TRANSFER PROCESSES - HEAT & MASS

Lecture I – Introduction to Heat Transfer

1

CHEMICAL & BIOMOLECULAR ENGINEERING DIPLOMA,

LEVEL 2.2

LECTURER: SWE SWE MIN

ROOM: Blk 83-05-0000
Tel: 64606348
EMAIL: mss2@ADJ.NP.EDU.SG
SCHOOL OF LIFE SCIENCES AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY
NGEE ANN POLYTECHNIC
 Attendance
2

100 % for both lectures and tutorials

Less than 80 % will be debarred from exam.
No 15 min grace period anymore. All late comers are
considered as absent. Please be punctual for each of
your class
Switched off hand-phones/put in silent mode in the
classroom.
No games in the class.
No laptops unless required for the class
 Assessment
3

Final Exam 50 %
Continuous Assessment 50 %

Continuous Assessment (CA)

-Assignment & Participation (10%)
-Common test (20%)
-Class test (20%)
 Why are transfer processes so important?
4

As chemical engineers, we are interested in the

behaviour of industrial processes.
Transfer processes are of fundamental importance to
most chemical engineering processes.
-Chemist can explain a process in the laboratory, but Chemical
engineer is required to understand the behaviour of the same
process on an industrial scale.
-At these large scales, heat and mass transfer issues become very
important.
The Task of Chemical Engineer
5

Understand the transfer processes so that we can:

-design chemical plant to meet required product

specifications

-understand and troubleshoot the operation of existing

plant
 6

HEAT TRANSFER
 Heat Transfer
8

Heat transfer is defined as energy flow due to

temperature gradients or differences.
Heat transfer is an important subject with applications
in many areas
-Heating and cooling of process fluids
-Design of machinery, aircraft, microelectronics
-Study of environmental processes
*Greenhouse effect
-Design of buildings
 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
10

Heat transfer always occurs when there is a

difference in temperatures. The temperature
difference is the driving force.
When two objects at different temperatures are
brought into contact, heat flows from the object at
the higher temperature to that at the lower
temperature.
The net flow is always in the direction of the
temperature decrease.
Three modes of heat transfer

Conduction
Convection
Radiation
 Conduction
12

Conduction transfers heat by the motion of the

molecules in the substance. This is like a diffusion of
heat.
Conduction is the only mechanism for heat transfer
through most solids.
Conduction can also occur through liquids and gases.
Examples
 refrigerator
 heat treatment of steel forging
 freezing of the ground during winter
 Convection
13

Convection can occur when the material through

which the heat is transferring can flow (liquids and
gases).
Heat is transferred to the fluid, and is then
transferred because the fluid is flowing.
-Natural Convection - flow results from temperature induced
density differences
-Forced Convection - the fluid flow occurs by external driving
forces, such as pumping
 Radiation
14

All bodies radiate electromagnetic radiation, depending

on their temperature
-Higher temperatures emit more radiation, and higher frequencies
Radiated heat can be reflected, transmitted or absorbed
when it contacts matter
-Heat is transferred to matter which absorbs the electromagnetic
radiation (e.g. microwave oven)
 Heat and Mass Transfer?
15

What comes out of a process depends on the

equilibrium state, which is the field of the chemist,
but…
It also depends on the kinetics of the process:
-Reaction kinetics (a chemical phenomenon)
-Kinetics of transfer processes (physical phenomenon)
*Mass transfer - mixing, diffusion
*Heat transfer
 Example - Heat Transfer
17

Consider a counter current heat exchanger:

Heat Transfer Resistance
18
Conduction - Thermal Conductivity
19

The thermal conductivity, k, has units of energy

per time per distance per degree. For example:

W Btu
o o
m C h.ft. F
Thermal conductivity tells us how easily heat can be conducted through a
material. High values mean heat is easily conducted. Low values make
good insulators.
Examples: air, wood, steel, glass
 Conduction - Fourier’s Law
20

 The basic principle of heat conduction is that the heat flow

across any isothermal surface (system boundary) is
proportional to the temperature gradient across the surface
(Fourier’s law):
dQ dT
 q  kA
dt dx
A = the area of the isothermal surface, m2
x = distance measured normally to the surface, m
Q = heat flow across the surface, J
t = time
q = rate of heat flow across the surface, W
T = temperature, oC
k = a proportionality constant (called the thermal conductivity)
 Conduction - Thermal Conductivity
(Cont’d)
21

Silver - 415 W/(moC)

Stainless steel - 17 W/(moC)
Window glass - 0.78 W/(moC)
Water - 0.61 W/(moC)
Air - 0.027 W/(moC)
Can often assume that the thermal conductivity
is independent of temperature (weak
dependence)
 Steady State Conduction
22

The simplest kind of heat transfer problem is steady

state, one dimensional conduction.
Consider a refractory brick wall in a furnace, initially at
a uniform temperature of 25oC. The outside of the
furnace is maintained at 25oC by a cooling water
system.
When the furnace is switched on, the inside face of the
wall is suddenly exposed to gases at a temperature of
700oC.
 Steady State Conduction
23

The temperature within the wall will change,

eventually reaching a dynamic steady state:

Initial Intermediate Steady state

 Steady State Conduction Through A Flat Slab
24

In this case, where x is the distance from the hot side of
the conductor,
q dT
 k
A dx

this can be integrated directly to give:

q ΔT where B is the thickness of
k
A B the slab.
 Steady State Conduction Through A Flat Slab
25

This can be written as:

q T

A R
where R = B / k is the thermal resistance.
The rate of heat flow is clearly proportional to the
a driving force (the temperature difference) and
inversely proportional to the resistance. The
inverse of the resistance is called the conductance.
 Summing Resistances
26

Heat transfer resistances can be added in the same way

as electrical resistances in series as follows:
Rtotal  R1  R2  R3  ...
Where Rtotal = Total Heat Transfer Resistance
R1= Heating fluid boundary layer resistance
R2= Conduction resistance of heat transfer surface
R3= Cooling fluid boundary layer resistance
 Summary of equations learnt by far

Steady state heat conduction through slabs

q dT q ΔT q T
 k k 
A dx A B A R
where R = B / k is the thermal resistance.

Rtotal  R1  R2  R3  ...
q T

A Rtotal
 Example 1
28

Calculate the heat loss per m2 of surface area for an

insulating wall composed of 25.4 mm thick fiber
insulating board, where the inside temperature is
352.7 K and the outside temperature is 297.1 K.
Thermal conductivity of fiber insulating board is
0.048 W/mK.
 Solution
29

Heat loss per m2 of surface area is:

q T
k
A B
W (352.7 - 297.1) K
 0.048 
m.K 0.0254 m
W
 105.1 2
m
 Example 2
30

I use a polystyrene cooler box to keep my drinks cool at

a picnic. The inside contains ice, water and drinks at
0oC. Outside the air is 30oC.
For polystyrene, k~0.03 W/moC. The thickness of the
walls of the cooler box is 2cm.
If the cooler box is a cube with sides 50cm, what is the
heat transfer rate from the box?
 Example 2 - Solution
31

First, assume that the heat transfer resistance

afforded by the fluid boundary layers is small
compared to the resistance of the polystyrene.
Assume that the box can be modeled by the
conduction through a slab model.
 Example 2 - Solution
32

First we need to find the temperature difference

across the wall of the box: T  __________

The thickness of the wall: B  ________________

The box has six sides, so total area for heat

transfer is:
A  _________________
 Example 2 - Solution
33

The heat transfer rate for the slab conduction

model is:
T
q  kA
B
 _________________________

 ___________
 Example 3
34

Double glazed windows are being used

in Northern part of China in order to
keep the room warm during winter
time. The thickness of the glass is 6 mm
and that for the air layer is 26 mm. The
heat conductivity of glass is 0.78
W/m·°C and that for air is 0.026
W/m·°C.
 Example 3

What is the overall resistance of the double

glazing?
What is the resistance of double glazing
compared to normal window glass?
What is the rate of heat loss through a 4 m 2
double glazed window if the temperature outside
is -5oC and the temperature inside is 20oC?
 Example 3 - Solution
36

First, determine the thermal resistances of each

individual resistor in the series:

Rglass  Bglass / k glass Rair  Bair / k air

 ______________  _________________
 ______________  _________________
 Example 3 - Solution
37

The total thermal resistance is the sum of the individual thermal resistances:

Rtotal  Rglass  Rair  Rglass

 _______________________
 __________________

The resistance of double glazing compared to normal window glass is _____ / 0.0077
= ______. This double glazing has _______ times the thermal resistance of a single
pane of window glass.
 Example 3 - Solution
38

For our heat loss problem, the temperature

difference across the window is 25oC.
The heat transfer area is 4m2.
Therefore, the total heat loss rate is:

A.T
q  _________________________
Rtotal
Determination of Temperature Profile
39

We can determine the temperature at the interface between the glass sections and the air
section.
The heat transfer per unit area q/A = _______________
Considering just the glass slab on the room side,
R=0.0077m2oC/W. From our slab conduction equation,

q
T  Rglass
A Therefore the temperature at the
glass air interface is 20oC - _____oC
 _________________ = _______oC.
 ____________
Conduction in Radial Systems
40

application to tubes and pipes

transfer of hot or cold process fluids around the
plant - heat losses / gains from the environment
tube bundles in heat exchangers
 Conduction in Radial Systems
41

Assuming that the there is no heat transfer along the

direction of the pipe, we can solve the Fourier’s law for
the cylindrical system:
 Conduction in Radial Systems
42

Integrating Fourier’s law in the radial geometry gives

us:
2kLTi  To 
q
ln ro / ri 

where L is the length of the cylinder

subscript i refers to inside
subscript o refers to outside.
Serial Conduction in Radial Systems
43

Multiple resistances can

also be calculated in
radial systems. This is
very useful for insulation
on pipes or tubes.
 Serial Conduction in Radial Systems
44

Consider n layers numbered from the inside of the

tube to the outside (i=0, o=n)

2LTi  To 
q
ln r1 / ri  / k1  ln r2 / r1  / k 2  ...  ln rn / rn 1  / k n
Equation summary for heat conduction in radial systems

Single layer:

2kLTi  To 
q
ln ro / ri 

Multiple layers

2LTi  To 
q
ln r1 / ri  / k1  ln r2 / r1  / k 2  ...  ln rn / rn 1  / k n
 Challenging questions

How to find the thermal resistance for pipes?

R=?
 Derivation of heat conduction in radial systems

dT dT dT dT
q  kA   k 2rL   k 2L   2kL
dr dr dr / r d ln r
qd ln r  2kLdT
q ln r  2kLT
Integrate
 
q ln ro  ln ri  2kLTi  To 
2kLTi  To  2kLTi  To 
q 
ln ro  ln ri ln ro / ri 
Ti  To Ti T o
q 
ln ro / ri  R
2kL
ln ro / ri 
R  .
2kL
 Multiple layer heat conduction

2LTi  To 
q
ln r1 / ri  / k1  ln r2 / r1  / k 2  ...  ln rn / rn 1  / k n
Ti  To

ln r1 / ri  ln r2 / r1  ln rn / rn 1 
  ... 
2k1 L 2k 2 L 2k n L
ln rn / rn 1 
Rn  .
2k n L
 Example 4
49

A thick-walled tube of stainless steel [k = 19

W/moC] with 20mm inner diameter and 40mm
outer diameter is covered with a 30mm layer of
asbestos insulation. [k = 0.2 W/moC]
If the inside wall temperature of the pipe is
maintained at 600oC and the outside surface of the
insulation is at 100oC, what is the heat loss per
meter of pipe?
 Example 4 - Solution r1
r2
50
ri
From the question, Ti = 600 oC, To = 100 oC, ri = 0.01m, r1 =
0.02m, r2 = 0.05m, k1 = 19 W/moC, k2 = 0.2 W/mTioC k1
k2
Substituting into the radial conduction equation,
To

q 2 Ti  To 

L ln r1 / ri  / k1  ln r2 / r1  / k 2
2 600  100 

ln 2  / 19  ln 5 / 2  / 0.2
 680 W/m
 Example 5
51

 A thick-walled cylindrical tubing of hard rubber (k = 0.151

W/m.K) having an inside radius of 5 mm and an outside radius of
20 mm is being used as a temporary cooling coil in a bath.
 Ice water is flowing rapidly inside and the inside wall
temperature is 274.9 K. The outside surface temperature is 297.1
K.
 A total of 14.65 W must be removed from the bath by the cooling
coil. How many metres of tubing are needed?
 Example 5 - solution

What we know: k= 0.151 W/m·K, ri=5 mm = 0.005

m, ro=20mm = 0.02m, Ti=274.9K, To=297.1 K,
q=14.65 W
Ask: L=?
Solution:
2kLTo  Ti 
q
ln ro / ri )  L  ______________________
 _______________
q ln ro / ri 
L
2k To  Ti 
 Example 6
53

 A thick-walled tube of stainless steel having a k = 21.63

W/m.K with dimensions of 0.0254 m ID and 0.0508 OD is
covered with a 0.0254 m layer of asbestos insulation, k =
0.2423 W/m.K.
 The inside wall temperature of the pipe is 811 K and the
outside surface of the insulation is at 310.8 K.
 For a 0.305 m length of pipe, calculate the heat loss and also
the temperature at the interface between the metal and the
insulation.
 Example 6 - solution r2 r1
ri

What we know: Ti
k1
k2

W W 0.0254
k1  21.63 , k 2  0.2423 , ri   0.0127Tom
mK mK 2
0.0508
r1   0.0254m, r2  0.0254  0.0254  0.0508m
2
Ti  811K , To  310.8 K , L  0.305m.
q=?
Solutions: 2LTi  To 
q
ln r1 / ri  ln r2 / r1 

k1 k2
q  _____________________________________ .
 Example 6

q

2kL Ti  T1  T1
ln r1 / ri 
 Equations of Heat Conduction Through Slabs

q dT q ΔT q T T
 k k  
A dx A B A B/k R
where R = B / k is the thermal resistance.

Rtotal  R1  R2  R3  ...
q T

A Rtotal
 Equations for heat conduction in radial systems

Single layer:

2kLTi  To 
q
ln ro / ri 
Multiple layers

2LTi  To 
q
ln r1 / ri  / k1  ln r2 / r1  / k 2  ...  ln rn / rn 1  / k n
 Tutorial #1- Q 1

The wall of an oven consists of three layers of brick. The

inside is built of 8 in of firebrick, k = 0.68 Btu/hr.ft.°F,
surrounded by 4 in 0f insulating brick, k = 0.15, and an
outside layer of 6 in of building brick, k = 0.40. The oven
operates at 1600°F and it is anticipated that the outside
of the wall can be maintained at 125°F by the circulation
of air.
How much heat will be lost per square foot of surface and
what are the temperatures at the interfaces of the layers?
1 foot = 12 inches
 
 Tutorial #1-Q1 - solution
What we know:


8 in 4 in 6 in
q/A=?
 (Btu/hr·ft )
2

Solutions:


k2=
k1=0.68 0.15 k3=0.40

T1=1600F T2 T3 T4=125F

B1  hr  ft 2   F  AT AT
R1   ______  ____   q 
k1  Btu  Rtotal R1  R2  R3
B2  hr  ft 2   F  q T T1  T4
R2   _____  _____    
k2  Btu  A Rtotal R1  R2  R3

B3  hr  ft 2   F  q  Btu 
R3   ______  _____    ___________  _______  
2 
k3  Btu  A  hr  ft 
 Tutorial #1 –Q1 – solution cont’d

q T1  T2
 q
T2  T1  R1
A R1 A

q T1  T3 q
 T3  T1  R1  R2 
A R1  R2 A
 Tutorial #1 – Q 2

A pipe is required to transfer liquid nitrogen. The heat loss rate is

required to be less than 50W per meter so that excessive vapour is
not generated. The pipe internal diameter is required to be 20mm.
The external diameter is 25mm. The pipe material is stainless
steel. What type and thickness of insulation would be required to
achieve the target heat loss rate?
Assume that the liquid nitrogen is at atmospheric pressure.
Temperature of liquid nitrogen is 78K or -195°C.
Assume that the temperature of the environment is room
temperature and it is 25°C.
Assume the insulation material used is glass wool and its thermal
conductivity is 0.04 W/m·C. Thermal conductivity for stainless is
17 W/m·C.
 Tutorial #1 – Q 2 - solution r2 r1
ri

Ti
k1
What we know k2

20 25
ri   10mm  0.01m, r1   12.5mm  0.0125
Tom,
2 2
Ti  78 K , To  25  273  298 K
W W q W
k1  17 , k 2  0.040 ,  50
Question: m K mK L m
r  ?

Solution: 2LTo  Ti  q 2 To  Ti 

q 
ln r1 / ri  ln r2 / r1  L ln r1 / ri   ln r2 / r1 

k1 k2 k1 k2
Solve for r2
Solve for r. r  r2  r1 .
 Assignment #1 –Q1

The faces of a 150mm thick wall measuring 3.7m by

4.9m will be maintained at 816°C and 149°C,
respectively. The wall is made of kaolin insulating
brick. How much heat will escape through the wall?
 
Thermal conductivity of kaolin brick is 0.26 W/mK.
Assignment #1 –Q1
 Assignment #1 –Q2

A steel pipe (k = 40 W/m-K) is insulated with kapok

insulation (k = 0.035 W/m-K). The pipe carries a
fluid that maintains the inside surface at 100°C. The
outside surface of the insulation is at 25°C. The pipe
has an outside diameter (OD) of 114.3 cm and a wall
thickness of 0.6 cm, and the insulation is 6 cm thick.
Determine the heat transferred per unit length
through the cylindrical wall, and the temperature at
the interface between the two materials.
Assignment #1 –Q2
r2 r1
ri

Ti
k1
k2

To