignore convection
- Assume the surfaces normal to the direction of heat flow are isothermal
Solution:
It can be assumed that all three “bars” are 5 mm thick. Therefore, the length of the air sections are:
(1m – 3(5mm)/2 = 0.4925 mm thick. Further assume that the section is 1m deep. NOTE: Units DO NOT
balance with this assumption and as such, the heat transfer given needs to be written as 4kW as we are taking
a basis of 1 m.
Numbering the sections from 1 – 8 from left to right (top to bottom):
Section Li Ki Ai Resistance per

number section
(mm) (m) (w/mK) (m2) Ri = Li/KiAi
1 Ceramic 40 0.04 0.52 1 0.076923077
2 Al left 20 0.02 200 1 0.0001
3 Al top 500 0.5 200 0.005 0.5
4 Air top 500 0.5 0.0234 0.4925 43.38583019
5 Al middle 500 0.5 200 0.005 0.5
6 Air bottom 500 0.5 0.0234 0.4925 43.38583019
7 Al bottom 500 0.5 200 0.005 0.5
51
8 Al right 24 0.024 200 1 0.00012
Now:
∆𝑇
𝑞̇ =
𝑅
Or for the system above:

∆𝑇
𝑞̇ =
𝐿1 𝐿 𝑘 𝐴 𝑘 𝐴 𝑘 𝐴 𝑘 𝐴 𝑘 𝐴 −1 𝐿
+ 2 + ( 3 3 + 4 4 + 5 5 + 6 6 + 7 7) + 8
𝑘1 𝐴1 𝑘2 𝐴2 𝐿3 𝐿4 𝐿5 𝐿6 𝐿7 𝑘8 𝐴
Which can also be simplified to (because portions of the parallel section are the same material, i.e. same k,
AND same area):
∆𝑇
𝑞̇ = −1
𝐿1 𝐿 𝑘 𝐴 𝑘 𝐴 𝐿
+ 2 + (3 ( 3 3 ) + 2 ( 4 4 )) + 8
𝑘1 𝐴1 𝑘2 𝐴2 𝐿3 𝐿4 𝑘8 𝐴
Substituting numbers from above:

∆𝑇
𝑞̇ = −1
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝑘3 𝐴 3 𝑘4 𝐴 4 𝐿
+ + (3 ( ) + 2( )) + 8
𝑘1 𝐴1 𝑘2 𝐴2 𝐿3 𝐿4 𝑘8 𝐴
Tinside = 24.84397…°C
Converting to Fahrenheit:
Tinside = 85.71915…°F
Therefore, to the nearest degree:
Tinside = 86°F
Example 1.27: Heat transfer equipment
List as many types of heat transfer equipment as possible. How does each of these work?
Solution:
Heat exchangers A process stream is heated or cooled via exchange of heat with another process stream
Heaters A process stream is heated via exchange of heat with a hot service/utility stream (e.g. steam)
Coolers A process stream is cooled via exchange of heat with a cold service/utility stream (e.g.
cooling water)
Reboilers Typically associated with distillation columns. The liquid bottoms product is heated and
partially or fully vaporized via exchange of heat with a hot service/utility stream (e.g. steam)
Condensers Typically associated with distillation columns. The vapour top product is heated and
partially or fully condensed via exchange of heat with a cold service/utility stream (e.g.
cooling water/refrigerant)
Agitated vessels (jacketed heaters) Process fluid is heated or cooled in an agitated tank via exchange of heat
with a hot or cold jacket (steam or cooling water circulated through the outer jacket of the
vessel)
Example 1.28: Shell and tube heat exchanger
In a shell and tube heat exchanger:

52
a) What are the role of baffles?
b) How does fouling influence heat transfer?
c) Can the outlet temperature of a hot stream be less than the outlet temperature of the cold stream? Explain
and include a sketch to show this.
Solution:
a) Baffles define the flow path of fluid through the heat exchanger, increase the surface area for heat
exchange and support the tubes.
b) Fouling refers to the deposition of solid material on the heat exchange surfaces. All process and utility
streams will cause fouling and the extent depends on the composition of the fluid. The fouled material acts
as a resistance to heat transfer and, therefore, reduce the rate of heat transfer.
Example 1.29: Counter current heat exchanger
A small counter current heat exchanger operates with the following stream temperatures:
Cold stream in: 20°C

Cold stream out: 100°C
Hot stream in: 120°C
Hot stream out 70°C
The unit has a total area for heat transfer of 1 m² and an overall heat transfer coefficient of 500W/m².K. What
is the rate of energy transfer?
Solution:
TH,in = 120°C
TH,out = 70°C
TC,out = 100°C
TC,in = 20°C
𝑄 = 𝑈0 𝐴∆𝑇𝐿𝑀
(𝑇𝐻,𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝐶,𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) − (𝑇𝐻,𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑇𝐶,𝑖𝑛 ) (393𝐾 − 373𝐾) − (343𝐾 − 293𝐾)
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 = = = 32.74𝐾
(𝑇𝐻,𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝐶,𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) (393𝐾 − 373𝐾)
𝑙𝑛 ( ) 𝑙𝑛 ( )
(𝑇𝐻,𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑇𝐶,𝑖𝑛 ) (343𝐾 − 293𝐾)
𝑄 = 500 𝑊𝑚−2 𝐾 −1 × 1 𝑚2 × 32.74𝐾

𝑄 = 16.37 𝑘𝑊 𝑜𝑟 𝑘𝐽𝑠 −1
Example 1.30: Counter-current heat exchanger
A stream (oil) of 9.2 kg/s is to be heated from 65°C to 95°C in a heat exchanger, using 16.7 kg/s of water
entering at 105°C. If the overall heat-transfer coefficient is 1300 J/m2s°C, calculate the area of heat exchanger
required if the flows are counter current.

53
Solution:
mH,in = 16.7kg/s mH,out = 16.7kg/s
TH,in = 105°C TH,out = ? °C
mC,out = 9.2kg/s mC,in = 9.2kg/s

TC,out = 95°C TC,in = 65°C
For the oil stream:

𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶̂𝑝 ∆𝑇
Assume vegetable oil or mineral oil (both have the same heat capacity)
Cp,oil = 1.67 kJ/kg.K
𝑄 = 9.2 𝑘𝑔𝑠 −1 × 1.67 𝑘𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 × (368𝐾 − 338𝐾)
𝑄 = 460.92 𝑘𝐽𝑠 −1
For the water stream:

𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶̂𝑝 ∆𝑇
𝑄
∴ ∆𝑇 =
𝑚𝐶̂𝑝
Assume Cp,water = 4.19 kJ/kg.K

460.92 𝑘𝐽𝑠 −1
∆𝑇 =
16.7 𝑘𝑔𝑠 −1 × 4.19 𝑘𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1
∆𝑇 = 6.6𝐾
∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝐻,𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑇𝐻,𝑖𝑛
∴ 𝑇𝐻,𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 371.4𝐾 = 98.4℃
𝑄 = 𝑈0 𝐴∆𝑇𝐿𝑀
𝑄
∴𝐴=
𝑈0 ∆𝑇𝐿𝑀
(𝑇𝐻,𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝐶,𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) − (𝑇𝐻,𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑇𝐶,𝑖𝑛 ) (105℃ − 95℃) − (98.4℃ − 65℃)
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 = = = 19.40℃
(𝑇 − 𝑇𝐶,𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) (105℃ − 95℃)
ln ( 𝐻,𝑖𝑛 ) ln ( )
(𝑇𝐻,𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑇𝐶,𝑖𝑛 ) (98.4℃ − 65℃)
460.92 𝑘𝐽𝑠 −1
𝐴= = 18.28 𝑚2
1.300 𝑘𝐽𝑠 −1 𝑚−2 ℃−1 × 19.40℃
Example 1.31:
A metal rod of length L and radius R has its two ends maintained at temperatures T1 = 150°C and T2 = 60°C
respectively. The length of the rod is exposed to air at constant temperature To = 0°C, and hence will be cooled
by the surrounding air. The film coefficient of heat transfer between the curved surface of the rod and the air
is h. Assume that at any point x along the length of the rod the metal temperature is constant over the circular
cross-section of the rod – although this ‘constant’ temperature varies, along the length of the rod. Regard the
thermal conductivity k of the metal as constant.
a) Obtain an expression for the temperature at the midpoint (x = L/2) of the rod.
b) What is the energy input required at the ends of the rod to maintain the specified
temperatures T1 and T2?
Solution:
54
a) Energy in|x = Energy out|x+∆x – energy loss due to convection over ∆x
𝑞̇ |𝑥 = 𝑞|̇𝑥+∆𝑥 + ℎ(2𝜋𝑅∆𝑥)(𝑇 − 𝑇0 )
Applying Fourier’s Law:

𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
−𝑘(𝜋𝑅2 ) | = −𝑘(𝜋𝑅2 ) | + 2𝜋ℎ𝑅∆𝑥(𝑇)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥+∆𝑥
Re-arranging and dividing throughout by ∆x:
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
𝑘𝜋𝑅2 ( | − | )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥+∆𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
= 2𝜋ℎ𝑅𝑇
∆𝑥
Taking lim
∆𝑥→0
𝑑 𝑑𝑇 2ℎ𝑇
( )=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑘𝑅
𝑑 2 𝑇 2ℎ𝑇 𝑑 2 𝑇 2ℎ
∴ 2= 𝑜𝑟 − 𝑇=0
𝑑𝑥 𝑘𝑅 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑘𝑅
If D = d/dx and we let θ = (2h/kR)½ , then:
(𝐷2 − 𝜃 2 )𝑇 = 0
(𝐷 + 𝜃)(𝐷 − 𝜃)𝑇 = 0
⇒ 𝑇 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜃𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 𝜃𝑥
Boundary condition 1: At x = 0, T = T1 = 150°C

150 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜃(0) + 𝐵𝑒 𝜃(0) = 𝐴 + 𝐵
∴ 𝐵 = 150 − 𝐴
Boundary condition 2: At x = L, T = T2 = 60°C
60 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜃𝐿 + (150 − 𝐴)𝑒 𝜃𝐿
𝐴(𝑒 𝜃𝐿 − 𝑒 −𝜃𝐿 ) = 150𝑒 𝜃𝐿 − 60
150𝑒 𝜃𝐿 − 60
𝐴 = 𝜃𝐿
𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝜃𝐿
150𝑒 𝜃𝐿 − 60
∴ 𝐵 = 150 −
(𝑒 𝜃𝐿 − 𝑒 −𝜃𝐿 )
150(𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝜃𝐿 ) − (150𝑒 𝜃𝐿 − 60)
𝜃𝐿
𝐵=
(𝑒 𝜃𝐿 − 𝑒 −𝜃𝐿 )
−𝜃𝐿
60 − 150𝑒
𝐵=
𝑒 𝜃𝐿 − 𝑒 −𝜃𝐿
150𝑒 𝜃𝐿 − 60 −𝜃𝑥 60 − 150𝑒 −𝜃𝐿 𝜃𝑥

𝑇= 𝑒 + 𝜃𝐿 𝑒
𝑒 𝜃𝐿 − 𝑒 −𝜃𝐿 𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝜃𝐿
𝜃𝑥
(150𝑒 𝜃𝐿 − 60)𝑒 −𝜃𝑥 + (60 − 150𝑒 −𝜃𝐿 )𝑒
𝑇=
At x = L/2
𝜃𝐿 𝜃𝐿⁄
(150𝑒 𝜃𝐿 − 60)𝑒 − ⁄2 + (60 − 150𝑒 −𝜃𝐿 )𝑒 2
𝑇=
2ℎ
where 𝜃 = √
𝑘𝑅
b) For conduction down the length of the rod:
𝑞̇ = ℎ(2𝜋𝑅𝐿)(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
55
Example 1.32:
A thick-walled pipe of inner radius r1 and outer radius r2 is constructed of material whose thermal conductivity
is a function of the temperature, i.e. k = a + bT, where a and b are constants. Inside the pipe, there is a liquid
at temperature To. Outside, the pipe is surrounded by air at a temperature TA. The film coefficients on the
inside and outside of the pipe are h1 and h2 respectively.
a.) If the coefficient h1 is very large, so that the temperature of the inner surface may be assumed to be at T o,
calculate the steady-state heat flow through the pipe wall per unit length.
b.) Recalculate 𝑞̇ /𝐿 allowing for h1 given in the data below.
Data:
r1 = 5 cm
r2 = 20 cm
h1 = 150 W/m2.K
h2 = 25 W/m2.K
To = 100°C
TA = 10°C
k = 0.1 + 0.004T in W/mK for T in °C
Solution:
a) If h1 is very large, it offers minimal resistance to heat transfer
Conduction through the pipe material:

𝑑𝑇
𝑞̇ = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑟
𝑟2 𝑇2
1
∴ 𝑞̇ ∫ 𝑑𝑟 = − ∫ (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑇)𝑑𝑇
2𝜋𝑟𝐿
𝑟1 𝑇0
𝑞̇ 𝑟2 𝑏 𝑏
ln = 𝑎𝑇0 + 𝑇0 2 − 𝑎𝑇2 − 𝑇2 2 (1)
2𝜋𝐿 𝑟1 2 2
Film heat transfer from outer surface of pipe:

𝑞̇ = ℎ2 (2𝜋𝑟2 𝐿)(𝑇2 − 𝑇𝐴 )
𝑞̇
𝑇2 = 𝑇𝐴 + (2)
2𝜋ℎ2 𝑟2 𝐿
Substitute (2) into (1):

2
𝑞̇ 𝑟2 𝑏 𝑞̇ 𝑏 𝑞̇
ln = 𝑎𝑇0 + 𝑇0 2 − 𝑎 [𝑇𝐴 + ] − [𝑇𝐴 + ]
2𝜋𝐿 𝑟1 2 2𝜋ℎ2 𝑟2 𝐿 2 2𝜋ℎ2 𝑟2 𝐿
Re-arranging to solve for q/L:
𝑏⁄ 𝑟2
𝑞̇ 2 2 ] + 𝑞̇ (ln( ⁄𝑟1 ) + 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑇𝐴 ) − [𝑎(𝑇 − 𝑇 ) + 𝑏 (𝑇 2 − 𝑇 2 )] = 0
( ) [ 0 𝐴
𝐿 (2𝜋ℎ2 𝑟2 )2 𝐿 2𝜋 2𝜋ℎ2 𝑟2 2 0 𝐴
Using the quadratic formula:

𝑞̇ −𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
=
𝐿 2𝑎
Note:
k (W/mK) = a (W/mK) + b (W/mK2) * T (°C)

56
𝑏⁄
𝑊𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎 = 2
(2𝜋ℎ2 𝑟2 )2
0.004 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −2⁄
𝑎= 2 = 2.0264 × 10−6 𝑊 −1 𝑚
(2𝜋 × 25 𝑊𝑚−2 𝐾 −1 × 0.20 𝑚)2
𝑟
ln( 2⁄𝑟1 ) 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑇𝐴
𝑊𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑏 = +
2𝜋 2𝜋ℎ2 𝑟2
1 (0.1 + 0.004(10℃))𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1
𝑏= (ln(0.20 𝑚⁄0.05 𝑚) + ) = 0.22509
2𝜋 (25 𝑊𝑚−2 𝐾 −1 × 0.20 𝑚)
𝑏
𝑊𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑇0 − 𝑇𝐴 ) + (𝑇0 2 − 𝑇𝐴 2 )
2
0.004
𝑐 = 0.1 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 (100℃ − 10℃) + 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −2 (100℃2 − 10℃2 ) = 28.8 𝑊𝑚−1
2
𝑞̇ −0.22509 ± √0.225092 − 4(2.0264 × 10−6 𝑊 −1 𝑚)(−28.8 𝑊𝑚−1 )

=
𝐿 2(2.0264 × 10−6 𝑊 −1 𝑚)
𝑞̇
= 128 𝑊𝑚−1
𝐿
b) Film heat transfer from fluid to inner pipe wall:
𝑞̇ = ℎ1 (2𝜋𝑟1 𝐿)(𝑇0 − 𝑇1 )
𝑞̇
𝑇1 = 𝑇0 − (1)
2𝜋ℎ1 𝑟1 𝐿
Conduction through the pipe material:

𝑑𝑇
𝑞̇ = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑟
𝑟2 𝑇2
1
∴ 𝑞̇ ∫ 𝑑𝑟 = − ∫ (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑇)𝑑𝑇
2𝜋𝑟𝐿
𝑟1 𝑇1
𝑞̇ 𝑟2 𝑏 𝑏
ln = 𝑎𝑇1 + 𝑇1 2 − 𝑎𝑇2 − 𝑇2 2 (2)
2𝜋𝐿 𝑟1 2 2
Film heat transfer from outer surface of pipe:

𝑞̇ = ℎ2 (2𝜋𝑟2 𝐿)(𝑇2 − 𝑇𝐴 ) (3)
Substitute (1) and (3) into (2):

2 2
𝑞̇ 𝑟2 𝑞̇ 𝑏 𝑞̇ 𝑞̇ 𝑏 𝑞̇
ln = 𝑎 [𝑇0 − ] + [𝑇0 − ] − 𝑎 [𝑇𝐴 + ] − [𝑇𝐴 + ]
2𝜋𝐿 𝑟1 2𝜋ℎ1 𝑟1 𝐿 2 2𝜋ℎ1 𝑟1 𝐿 2𝜋ℎ2 𝑟2 𝐿 2 2𝜋ℎ2 𝑟2 𝐿
Re-arranging to solve for q/L:
𝑏⁄ 𝑏⁄ 𝑟
𝑞̇ 2 2 2 𝑞̇ ln( 2⁄𝑟1 ) 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑇0 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑇𝐴 𝑏
( ) [ − ]+ ( + + ) − [𝑎(𝑇0 − 𝑇𝐴 ) + (𝑇0 2 − 𝑇𝐴 2 )]
𝐿 (2𝜋ℎ2 𝑟2 )2 (2𝜋ℎ1 𝑟1 )2 𝐿 2𝜋 2𝜋ℎ1 𝑟1 2𝜋ℎ2 𝑟2 2
=0
Using the quadratic formula:
𝑞̇ −𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
=
𝐿 2𝑎
Note:
k (W/mK) = a (W/mK) + b (W/mK2) * T (°C)
57
𝑏⁄
𝑊𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎 = 2 [ 1 − 1 ]
(2𝜋)2 (ℎ2 𝑟2 )2 (ℎ1 𝑟1 )2
0.004 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −2⁄ 1 1
𝑎= 2[ − ]
(2𝜋)2 (25 𝑊𝑚−2 𝐾 −1 × 0.20 𝑚)2 (150 𝑊𝑚−2 𝐾 −1 × 0.05 𝑚)2
𝑎 = 1.1258 × 10−6 𝑊 −1 𝑚
𝑟
ln( 2⁄𝑟1 ) 𝑎+𝑏𝑇0 𝑎+𝑏𝑇𝐴
With 𝑏 = + +
2𝜋 2𝜋ℎ1 𝑟1 2𝜋ℎ2 𝑟2
1 (0.1 + 0.004(100℃))𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 (0.1 + 0.004(10℃))𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1
𝑏= (ln(0.20 𝑚⁄0.05 𝑚) + + )
2𝜋 (150 𝑊𝑚−2 𝐾 −1 × 0.05 𝑚) (25 𝑊𝑚−2 𝐾 −1 × 0.20 𝑚)
𝑏 = 0.23570
𝑏
𝑊𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑇0 − 𝑇𝐴 ) + (𝑇0 2 − 𝑇𝐴 2 )
2
0.004
𝑐 = 0.1 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 (100℃ − 10℃) + 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −2 (100℃2 − 10℃2 ) = 28.8 𝑊𝑚−1
2
𝑞̇ −0.23570 ± √0.235702 − 4(1.1258 × 10−6 𝑊 −1 𝑚)(−28.8 𝑊𝑚−1 )

=
𝐿 2(1.1258 × 10−6 𝑊 −1 𝑚)
𝑞̇
= 122 𝑊𝑚−1
𝐿
Additional Reading
Çengel, YA, Ghajar, AJ, 2011. Heat and Mass Transfer – Fundamentals and Applications, 4th
Edition, McGraw Hill.
Coulson, JM, Richardson, JF, Backhurst, JR, Harker, JH, 1999. Coulson & Richardson’s
Chemical Engineering, Volume 1, 6th Edition, Elsevier.
Incropera, FP, DeWitt, DP, Bergman and Lavine, 2013. Fundamentals of Mass and Heat
Transfer, 7th Edition, John Wiley & Sons.
Perry, RH, and Green, DW, 1984. Perry's Chemical Engineers Handbook, 6th Edition.
Rathakrishnan, E, 2012. Elements of Heat Transfer, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group.
Skogestad, S, 2009. Chemical and Energy Process Engineering, CRC Press.
Welty, JR, Wicks, CE, Wilson, RE, Rorrer, GL. 2008. Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat,
and Mass Transfer, 5th Edition, Wiley.

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Heat Transfer

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What are the three main modes of heat transfer?

What are the three main modes of heat transfer?

What is conduction and how does it occur?

What is conduction and how does it occur?

1 Heat transfer

Heat transfer can be achieved by conduction, convection or radiation.

Convection is the sum of advection and diffusion:

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za)

1.2 Conductive heat transfer

Including a proportionality constant, this can be written as:

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za)

1.2.2 Thermal conductivity

Table 1.1: Typical thermal conductivities

Material Thermal conductivity (W/(m.K))

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za)

In reality, k is not a constant but dependent on temperature:

Good conductors have high thermal conductivity, e.g. copper.

1.2.3 Conduction through a wall

From Fourier’s Law:

This is a separable differential equation:

Example 1.1: Conduction through a single slab

Case 2: Conduction through 2 slabs

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za)

From single slab calculation:

Re-arranging, this gives:

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za)

Example 1.2: Conduction through two slabs

The temperature between the brick and steel is approximately 625°C

Case 3: Conduction through n-slabs

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za)

k1 k2 kk33 ... kknn Tc

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za)

This is more commonly written as:

Which can also be expressed as:

Example 1.3: Conduction through multiple layers

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za)

Temperature profile through n-slabs

When 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, plot of T vs. x gives a straight-line temperature profile (for a constant k,

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za)

1.2.4 Conduction through a cylinder

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za)

From Fourier’s Law:

And Fourier’s Law becomes:

Assuming k is constant and solving the separable differential equation:

Example 1.4: Conduction through a cylinder

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za)

From the Fourier form as before:

Typically, area will be given as a function of x, e.g. A = x + 3; or A = 2x2 – 4 or others, and

Example 1.5: Conduction when area is not constant

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za)

From the Fourier form as before:

Typically, k will be given as a function of temperature, e.g. k = T + 30; or k = 2T2 – 4 or others,

1.2.7 Thermal Resistance

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za)

Example 1.7: Conduction through an irregular shape (1)

Example 1.8: Conduction through an irregular shape (2)

Kevin Harding (kevin.harding@wits.ac.za)

1.3 Convective heat transfer