CEFC 513 LECTURE 6

(3 members only)

Introduction
Hydrology is important factor in water resources engineering specially if planning and
applying management to its principle. Hydrology talks about earths science of water and
engineering talks about planning and developing. These two aspects will go hand in hand with
developing resources of water for the future use.

Pre-Assessment

What are the classification of dam?

Engineering Hydrology. Aspects in hydraulics--Important Hydraulic Structures (selected)

Hydrology means the science of water. It is the science that deals with the occurrence,
circulation and distribution of water of the earth’s atmosphere. As a branch of earth science, it is
concerned with the water instreams and lake, rainfall and snowfall, snow and ice on the land
and water occurring below the earth’s surface in the pores of the soil and rocks. In General
sense, hydrology is a very broad subject of an inter-disciplinary nature drawing support from
allied sciences, such as meteorology, geology, statistics, chemistry, physics and fluid mechanics.

Classification of hydrology
1. Scientific hydrology – the study which is concerned chiefly with academic aspect.
2. Engineering or applied hydrology – a study concerned with engineering application.

Engineering hydrology deals with estimation or water resources, the study of processes such as
precipitation, runoff, evapotranspiration and their interaction and the study of problems such
as floods and droughts and strategies to combat them.

Engineering Hydrology is the engineering aspect of hydrology. Its main concern is with
qualifying amount of water at various location as a function of time for surface water
application. It is concerned with solving engineering problem using hydrologic principles.

Engineering Hydrology uses hydrologic principles in the solution of engineering problems

arising from human exploitation of water resources of the earth. The engineering hydrologist,
or water resources engineer, is involved in the planning, analysis, design, construction and
operation of projects for the control, utilization and management of water resources.
Hydrologic calculations are estimates because mostly the empirical and approximate methods
are used to describe various hydrological processes.
It uses hydrologic principles in the solution of engineering problems arising from human
exploitation of water resources of the earth. The engineering hydrologist, or water resources
engineer, is involved in the planning, analysis, design, construction and operation of projects
for the control, utilization and management of water resources. Hydrologic calculations are
estimates because mostly the empirical and approximate methods are used to describe various
hydrological processes.

Uses of Engineering Hydrology

Engineering Hydrology Helps in the following ways:

1. Hydrology is used to find out maximum probable flood at proposed sites e.g. Dams.
2. The variation of water production from catchments can be calculated and described by
hydrology.
3. Engineering hydrology enables us to find out the relationship between a catchment'
surface water and ground water resources.
4. The expected flood flows over a spillway, at highway culvert, or in an urban storm
drainage system can be known by this very subject.
5. It helps us to know the required reservoir capacity to assure adequate water for
irrigation or municipal water supply in droughts condition.
6. It tells us what hydro-logic hardware (e.g. rain gages, stream gauges etc.) and software
(computer models) are needed for real-time flood forecasting.

Branches of Hydrology
1. Surface water Hydrology
2. Ground Water Hydrology

Hydrological cycle

The hydrologic cycle describes the continuous re-circulating transport of the waters of the earth,
linking atmosphere, land and oceans. Water evaporates from the ocean surface, driven by
energy from the Sun, and joins the atmosphere, moving inland as clouds. Once inland,
atmospheric conditions act to condense and precipitate water onto the land surface, where,
driven by gravitational forces, it returns to the ocean through river and streams.
The process is quite complex, containing many sub-cycles.

Engineering Hydrology takes a quantitative view of the hydrologic cycle.

The quantification of the hydrologic cycle which is an open system can be represented by a
mass balance equation, where inputs minus outputs are equal to the change in storage.

It is a basic Hydro-logic Principle or equation that may be applied either on global or regional
scale

I - O = ΔS

Where: I = inflow
 O = outflow

ΔS = change in storage

The water holding elements of the hydrological cycle are:

1. Atmosphere
2. Vegetation
3. Snow packs
4. Land surface
5. Soil
6. Streams, lakes and rivers
7. Aquifers
8. Oceans

The Hydrologic Cycle

The water cycle (Figure 2.1) is a web-based design model that explains the water
accumulation and distribution on, above and below the Earth's surface. As the water cycle just is
a "loop," no start or finish occurs. In the course of this cycle, water is formed in one of its three
types (sound, liquid and vapor). The water cycle consists of precipitation, storage, evaporation,
evaporation, erosion, drainage of groundwater and runoff.

The various phenomena that characterize the water cycle are as follows:
 • Evaporation – Evaporation is the process by which liquid water is converted into a
gaseous state. It takes place when the humidity of the atmosphere is less than the evaporating
surface (at 100% relative humidity there is no more evaporation).

• Condensation – Condensation is the change in state of water from vapor to liquid

when it cools. This process releases latent heat energy to the environment.

• Precipitation – Precipitation is any aqueous deposit (in liquid or solid form) that
develops in a saturated atmosphere (relative humidity equals 100%) and falls to the ground.
Most precipitation occurs as rain, but it also includes snow, hail, fog drip, and sleet.

• Infiltration – Infiltration is the absorption and downward movement of water into the
soil layer. Once infiltrated, the water becomes soil moisture or groundwater.

• Runoff – This is the topographic flow of water from the area on which it precipitates
towards stream channels located at lower elevations. Runoff occurs when the capacity of an
area's soil to absorb infiltration has been exceeded. It also refers to the water leaving a drainage
area.

• Evapo-transpiration – This covers the release of water vapor from plants into the air.

• Melting – Melting is the physical process of a solid becoming a liquid. For water, this
process requires approximately 80 calories of heat energy for each gram converted.

• Groundwater Flow – This refers to the underground topographic flow of groundwater

because of gravity.

• Advection – This is the movement of water in any form through the atmosphere.
Without advection, water evaporated over the oceans could not precipitate over land.

Water Balance also known as the water budget or hydrologic budget is a measurement of the
continuity of the flow of water through a system or control volume.

Water Balance Components:

1. Inflow

a. Precipitation
b. Import defined as water channeled into a given area.
c. Groundwater inflow from adjoining areas.

2. Outflow

a. Surface runoff outflow

b. Export defined as water channeled out of the same area.
c. Evaporation
d. Transpiration
 3. Change in Storage

This occurs as change in:

a. Groundwater
b. Soil moisture
c. Surface reservoir water and depression storage
d. Detention Storage

The figure shown below is the Global Water Balance (Source: Jamal, H. (2017). Engineering
Hydrology Class Lectures and Notes. Retrieved from: https://www.aboutcivil.org/hydrology.html)

4. In the Atmosphere:

Precipitation (P) = Evapo-transpiration (ET)

100+385 = 61+424

5. On Land

P = Evapo-transpiration (ET) + Surface runoff (R) + Groundwater outflow

100 = 61 + 38 + 1

6. Over Ocean and Seas

Ocean precipitation + Surface runoff + Groundwater outflow = Evaporation (E)

385  + 38  +  1 = 424

Important Hydraulic Structures (selected)

DAM

Dams are individually unique structures. Irrespective of size and type they demonstrate great
complexity in their load response and in their interactive relationship with site hydrology and
geology.

Site selection for Dam

 Needs
 Catchment Area
 Soil Type
 Rainfall
 Benefits

Design Features of Dam

 Cut-offs
 Spillways systems, including channels and stilling basins.
 Internal drainage systems.
 Internal culverts, galleries, etc.
 Foundation preparation, including excavation and grouting.
 Construction details.
 Gates, valves and bottom outlet works.
 River diversion works.

DAM CLASSIFICATION
1. Embankment Dams
 Earth Fill Dams: is constructed primarily of selected engineering soils compacted
uniformly and intensively in relatively thin and at a controlled moisture content.
 Rock Fill Dams: In the rock fill embankment the section includes a discrete impervious
element of compacted earth fill or a slender concrete or bituminous membrane.
Membranes include an upstream facing of impervious soil, a concrete slab, asphaltic
concrete paving, steel plates, other impervious soil.

Embankment Defects Mechanisms and Failure modes

 Overtopping
 Internal erosion
 Seepage
 Piping Embankment and foundation settlement
 Instability

2. Concrete Dams
 Arch Dams: are used where the ratio of the width between abutments to the height is not
great and where there is solid rock capable of resisting arch thrust at the abutment
(foundation)
  Gravity Dams: is designed in such a way that its own weight resists the external forces.
This is the type of dam that is most durable, solid and less expensive due to low
maintenance.
 Buttress Dams: consist of flat deck and multiple-arch structures.

Concrete Dams Defect Mechanisms and Failure modes

 Overtopping failure
 Seepage
 Landslide failure
 Collapse

Figure shown below are some of the hydraulic structures (Source: Torres, P. (2009). Hydraulics
Structures. Retrieved From: https://www.slideshare.net/ptorres/hydraulic-structures )
Course Packet Discussion Forum

What is the difference between hydrology and engineering hydrology?

Post-Assessment

What are the classification of dam?

Additional Activity

Write true if the statement is correct and false if not. If the statement is wrong, please underline
the word that make the sentence/s wrong and correct it by rewrite the question with correct
1. Change in storage in hydrology is outflow minus inflow.
2. Outflow is the movement of water in any form through the atmosphere. Without advection,
water evaporated over the oceans could not precipitate over land.
3. Hydrology is used to find out minimum probable flood at proposed sites.
4. On land, the precipitation (P) = Evaporation minus transpiration
5. Engineering Hydrology uses hydrologic principles in the solution of engineering problems
arising from human exploitation of water resources of the earth.

Annexes:

Answer key to Pre-Assessment

Embankment Dam and Concrete Dam

References:

 Subramanya, K. (2008). Engineering hydrology 3rd Edition. Retrieved from:

https://mshbooks.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/k-subrahmanya-engineering-hydrology.pdf
 Jamal, H. (2017). Engineering Hydrology Class Lectures and Notes. Retrieved from:
https://www.aboutcivil.org/hydrology.html
 Thanaraj, S. (2019). Hydraulics Structures. https://www.slideshare.net/ThanarajS/hydraulics-
structures
 Torres, P. (2009). Hydraulics Structures. Retrieved From:
https://www.slideshare.net/ptorres/hydraulic-structures