An Urban Greening Action Plan To Foster Sustainable Development of South Cities

An urban greening action plan to foster
sustainable development of south cities

C.Y. Jim
Department of Geography, The University of Hong Kong,
Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong
Email hragjcy@hkucc.hku.hk
Abstract
Urban greening contributes notably to environmental quality, quality of life, human
health, and ecosystem services in cities. Worldwide, cities are making efforts to
enhance urban greening to achieve urban sustainability. South cities are often beset by
green space deficit especially in the old cores and neighbourhoods. Urban renewal and
new developments could fail to bring relief. Lacking appropriate institutional setup
and scientific capability pose intractable bottlenecks. Innovative public policies and
greening technologies are needed for long-term improvements. Amalgamating natural
and social sciences in a multidisciplinary approach and reinforcing the link between
science and public policies could overhaul greening endeavours in south cities.
The public and private sectors must work in tandem to insert plantable spaces and
amenity vegetation into the urban fabric. Based on extensive field studies in north and
south cities, and relevant urban ecological concepts, key domains are proposed for a
sustainable urban greening action plan. Green spaces with high degree of connectivity
forming a green network to permeate the city are hallmark features of the preferred
naturalistic design. Preservation of natural ecosystems and creation of green areas
with high nature contents and rich biodiversity offer a new dimension to green space
design. The benefits of urban greening could be effectively manifested in economic
terms to complement conventional ecological-environmental emphasis. Outstanding
trees could receive high-order conservation efforts, and trees in construction sites
warrant enhanced protection. Tree transplanting demands an overhaul in concepts
and skills. Tree care needs to be upgraded in tandem with relevant professionals and
workers. Improving roadside tree planting and maintenance offers a cost-effective way
to upgrade the townscape. Ameliorating widespread soil limitations could remove a
major hindrance to tree growth. Innovative ideas of development right transfer, street
pedestrianization, river and canal revitalization, green roofs and green walls could
mobilize hitherto underused plantable resources.
Conference On Technology & Sustainability in the Built Environment
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An urban greening action plan to foster sustainable
development of south cities
1. Introduction
The creation of cities since antiquity in a way marked the triumph of
humanity over perfidious and harsh nature. With freedom from the bondage
to the environment, the collective fruits of human ingenuity and inventiveness
permitted civilization to flourish. One of the undesirable collaterals of urban
living was the detachment from the pleasantries of nature represented notably by
vegetation, associated wildlife, and the salubrious ambience. When settlements
were small, nature was situated nearby, and humans could maintain frequent
contacts with it. As settlements grew to sizeable proportions, nature was
increasingly marginalized and it became scarce, distant and often degraded.
Some urbanites began to miss, consciously and sublimally, the innate
connection with nature. They endeavoured to find solace in created natural
enclaves occluded within the bounds of cities. Surrogates of nature in the form
of domestic gardens were established in the comfort of homes. With a utilitarian
bent, plants bearing edible fruits were initially domesticated and nurtured in
gardens. The universal human preference for aesthetic objects soon triggered
the adoption of plants with appealing ornamental traits, such as attractive
flowers, fruits, foliage and growth form. Trees with large and dense crowns
were cultivated for the comfort of shading from the hot sun.
Since their inception, gardens have been principally private domains for
the enjoyment of those who could afford the means and the leisure to create
and maintain them. The nobility and the aristocracy would establish them
for personal gratification and as symbols of wealth and power. In addition,
some would maintain wild or semi-wild grounds for recreational hunting. The
plebeians had no access to the blissful green spheres of the patricians. As cities
sprawled and expanded to accommodate the multitudes, the private green areas
could be occluded in the process. They become important islands of oasis in the
sea of artificial structures and roads, literally as nature-in-city gems.
The Industrial Revolution brought factories and factory-workers into
cities, together with abject poverty, low-quality housing, excessive building
density, poor hygiene and health, and degraded environmental conditions. As
a spontaneous response to the deprivation, people began to flock to the meagre
open and green spaces accessible to the public, associated with religious and
public establishments and cemeteries. In response to the increasingly poor urban
environment, governments were urged to provide formal public open spaces,
in the form of urban parks, which began to appear in the nineteenth century in
Britain. Some private green areas were acquired by municipal governments and
opened to the public. The bold and innovative idea of the government providing
King saud university - College of Architecture and Planning
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green spaces for community use (Lawrence, 1988) was soon adopted by other
cities and countries, to become an obligatory and universal amenity.
Cities in developing countries, especially those with a long history, tend to
be rather pervasively compact (Jenks et al., 1996; Burton, 2002). As the ‘north’
commonly refers to developed nations, whereas the ‘south’ developing nations,
cities in the latter are labelled as south cities. With most lands densely covered
by buildings and roads, little interstices are left for urban parks. Extensive urban
tracts are commonly beset by grave deficiency in public open spaces (Jim, 1989,
1998a). Urban redevelopments, new urban areas and new towns could be built
in haste with little regard to environmental quality (Olembo and de Rham, 1987;
Herz et al., 2003). The need to dilute the harshness of the built-up matrix with green
areas could meet with lip service or neglected altogether (Marcotullio, 2001).
Opportunities to improve environmental quality and quality of life for millions
of urban residents could be more earnestly and systematically grasped to realize
truly sustainable development and smart growth (Hestmark, 2000; Foo, 2001).
This study aimed at developing a comprehensive and operational action
plan to overcome the physical, mental and institutional barriers to green
cities. The wide range of environmental, ecological, social and economical
benefits of urban greening could be maximized by a bold and decisive
revamping of entrenched thinking and practices. An important aim is to
persuade decision makers to shift from the conventional to the innovative
mode, and to adopt an integrated approach to urban greening. To be effective,
the entire urban greening package needs meticulous attention, including
identification and allocation of plantable sites, planning, design, choice of
species assemblage, installation, maintenance, management, governance, and
probing and incorporation of community wishes (Attorre et al., 2000; Jim and
Chen, 2006a). The gaps in knowledge and practice have been identified and
targeted for proposed improvement. The contribution of urban areas to the
conservation of regional biodiversity could be included in green space design.
2. Methods
This study is based on literature review, insights distilled from the author’s
field studies in 25 countries and over 100 cities in Asia, Australia, Europe
and North America, and research and practice experience in urban greening
and urban nature over a period of 28 years. The examples and best practices,
gleaned from cities in both the north and the south nations in different parts of
the world, served as the basis and inspiration to develop this action plan that is
geared towards the compact south cities.
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Besides expounding the underlying principles, the practical and actionable

applications have been emphasized. A multi-disciplinary and trans-disciplinary
approach, commensurate with the complex and broad-spectrum urban greening
issues, has been adopted. The study attempted to encompass the concepts and
perspectives of the core as well as cognate bodies of knowledge, including
urban biogeography, urban ecology, urban forestry, urban horticulture, urban
landscape ecology, urban environmental planning, and urban soil science. The
diverse and unique circumstances of individual cities may find some parts useful
whereas some may not be so relevant.
The main parts of the paper have been structured according to a natural
progression based on three cardinal stages in the urban greening planning and
management stream: (1) application of pertinent ecological principles to the
practice of urban greening design, green space geometry, enrichment of urban
biodiversity, and holistic assessment of urban greening benefits; (2) protection
of existing nature in cities, involving spontaneous natural remnants, champion
calibre tree stock, tree preservation in construction sites, salvaging outstanding
trees by transplanting, and ensuring the continual supply of meritorious
greeneries by timely tree care; and (3) augmenting new greening opportunities
in urban areas, such as improving planting techniques at narrow roadsides,
ameliorating the pervasive soil constraints, and finding innovative ways to
introduce greenery into compact urban sites.
3. Applying urban ecological principles

3.1 Adopt ecological design in urban greening
The rich body of urban ecological principles has seldom been enlisted to
optimize the configuration and ingredients of urban greening programmes.
Inserting plants in urban spaces could be conducted in various ways to achieve
different objectives. The conventional approach is dominated by ornamental
or aesthetic considerations. The morphological features of individual plants
and their combined landscape effects often take precedence. Most urban green
spaces in south cities were designed to achieve neat geometric patterns and well
manicured parkland landscape. Nature has to exist on human terms, following
human predilection for order, regularity and simplification. Such outdated
mentality has a strong inertia to linger in developing countries.
Modern urban greening could be exonerated from the excessive regimentation
of traditional mainstream urban landscaping. It could be diluted and transformed
by emulating nature’s diversity, multiplicity, variability, changeability and
flexibility (Henke and Sukopp, 1986; Gordon, 1990; Cook and Lier, 1994). The
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naturalistic or ecological principles could be more embraced to create green spaces

with more natural species composition, biomass structure, and spatial pattern
(Cole, 1986; Cook, 2002). The muffled senses of people living in cities could be
revitalized by exposing them to green spaces with high natural ingredients that
can offer diverse stimuli through the visual, audio, olfactory and tactile channels.
In practice, wild green spaces for all sites may not be practicable or acceptable.
A compromise could be reached between popular human expectations and
nature’s way in designing urban green spaces. A spectrum of green sites with
different degree of naturalness could match local land use pattern (Löfvenhaft
et al., 2002). A large site could accommodate a variety of habitats, whereas a
small site could focus on one. The pre-urbanization ecosystems and habitats
present in the region around a city, including the common and rare types, could
be inherited or emulated. Local ecological knowledge has to be reinforced with
the help of research to serve as the basis to design the naturalistic green sites.
3.2 Optimize green space geometry and connectivity

The pertinent benefits of creating spatially connected and contiguous green
spaces have escaped the attention of some planners in south cities. Natural
ecosystems tend to be well connected to each other, with unimpeded flow of
material, energy, organisms and propagules across their contiguous boundaries.
Urban green spaces, however, are usually isolated entities surrounded by built-
up areas. The main green sites, urban parks, are often square or rectangular
plots surrounded by roads. Many large urban parks are penetrated or severed
by roads. The harsh and alien conditions of the adjacent roads and buildings
create barriers to the movement of wildlife and people.
Application of the well-established concepts of spatial planning and landscape
ecology (Dramstad et al., 1996) could improve urban green space design and
ecological and environmental benefits. Green spaces could be analyzed as
three principal entities, namely patch (broad green areas), corridor (linear
green areas), and matrix (surrounding built-up areas), in conjunction with the
ancillary issue of edge (interface between patches or corridors with matrix).
The key geometrical properties of green spaces, such as location, size, shape,
orientation, and distance from and connectivity with other green patches, could
be moulded to enhance their functions (Davey, 1998).
Urban green space design could aim at optimizing the site geometry to
maximize ecological and environmental benefits:
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(1) Large patches or wide corridors

They can provide ample spaces to accommodate a wide range of habitat
types and species, especially those that demand a relatively large minimum
site. They could also raise the ratio between site area vis-à-vis edge area, so as
to reduce edge impacts where the green space interfaces with incompatible or
nuisance-generating land uses.
(2) Connectivity between patches or corridors
If the green sites are located near each other, or better still, contiguous, they
could form a green network to permeate the built-up matrix. Green patches
should be linked by green corridors or greenways (Flink and Searns, 1993)
to form an integrated green space system to enmesh built-up areas (Flores et
al., 1998; Jim and Chen, 2003). Where continuity could not be achieved in
developed areas, a series of small sites with limited inter-site distance could
serve a stepping stones for both human and wildlife users.
(3) Long corridors or linear green patches
They can provide extended edges with the surrounding built-up matrix, so
that more residents could have convenient access, preferably by walking for not
more than 400 m or 10 minutes to reach the green site (Müller-Perband, 1979;
Burgess et al., 1988). For two green spaces with a similar area, the linear one
with a larger catchment of potential users is preferred. Well-connected green
spaces could permit movement of wildlife (including pollinators and dispersal
agents) and propagules between sites. If the intra-urban corridors could be
connected to the peri- and extra-urban natural areas, the benefits of such biotic
movements could be augmented.
(4) Patches or corridors oriented parallel to natural linear features
The patches or corridors could be located and oriented to run parallel to
streams or coastlines. Water bodies could provide an important landscape and
environmental element to the planning of greenways and blueways. As people
have affinity to water edges such river banks or waterfronts, the parent green
spaces could incorporate such natural features to increase its appeal.
(5) High quality edges of green sites
The edges between green and non-green areas could be designed to enhance
their ecological and landscape qualities. The edges should preferably be soft
(natural), wide, gradual and curvilinear. Thus tall and elaborate metal fences or
walls that create an abrupt and unfriendly barrier should be avoided.
The desirable configuration should achieve an intimate mingling of green
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patches or corridors with the built-up matrix. Such green areas are situated
close to people, to create a nature-in-city ambience. At the urban edge where
developments interface with natural areas, tongues or wedges of peri-urban
woodlands could be preserved to extend into the built-up areas in an interfingering
pattern (Frey, 2000). Small pockets of remnant nature embedded in built-up areas
should be kept in the wild state and designated as urban natural areas (UNA)
on zoning plans. With peninsulas of nature extending from the countryside into
the city, and islands of nature punctuating the city, the landscape, amenity, air
quality of natural areas could benefit the interface area with spill-over effects
into the city matrix. In land use planning, such opportunities that permit nature
to penetrate the city should be assiduously preserved (Carr and Lane, 1993).
Existing green sites at the urban fringe could be ecologically upgraded to
augment their natural contents and benefits. Nature can best be preserved; if
not, emulated nature could be created as surrogates (Baines and Smart, 1991).
A comprehensive assessment of the urban ecological status of a city could
establish the knowledge base to prepare an optimized city-wide green space
master plan. Many such plans are based on non-ecological information and
consideration, often dictated by the overriding locational and economic
factors. To usher high-quality nature into the city, such green plans should be
contingent squarely on ecological realities and potentials. Existing areas of
high ecological value could be identified and protected. The search for suitable
sites should not focus only on large patches; small sites with notable natural
contents should not be neglected. In particular, small pockets of biodiversity
hotspots, unique habitats, remnant native vegetation, or individual heritage
trees, should be included in the encompassing protection package. Sites with
pristine or minimally disturbed ecosystems are worthwhile candidates, whereas
lightly disturbed sites could be evaluated for their recuperative potential with
or without human assistance. In neighbourhoods suffering from nature deficit,
suitable localities could be identified for future conversion into green spaces.
3.3 Enrich green space diversity

The principle that habitat diversity is a major determinant of species diversity
could be more earnestly applied to improve green space design. Urban greening
could aim at increasing habitat diversity to raise species diversity. For new
green sites, the tidy, the manicured horticultural design could be complemented
by the naturalistic-ecological approach (Henke and Sukopp, 1986). Based on
the hemeroby concept (Jalas 1955; Sukopp, 1972), urban habitats could range
from natural to emulated or created natural, semi-natural or ruderal, and entirely
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artificial. Most existing urban green spaces in south cities are tilted towards the
artificial end of the spectrum. The deeply ingrained inertia towards traditional
landscape design has perpetuated the partiality. To redress the bias, new green
spaces or modified existing ones could admit more natural elements. Nature-
oriented designs are often less expensive to build, and largely self-sustaining
with minimum maintenance needs to reduce recurrent upkeeping costs. Most
importantly, there is a strong demand for natural areas within and near cities
(Johnson, 1990) with features that many over-designed and expensive urban
parks fail to deliver (Thompson, 2002).
Conscious efforts could be introduced to enhance biodiversity in green spaces,
especially with native species that represent the regional flora (Smale and
Gardner, 1999). For relatively large green sites (say >2000 m2), not less than 25%
of the area could be earmarked for naturalistic greening. An ecological survey
could identify any existing natural vegetation types or habitats for preservation
and incorporation into the naturalistic design. For existing sites, opportunities
for species enrichment could be identified in refurbishment schemes. Different
sites could be given different functions to be fulfilled by dedicated designs with
more ecological elements, to depart from the common visual-ornamental bias.
For large new sites, the ecological park design could be adopted to create a
mosaic of different representative habitats.
Using natives in urban greening in south cities is often hampered by
a knowledge gap. The landscape profession and industry have limited
understanding or experience with native species. They tend to adhere to a
standard palette of common horticultural species for a given climatic zone.
Such a blinkered attitude would generate stereotype landscape designs and
species assemblages with a disproportionate amount of exotic species. Local
research to identify, test and extend the use of indigenous plants cannot be
more emphatically stressed. The south nations could enhance the knowledge
repertoire to make better use of their floristic endowments. The research findings
could be effectively transformed into practices, including the development of a
nursery industry to produce the native planting materials in adequate quantities,
and a landscape profession to promote their use.
Advocating native species should not be construed as an attempt to
exclude exotics. Cities are characterized by a diverse range of site conditions,
far more than its countryside, to accommodate a surprisingly varied urban
flora. Some cities register higher species richness than the surrounding natural
ecosystems. The capacity of urban green spaces to support a wide assortment
of species could be filled by a complement of natives and exotics. Natural sites
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could mainly hold natives, whereas semi-natural and artificial sites could be
shared by mixture of natives and exotics. A plant introduction office could be
established to screen systematically worthwhile exotic species from other places,
and promote suitable ones to the landscape industry. This orderly importation
could replace the random introduction, legally or illegally, of exotic plants by
companies or individuals. Such unregulated activities often operate outside the
statutory quarantine regime, and they could induce problems of phytosanitation,
transfer of pest organisms and instant pathogens.
3.4 Evaluate holistic benefits of urban greening

In assessing green space benefits, there is a strong and mistaken tendency
to concentrate on site acreage or green space per capita at the expense of other
pertinent holistic factors. Such a simplistic approach could discourage the
adoption of ecological designs, and trap green space work at the conventional
level. The indicator of a government’s achievement in urban greening, and
the benefits that it can bring to the community, could be appraised by a more
elaborate yardstick that encompasses the multiple ecosystem services provided
by urban greenery. A holistic assessment method based on a scientific, objective
and quantitative scoring system, could be developed to gauge the wide spectrum
of ecological functions. Key factors such as species richness, species diversity
index, native-exotic ratio, remnant natural component, and fidelity to local or
regional natural habitats, could be given differential weights. Other factors that
contribute to the ecological and environmental well-being of the city could
enter the equation, such as biomass structure, vegetation coverage, planting
density, vegetation height, leaf area index, open soil and evaporative surface,
and soil connected to natural ground.
Different cities, with different natural history, development mode, disturbance
regime, nature conservation path, and green space provision record, would
demand different tailor-made assessment strategies. Local urban ecological
research could acquire the knowledge base and device the assessment scheme.
In planning for green spaces, the assessment method could be used to judge the
quality of proposals based on their ecological-environmental contributions, in
addition to the basic site area data. Thus a relatively small site with high scores
could usher more benefits than a large site with low scores. The assessment
method provides plenty of flexibility to design green spaces, which could
take different approaches to achieve a desired score. The government could
emphasize certain criteria to guide and fulfil particular ecological planning
objectives. Individual sites could have specific targets, such as the minimum
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species richness and leaf area index. Once established, such a green space
precision planning methodology could bring a renaissance and substantial
upgrading of landscape design with sustainable benefits to urban ecology.
To enhance understanding of urban greening benefits (Dochinger, 1980;
Nowak and Dwyer, 2000), cost-benefit analysis could extend to the economic
realm. People are more amenable to monetary than ecological values which
demand deeper understanding of nature. The benefits and amenities that nature
can bring to society could be expressed explicitly in dollars. As nature in city
is not a marketable commodity, indirect methods are used for objective and
scientific valuation (Chen and Jim, 2008). Two strands of methods have been
applied to the economic assessment of urban greening. The contingent valuation
method explores the amount of money that citizens are willing to pay to use
urban green spaces, or to pay to prevent their loss (Jim and Chen, 2006b). The
hedonic pricing method analyzes the home buying behaviour by isolating the
proportion of the property transaction price that could be attributed to urban
greening and other natural areas (Garrod and Willis 1994; Jim and Chen,
2006b, 2007). The results from these studies could be used to estimate the
worth of urban green areas, which could be compared with the establishment
and maintenance costs. The monetary values assigned to green spaces could
justify the allocation of public funds for urban greening. In times of budgetary
constraints, the findings could strength the competition for public funding.
4. Protecting nature-in-city assets

4.1 Preserve and nurture spontaneous nature
Existing natural areas of high ecological worth are too commonly and
unnecessarily neglected, replaced or destroyed. Many south cities are expanding
at a fast rate. In the course of development, natural areas with spontaneous flora
and fauna of high ecological value could be annihilated. Green fields originally
lying in the urban fringe or the countryside envelope are intruded by urban
sprawl. Some islands of remnant nature embedded within the urban matrix could
be enlisted for development. The loss of nature is then partly compensated by
emulated natural areas in the form of urban parks and other green spaces. The
idea of preserving natural sites within developed areas too often has escaped the
attention of city planners. The land for the reprovision urban green spaces have
to be prepared at a great cost, often involving elimination of natural features,
and replacement by poor copies of nature as stereotype and simple parkland
landscape with limited biodiversity, ecological value and ecosystem benefits
(Fernández-Juricic, 2000; Hess and King, 2002).
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The entrenched practice would establish urban green spaces from scratch. In
extreme cases, natural remnants inside lands designated for urban parks could be
removed to make way for humanized greenery. Occasionally, isolated pockets of
well wooded religious sites or sacred groves could be retained and embedded in
built-up areas (Jim, 2003a). However, their original natural features of landform,
soil, water and vegetation tend to be disrupted, modified or partly replaced
(Williams et al., 2005). Urban living has probably muffled if not distorted our
value judgment of nature. Wild areas have been commonly and erroneously
construed as inferior or unsuitable urban green spaces (Mazzotti and Morgenstern,
1997). Nature has to exist in urbanized areas on human terms, to be simplified,
sanitized, contained, tamed, regimented and manicured. Rather than inheriting
and preserving precious nature in cities, we disregard, dislike, degrade and
destroy it. The persistent attitude is still very much alive, resulting in unnecessary
elimination or degradation of otherwise high calibre green spaces for both
humans and wildlife. Paradoxically, in their place we invest much public funds
to create parodies of nature that incur high capital and recurrent expenditures.
The land use zoning stage would benefit from a major revamp to rescue nature
in cities (Goldsmith, 1988; Jim, 2002a). Instead of the rather routine practice
of treating the land as a blank sheet, the new development plots in green fields
could be carefully scrutinized to identify high grade sites for designation as
urban natural areas (UNA), to be bestowed the protected area status analogous
to conservation areas in the countryside. Natural areas in the form of patches
and corridors could be preserved as far as possible in their pristine state (Henke
and Sukopp, 1986), preferably in a green network with enhanced connectivity
between sites and with the city’s countryside (cf. Section 2.1). Spokes, fingers
or tongues of linear UNA lands extending deep into built-up areas would create
a desirable spatial pattern to maximize the benefits of nature. Such greenways
(Flink and Searns, 1993) could also permit fresh air, clean water and wildlife
to enter the city in natural expressways. Residential areas could have UNA
in proximity, convenient accessibility to nature, and enjoyment of ecosystem
services. Citizens could choose between artificially created or natural green spaces
for their outdoor recreational activities. They do not need to travel long distance
to reach real nature which otherwise exists only in the far-away countryside.
Where natural areas are deficient in existing urban areas, they could be nurtured
with the help of careful site and soil preparation, and selection of native plant
species to establish the biotic composition, biomass structure and ecological
linkages of the regional wooded ecosystem (Johnston, 1990; Lee and Thompson,
2005). Disturbed natural areas could be repaired or restored by enrichment
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planting, and allowed to recuperate so as to reconstitute the natural soil-water-

vegetation complex (Borgmann and Rodewald, 2005). Suitable parts of existing
urban parks and other manicured green sites could be transformed into natural
areas. Where the climatic zone permits, the most complex woodland ecosystem
could be established by a well-planned afforestation programme (Tartaglia-
Kershaw, 1982; Harmer, 1999). River banks are particularly appropriate for linear
woodlands to create a desirable greenway-cum-blueway UNA, which could
accompany riverine ecosystem restoration and water quality improvement. The
overarching spatial planning principle is to create adjacency and interpenetration
between natural and urbanized areas. The health and vigour of UNA could serve
as an indicator of urban liveability and environmental sustainability. Cities that
could permit nature to thrive are likely to permit humans to thrive as well.
4.2 Conserve champion quality trees

Champion quality trees, as the most outstanding remnants and representatives
of nature in cities, are frequently damaged advertently and inadvertently. In
the course of urban development, a tiny proportion of trees could perform
exceptionally well to express their biological potentials of tree form, stature,
vigour and life span. Local residents often develop sentimental attachment to
them, sometimes elevated to the level of veneration or worship. The cream
of the tree stock in cities could be identified by virtue of six criteria: species,
dimensions, structure, performance, location, and special considerations such
as extreme species rarity, special ecological value, unique habitat, unusual tree
form or dimensions, connection with notable personalities or events, landmark
specimen, and historical significance (Jim, 1994a, 1994b).
In many cities, the special cohort of the most precious urban trees,
unfortunately, has not received adequate attention and protection against
avoidable damages by natural and human causes (Jim, 2003b, 2005a). The
alarming losses echo the lack of effective understanding and protection of an
irreplaceable community heritage. The major predisposing causes were related
to construction and trenching-roadwork activities, with some succumbing to
age and health related problems.
Champion trees are truly the ecological and cultural gems of cities. Most
cities have inherited only a small number. The fast development and renewal of
some south cities have threatened or destroyed this precious endowment. The
scientific and institutional regimes are often inadequate for effective protection.
Some cities treasure their champion trees and put them under an intensive
monitoring and care regime, and a strict legislative umbrella. Cities could learn
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from the best practices to improve their own protection work.

Statutory protection and substantial upgrading of tree care and maintenance
are necessary if these venerable doyens were to continue to grace south cities.
A systematic champion tree survey could build up a scientific database of
the natural heritage (Council of Tree and Landscape Appraisers, 2000). Such
data could permit deep understanding and appreciation of tree heritage value,
and provide a baseline to reinforce tree management. They also constitute a
benchmark to determine the level of compensation and penalty in case the trees
are damaged (Jim, 2004a, 2004b).
The same dataset could be employed to develop a monetary valuation of
the prized trees (Jim, 2006). A dedicated urban tree ordinance (Jim and Liu,
2000; Jim, 2002b) could be enacted, with a section covering special measures
to guard them against harm. Following the examples set by other cities, the
champion tree register should cover all developed lands and sites earmarked for
development, and it should form an integral part of the ordinance (Randall and
Clepper, 1977). Professional guidelines that adhere to the highest international
standards of tree care could be developed to ensure that the top trees will not be
damaged by low-quality maintenance. Tree workers entrusted with their care
should be trained to a high standard to shoulder the high-level responsibilities.
Rather than protecting outstanding trees in isolation, they could be conserved
collaterally with their sites, and better still, their environs and ambience.
Heritage trees would have witnessed the vicissitudes of their surroundings for
decades if not centuries. Nearby urban fabrics of historical significance could
have lingered with their natural partners, to deserve co-conservation and co-
management with the elite trees. Some neighbourhoods are endowed with a
pleasant bequest of fine mature trees that permeate a large proportion of the
lots and roadsides. The overall townscape, including the housing styles and the
varied and high-quality vegetation cover in private lots, merit to be preserved
as a holistic conservation entity.
The conservation area concept that protects countryside and natural habitats
could be expanded to cover localities with high-calibre trees in cities. A
sizeable area with a notable number of high-grade trees could be designated
as tree conservation areas (TCA). Roads lined with champion trees could be
designated as tree conservation roads (TCR). Smaller sites including a special
habitat for special vegetation, such as a remnant woodland enclave or an old
stone wall with mature trees clinging on it (Jim, 1998b), could be designated as
tree conservation sites (TCS). A commendable tree conservation strategy should
traverse the temporal dimension, to take into account the past, present and future
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considerations in the spirit of transgenerational urban forestry and arboriculture.

Tree conservation should pay special attention to the protection of present and
future growth spaces. Besides the above-ground expansion space for the crown,
the subterranean rooting room, often neglected, has to be assiduously guarded
against intrusion and degradation. For individual trees, a three-dimensional tree
protection zone (TPZ) should be delineated. In the above-ground environment,
the lateral extent and height of the TPZ should be defined by the maximum crown
spread and height of the tree, plus a minimum of 3 m buffer belt on all sides.
For champion trees that have not attained their potential dimensions, the TPZ
should allow for future growth. In the below-ground environment, the diameter
of the protected soil mass should be the same as the above-ground span plus the
buffer belt, and it should be at least 2 m deep to ensure the integrity of the roots
and to permit future extension. No excavation should be permitted in and below
the protected soil area. For a cluster of trees, the outer perimeter of the group
as defined above should form the boundary of the TPZ. For trees that are at
present cloistered by adjacent developments and do not have sufficient rooms
to demarcate the TPZ, any future changes should prevent deterioration of tree
growth conditions. Ameliorative measures could be applied as far as possible
to improve site conditions for tree growth. Redevelopments adjacent to them
should provide setback to enlarge the TPZ.
Champion trees, TCA, TCR and TCS are comparable to cultural heritage
(antiquities and monuments) in terms of their intimate association with the
community and cultural lineage (Jim, 2004c, 2005b, 2005c). They denote
outstanding representatives of nature in cities, and hence they could be construed
as the collective natural-cum-cultural heritage of the community.
Such meritorious tree stock, regardless of their size, could be marked on
statutory zoning plans using a dedicated cartographic conventional signs. Instead
of denoting the tree location only, the boundary of the TPZ should be shown on
the map. In this connection, it is not uncommon for some cultural relicts with
a size smaller than a large tree to be marked on zoning plans. The explanatory
notes that accompany the zoning plan could provide details on tree species,
dimensions, protection justifications, and precautions to prevent damages.
Developers and professionals involved in the development process, who
are familiar with the planning system, could interpret the zoning plans and
participate actively in their protection. An integrated approach to the supply
of conservation information in urban areas under one statutory umbrella can
highlight and publicize the protection status of the exemplary greenery. It can
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also furnish accurate information on protection justifications and guidelines to

align with conservation objectives.
4.3 Protecting trees in construction sites
Many south cities are undergoing fast redevelopment and expansion, with
a high probability of incongruous encounters between trees and construction
activities, especially in private land (Bowers, 1999). Construction activities
often conflict with existing trees dwelling inside or at the periphery of the sites
(Watson and Neely, 1995). Based on the effectiveness of statutory controls,
trees affected by developments, including large and outstanding specimens,
could be felled without the need to obtain permission from the land, planning or
conservation authorities. Even for trees that have gone through the application
procedures and prescribed for in situ preservation, they are often badly
mistreated, resulting in degradation of tree form, massive injuries or death. The
special skills and skilled workers required to protect trees in construction sites
are often lacking. It is not uncommon to find some preserved trees inadvertently
felled or killed due to improper treatment, poor protective measures and the
lack of worker supervision. Deliberate attempts to remove trees before and
after planning permission cannot be ruled out. Some south cities are losing a
significant number of trees often unnecessarily. Decisive measures could be
adopted to salvage more high calibre trees in construction sites.
Planning for tree preservation in construction sites requires detailed site
plans, especially with regard to building footprints and foundation spread,
access roads and ancillary paved areas (Jim, 1988). The commonly adopted
development process could be modified to match modern environmental
protection practices. Instead of routinely treating the development site as a blank
sheet, an ecological site survey should be conducted before detailed development
planning. The study could identify the trees or ecological habitats that deserve
preservation. A precision building design that takes into account the real-world
site conditions could then be applied. An overhaul of the conventional mindset
may be necessary so as to treat outstanding existing trees as assets rather than
liabilities. Development plans that are apathetic or antagonistic to natural site
elements could be converted to sympathetic ones to accommodate trees worthy
of conservation. The size, shape, orientation and location of buildings and
roads could be adjusted to cater to the identified conservation needs. The inputs
of landscape or tree professionals, who should be treated as full rather than
peripheral members of the team, are required at the early rather than the late
stage of the development stream.
Evaluation of tree protection practices in construction sites in south cities
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demonstrates ample rooms for improvement (Morell, 1992). Besides the low
standard of work, which is rather pervasive, tree protection is frustrated by
the lack of supervision of site workers. Above all, the half-hearted efforts and
cavalier attitudes are linked to a common lack of commitment to protect trees.
Some site crews are inclined to take calculated risks to expedite construction
work at the expense of protected trees. Construction requirements too often
take precedence over tree protection needs. Clearly written guidelines should
be prepared and enforced (Matheny and Clark, 1998). Seminars and workshops
could be conducted to disseminate the relevant concepts, skills and regulatory
requirements. The knowledge transfer should permeate all levels from the
management to the professionals, technicians and workers. Developers and
the construction companied could be apprised of the tree-survey requirements
and preventive and precautionary measures at the earliest opportunity (Ames
and Dewald, 2003).The whole spectrum of development professionals need to
work in unison to contribute to tree protection stipulated in planning approval
conditions. The engineers and architects at the frontline of the construction
project should shoulder the pertinent responsibility of quality control and
adherence to guidelines. For tree preservation, timing and timeliness are the most
critical factor but often the weakest link. As an incentive to tree preservation,
that high quality trees could augment property value (Anderson and Cordell,
1988) should be more emphatically brought home.
A common weak link in the tree protection regime is the poor and inconsistent
quality of the tree survey reports (TSR) in relation to trees affected by
developments. The judgments and decisions on trees are contingent upon the
TSR quality. A poor or inaccurate TSR could mislead and muddle. The specific
requirements of a TSR could be clearly spelt out in a guideline, and explained with
the help of a sample report. A professional calibre TSR should cover information
on every tree situated within the work site, including tree locations marked on a
large-scale map of at least 1:1000 scale, species, dimensions (tree height, trunk
diameter and crown spread), structural integrity, health, performance, habitat
condition, tree defects and disorders, special features, future growth prognosis,
and colour photographs of the whole tree as well as its notable parts and environs.
It should contain specific recommendations and justifications for retention in situ,
transplanting and felling. Every effort should be taken to minimize transplanting
and felling. The key task of conducting the tree survey and preparing the TSR
is too important to be left to inadequately or inappropriately trained personnel.
It should only be carried out by a landscape architect or a tree specialist.
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4.4 Transplant trees as the last resort

High quality trees affected by development are too indiscriminately
recommended for transplanting rather than preservation in situ. For trees
conflicting with construction, developers are commonly tempted to remove those
that are regarded as obstacles to construction activities and the development
itself. Whereas the approval to fell low quality trees could be obtained without
much difficulty, for outstanding trees it is usually denied. Instead of outright
removal, application for transplanting is often attempted to transfer the trees
to other locations within or without the subject site. In judging such requests,
discrimination should be made between ordinary and outstanding trees. The
option of transplanting the high value trees, especially large specimens, should
be taken as the last resort. This is because moving a large tree will invariably
weaken and often disfigure it, thus substantially reducing its landscape value and
useful life span, and negating the very purpose of keeping it (Jim, 1995; Watson
and Himelick, 1997; Harris et al., 1999). The idea of providing compensatory
planting in lieu of preserving trees should be scrutinized with caution, for no
amount of new planting could make up for the loss of a magnificent old tree.
In case it is necessary to transplant large champion trees, a team composed of
a tree specialist and a structural engineer should be formed to jointly plan and
execute the complex task. Most importantly, the tree has to be prepared well in
advance to reduce the transplant shock and to increase the chance of success.
The indispensable phased root pruning stage is, unfortunately, too commonly
omitted. Ideally, a tree should be transplanted with all its roots together with
the soil that envelops them, in an undisturbed soil mass call the root ball. During
the move, the soil in the root ball must not be disturbed or deformed, or else
the roots will be seriously injured or broken. In practice, moving all the roots
is not possible, because the root ball will be too large and heavy. Based on tree
science research findings, the compromise is to move a manageable amount
of roots, such that the root ball could be lifted and transported with available
construction equipments to the receiving site.
The recommended minimum width of the root ball should be ten times the
trunk diameter at breast height (DBH) (Watson and Himelick, 2005), and depth
1-2 m, depending on tree size. As tree roots commonly spread to a soil area
much larger than the recommended dimension, they have to be cut in preparing
the root ball. Adhering to the prescribed root ball size often entails losing over
80% of a tree’s roots. This root loss is too drastic for trees, and it will impose
tremendous stresses on its normal function and health (Jim, 1995). Some trees
that cannot tolerate such losses may perish. Others may struggle to survive in a
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badly emaciated state. It will take a long time for the injured tree to recover, and
often full recovery may not be feasible. To reduce the harmful effects of massive
root amputation in preparing the root ball, root pruning has to be implemented
in phases with intervening recuperative periods to permit the tree to overcome
the acute stresses. For a large tree, root pruning should be divided into at least
four phases, each to be separated by at least six months. It means that the
transplant work should be initiated two years in advance. Unfortunately, for
most construction projects, this advanced planning horizon cannot be realized
due to ignorance of transplanting concepts and practices.
The receiving site should be carefully chosen and prepared to make sure it
will permit the continued healthy growth of the new migrant. It should provide
adequate rooms to accommodate the tree plus extra spaces for future expansion.
As the need to reserve rooms for continued growth is often neglected, clear
guidelines on the design of receiving sites could be written to help the relevant
professionals. The soil and drainage at the receiving site should match those at the
source site to reduce the problem of poor adaptation to alien growth conditions.
Similarly, the microclimatic environment should as far as possible be matched,
so that wind and solar exposure, temperature and humidity parameters would not
unduly stress the transplanted tree. Such precision arboriculture based firmly on
tree research findings should find their way into modern urban forestry practice.
4.5 Upgrade tree care quality and timeliness

The low quality and delayed tree care could not nurture the next generation
of healthy and robust trees. Arboriculture and urban forestry in south cities are
constrained by some weak links and gaps in relevant knowledge and applications.
Trees tend to suffer from inadequate and unprofessional maintenance (Watson
and Himelick, 1997; Harris et al., 1999). Newly planted trees may receive more
attention mainly due to the post-planting maintenance and warranty of one to
two years, which is included in the landscape planting contract. Long-term
and preventive tree care, however, often do not receive sufficient attention.
The mature trees, including outstanding champions, tend to be neglected until
they develop discernible distress symptoms. As most urban trees encounter
more growth problems than their countryside cousins, they require more care
which is often not forthcoming. The urban tree management package could be
revised to channel more attention to tree care, especially to treat the work as
a long-term enterprise (Jim, 2000). A cradle-to-grave approach could include
systematic planting, care as well as felling.
Urban trees in south cities are often inflicted by problems that originate from
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poor quality planting materials. The common arboricultural maladies could be

traced to poor nursery practice, which is unable to provide modern and consistent
standard in plant production. For urban trees, the common weaknesses include
lack of vigour, crossed branches, v-crotch, unbalanced crown, crooked or curved
trunk, multiple stems, wounds, decays, sparse foliage, kinked or girdling roots,
injured roots, pest and disease infestation, and tiny root ball (Jim, 1997c). Such
inherited problems appearing from seedling and sapling stages, would in time
develop into long-term liabilities and potential hazards. The root cause of these
problems lies in the nursery, where the lack of selection of seeds and seedlings to
eliminate weaklings, and little corrective pruning and branch training. To bring
improvements, it is necessary to overhaul the nursery production methods and
installations, aiming squarely at turning out high-quality planting materials.
A more vigorous specification of planting materials could set the requisite
technical standards, which require the cooperation of the landscape professions
for effective enforcement. There is a need to institute a rigorous plan to scrutinize
planting materials and reject the substandard ones. None should be permitted to
scrape through the net and planted in the landscape.
The poor tree management in south cities could be partly ascribed to the lack
of tree inspection. To provide prompt treatment of problems, urban trees should
be regularly inspected by following a comprehensive proforma and a schedule.
The visual tree assessment based on the latest advances in the concepts and
practice of body language of trees should be supplemented by instrumental
tests, to be conducted by a qualified specialist to identify the symptoms in good
time. Some problems could be forestalled by the application of preventive or
pre-emptive maintenance to reduce the future need for care. The problems
could be classified into different grades in terms of the degree of exigency, and
should be given timely treatments accordingly. Procrastination will incur more
problems and more needs to tinker. What is lost is more than time, for it could
include losing the trees, as well as properties and lives.
The tree care staff should be trained to a high level of competence in terms of
knowledge and its application. Training should be commensurate with the staff
grade and job responsibilities. Junior staff at the worker level should receive
basic training. In addition, technical skills in horticulture and arboriculture could
be provided by on-the-job training and formal courses offered in conjunction
with local technical colleges. It is important to educate tree specialist to serve as
urban foresters, who should receive formal education to the degree level in urban
forestry or urban horticulture. Where resource is available, the staff should attend
overseas university programmes to the master degree level. The specialist staff
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could take up continuing professional development (CPD) to keep them abreast

of the latest concepts and practices. The establishment of an urban forester
post with an attractive compensation package could provide leadership to the
government’s tree team. Overseas secondment and professional visits could
encourage exchange of ideas and best practices based on first-hand experience.
Urban forestry knowledge especially on native species is lacking in south
cities. Relevant researches, hitherto mainly conducted in developed countries,
may not be directly transferable to the developing world. The general shortage
of applied research work on urban forestry in south cities is hindering urban
greening work. With a large pool of potentially suitable species and wide
variations in native species composition, research support could be strengthened
to build up the local knowledge repertoire and local capability. The enhanced
networking of scientists and practitioners in an urban forestry league, to be
grouped by geographical regions, will facilitate the sharing of research resources
and findings. The construction of databases of local amenity trees, and of relevant
researchers and practitioners, coupled with regular communications, meetings
and exchanges, will gradually establish the necessary scientific infrastructure to
further the cause of urban forestry in south cities.
5 .Augmenting greening opportunities

5.1 Hone planting techniques at narrow roadsides
Adherence to conventional tree planting techniques cannot be expected to
increase the quantity and quality of roadside trees in compact south cities. In
compact south cities, the roadside space above and below the ground is commonly
inadequate or unsuitable for trees (Chevallerie, 1986; Jim, 1997a, 1997b). In
old urban areas, buildings are usually constructed at 100% site coverage with
little setback from the lot frontage for trees. Pavements are usually too narrow
or too heavily used to afford tree planting (Kuhns et al., 1985; Evans et al.,
1990). Buildings in high-density areas usually have awnings or arcades built
above the pavement. In medium- and low-density areas, where setbacks are
sometimes provided, it is usually cordoned off by a wall, within which the land
is often paved with concrete to serve parking or other non-green uses.
If a minimum setback of 3 m could be established along roadsides, a tree strip
could be created in many densely-packed urban areas. The setback could be
created by urban redevelopment. If not, a tree strip could be created by converting
one vehicular carriageway. Building awning and other appurtenances, especially
advertisement signs, should not intrude into the growth space. Similarly, the
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underground space in the tree strip should also be reserved for tree roots, and
buried utilities and other subsurface installation should not infringe. To ensure
that trees can grow well, the tree strip should have a soil depth of at least 1 m.
Where space is not available, a narrower roadside planting strip of 1 m wide or
less could be provided for shrubs and herbaceous vegetation.
To encourage more common occurrence of setback which is essential
in enhancing tree planting in old areas, incentives such as the transfer of
development rights of the setback strips to the remainder of the plot, or the
reward of bonus plot ratio, could be given. More importantly, wider setback
strips should be encouraged to accommodate large trees and to bring notable
landscape improvement (Jim, 1999). The planting strip land should be
accessible to the public. For sites that can provide generous setback wider than
3 m, considerations could be given to creating a road-median planting strip in
addition to the lot-frontage one to bring more notable streetcscape improvement.
Hard landscape features could accompany the new green strips or areas to make
the roadside environment more pleasant and less stressful to pedestrians. South
cities could establish a comprehensive and integrated approach to introducing
greenery into old city areas. It should be added that roadside trees are the most
cost-effective and conspicuous way to significantly enhance the cityscape.
5.2 Ameliorate pervasive urban soil constraints

Urban soils especially at roadsides, often not conducive to healthy tree growth
due to common occurrence of physical and chemical limitations, are seldom
improved in greening programmes. The main problems are the shallowness
of the soil layer, rocks within the rooting zone, building foundations, utility
junction and control boxes, excessive amount of stones and sand, poor soil
structure, soil compaction, and sealing of the soil surface by concrete or asphalt
(Jim, 1993; Perry, 1994; Jim, 1998c). The soil environment has poor aeration,
limited moisture holding capacity and impeded drainage (Jim and Ng, 2000).
The poor chemical properties of urban soils are also unfavourable to plant
growth. They tend to be contaminated by construction rubbles which contain
calcareous concrete and cement fragments that raise the soil reaction to the
harmful alkaline range. Urban soils are the sink for pollutants brought by run-
on water, rainfall and gravity settlement from the atmosphere (Craul, 1980; Jim,
1998d). The shortage of available nutrients, especially the essential nitrogen
and phosphorus, also dampens tree growth (Jim, 1998e, 1998f).
The fact that poor soil cannot be expected to support healthy trees, albeit a
truism, has all too often been neglected (Bullock and Gregory, 1991; Craul,
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1992). There is a widespread misconception that any soil can grow trees, and
soil deficiencies can be easily rectified. As a result, urban trees are commonly
planted in poor site soil without the benefit of improvement. Inferior soil trapped
in the urban landscape after construction of buildings and roads is difficult to
ameliorate or replace. The intractable deficiencies in the growing medium will
linger. Trees growing in such poor soil cannot be expected to perform well
and may incur heavy management liabilities. As soil materials are relatively
inexpensive, poor site soils should be replaced by a good soil mix before trees
are planted. Soil replacement should cover a broad area down to about 1 m
deep (Lindsey and Bassuk, 1991). Localized improvement within a tree pit will
not help, as the small improved soil volume will soon be outgrown by the tree.
At roadsides, a continuous soil corridor could be installed, with a reinforced
concrete cover to return walkable surface to pedestrians. Adjacent trees can
share the soil to spread its roots to enhance tree growth.
5.3 Mobilize innovative greening ideas and sites

The planners and managers of urban greening often fail to think out of the box
to find innovative opportunities and solutions. In old urban areas, redevelopment
could offer chances to increase plantable spaces within and at the frontage of the
site. In neighbourhoods where the built-up density is exceptionally high and green
space provision is grossly inadequate, brown sites could be converted to green
spaces to bring relief. The development right of the enlisted land parcel could
be transferred to another site outside the neighbourhood in question. It is often
transferred to new development areas where built-up density is lower and green
space provision is sufficient. Such shifting of plot ratio or development right could
be applied systematically to gradually improve the landscape and environmental
qualities of old urban areas. Incentives could be offered and planning laws could
be amended to encourage developers to participate in the land use restructuring.
Many side streets are hardly used by vehicles. Vehicular flows could be
diverted to nearby roads so that they could be pedestrianized and planted. Simple
planting with beautiful flowering trees is probably more welcomed by residents
than expensive hard landscape installations. However, the need to provide
clearance for emergency vehicle access often restricts planting opportunities
in pedestrianized streets that are narrow. As a result, planting has to be limited
on the edge and on one side only; where the streets are too narrow, planting is
often not permitted. To overcome this constraint, small trees can be planted in
containers that can easily be shifted.
The amenity value of old river courses or canals are sometimes neglected in
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old city areas. Some may become contaminated or clogged, and others may be
covered by a deck. They could be restored and revitalized by cleaning the water
course in conjunction with greening of the banks to create blueways bordered by
greenways. As people have strong affinity for water, particularly the land-water
interface, such transformed amenity strips could serve as linear urban parks. The
water surfaces together with vegetation could lower air temperature and ameliorate
the urban heat island effect. The waterfront area facing the harbour in some cities
could similarly be upgraded to create a green promenade with attendant benefits.
Many city areas have on-street parking spaces at the kerbside. Where such
road sections do not have sufficient spaces to plant trees in tree strips or tree
pits, the area between parking spaces could be mobilized to plant trees. If
necessary, a tree pit with a metal grille could be installed at grade to minimize
the loss of parking spaces. Alternatively, a raised planter could be placed at the
same locations, which will reduce the total number of parking spaces. In this
way, streets that are otherwise treeless could be adorned with roadside trees.
Some cities have tramways or railways laid along roads, often at the median
position. The land surfaces between the rails are conventionally paved with
concrete, asphalt or stones. Such long strips that penetrate different districts do
not need to remain hard and harsh. Instead, they could be replaced with soil
and planted with herbaceous vegetation. Besides laying a turf cover, the use of
native flowering herbs could significantly improve the streetscape. Where the
tracks are shared with other vehicular traffic, a porous paving system could be
adopted to carrying the traffic load whilst allowing for some grass growth. Many
European cities have extensive track sections greened in this manner, adding a
new dimension to the urban greening stock. South cities could learn from this
good practice, test the methods and modify them to suit local conditions.
As many south cities have pervasively compact developments, the amount of
plantable spaces available at the ground level is limited. The many thousands
of flat roof tops of existing buildings, however, remain largely barren. Such
above-ground sites could be earnestly explored for green roof installation.
Where the loading capacity is limited, the light-weight extensive green roofs
could be adopted. Where the roof slab is strong enough to bear heavy loads,
the intensive green roofs that include small trees and shrubs could provide high
quality gardens literally in the sky (Jim, 2008). The green roof sites could offer
additional recreational areas to supplement the ground-level green space stock.
Moreover, they could bring a host of environmental and ecological benefits
such as temperature cooling, air pollutant removal, noise reduction, storm water
discharge reduction, storm water quality improvement, and wildlife habitats
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(Dunnett and Kingsbury, 2004).

In the above ground environment, the numerous building facades and walls
in general offer many vertical greening opportunities that have hardly been
enlisted by south cities (Alexandri and Jones, 2008). The materials and methods
of setting up green walls could be evaluated to develop appropriate technology
that suit local conditions. In particular, the native species, preferably flowering
climbers that could enliven vertical habitats, could be screened and tested by
field experiments. Green walls could bring benefits similar to green roofs, plus
the more prominent visual amenity to invigorate the townscape.
6. Conclusion
Urban greening in many south cities has a long established tradition, but it is
beset by multiple and vexing constraints. Fast urban expansion has strained the
quality of the environment and urban life. Urban greening could be degraded,
left behind and swept aside in the hasty rush towards economic development.
It is advocated that development and greening could go hand in hand to
contribute to sustainable development and smart growth. Urban greenery
could be construed as an indispensable infrastructure, rather than dispensable
elements to fill left-over, odd and confined niches. The urban planning process
would need to be overhauled to encompass this fundamental tenet. The modern
naturalistic or ecological approach could bring a new dimension to the design
of urban green spaces. Aligning the spatial pattern of green spaces with nature
in a well connected network that permeates the city could significantly improve
their benefits and functions. A pleasant bonus is the reduction in the capital and
recurrent costs of the urban greening programme.
The technical obstacles should not be difficult to overcome, but they would
need to be appropriately adjusted or modified to render them appropriate to the
local environment. People could receive training to master the relevant urban
forestry and arboricultual concepts and skills to strengthen this aspect of the
greening equation. The quality of tree professionals and workers, and associated
equipment, should be amenable to improvement. The more difficult hurdles lie
in the institutional bottlenecks and psychological barriers. To upgrade urban
greening, south cities would need to revamp its administrative and statutory
regimes. Enacting a comprehensive urban greening ordinance will provide
impetus and a structured framework to greening work. Encouraging public
participation and engagement could make urban greening relevant and welcome
by citizens. The persistent adherence to the modern and urbanized strand of
environmental determinism, that compact cities cannot become meritorious
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green cities, has stifled initiatives and enthusiasm. The general neglect of tree
care could be rectified by adopting a long-term vision of transgenerational
urban forestry and arboriculture. The inertia of sticking to the old fashioned,
anachronistic and often erroneous tree-related techniques presents another
hindrance. Cities could be compact and green, with the help of meticulous
attention to every aspect of the urban greening complex. The overriding concern
of quality has to permeate all greening plans and tasks. There are no shortcuts,
but there is the way if there is the will.
The knowledge gap in south cities, with particular reference to the use and
care of native species in urban horticultural applications, would need to be
filled by research. This would bring up the issue of adequacy in the research
infrastructure, well-trained research scientists, research funding, and an enabling
research environment. There is a pressing need to break out of the rut and to
move into the innovative and inventive mode, so as to bring tree knowledge
and practice to a higher standard. The principal factor that will make or mar the
urban greening endeavour is the quality of the clinching tripartite: researchers,
practitioners, and decision makers. If they could nurture a fruitful synergy and
excel in unison, urban greening work could move forward with facilitation and
in strides; if not, it may stall or even falter.
A major difference between a developed and developing economy is that the
former takes efforts where it is justified to find a balance between development
and nature, whereas the latter tilts very much towards development. A developed
economy also tends to put more emphasis on research and the integration
of research findings into policies and practices (Mazzotti and Morgenstern,
1997). A well-recognized hallmark of a truly liveable and sustainable city is
the embodiment of sufficient natural and green ingredients in a permeating
and intermixed configuration with the built-up matrix. The basic precept is to
include trees into a plan (Petit et al., 1995), that is wherever and whenever we
build, we also plant. It is not a Herculean task and it is entirely feasible. The
major obstacles lie in the administrative, political and policy realms (Duvernoy,
1995; Bowers, 1999). We need determination, innovative spirit and vision to
take our urban greening ideas and ideals to fruition.
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‫خطة عملية للت�شجري والتطوير امل�ستدام للمدن اجلنوبية‬
‫ا‪.‬د‪ .‬جيم (�سي واي)‬
‫ق�سم اجلغرافية‪ -‬جامعة هوجن كونغ‬
‫‪hragjcy@hkucc.hku.hk‬‬
‫امللخ�ص‪:‬‬
‫ت�شج�ي�ر املناطق احل�ضرية يح�سن من م�ستوى البيئة وم�ست ��وى املعي�شة و�صحة االن�سان والنظام البيئي باملدن‪ .‬واملدن يف جميع‬
‫انح ��اء العامل تبذل اجلهود جتاه الت�شج�ي�ر واخل�ضرة لتحقيق اال�ستدامة احل�ضرية‪ .‬اال ان املدن اجلنوبية تعاين با�ستمرار من‬
‫قل ��ة الف�ض ��اءات اخل�ض ��راء وخا�صة يف االحياء واملراكز القدمية‪ .‬كم ��ا ان التجديد العمراين والتطوي ��ر احلايل رمبا لن ينجح‬
‫يف ح ��ل هذه امل�س�أل ��ة‪ ،‬وقلة املعرفة تزيد م ��ن ال�صعوبات‪ .‬بالتايل هناك حاج ��ة لل�سيا�سات العامة املبتك ��رة وتقنيات الت�شجري‬
‫احلديث ��ة للتح�س�ي�ن طويل االمد‪ .‬والتكامل بني العلوم الطبيعية والعلوم االجتماعي ��ة يف منهجية عديدة التخ�ص�صات مع تقوية‬
‫العالق ��ة ب�ي�ن العلوم وال�سيا�سات العامة م ��ن �ش�أنه ان ين�شط جهود الت�شج�ي�ر يف املدن اجلنوبية‪ .‬ويج ��ب ان يتعاون القطاعان‬
‫الع ��ام واخلا�ص اليجاد فراغات خ�ضراء وغر�س النباتات يف الن�سيج احل�ضري‪ .‬واعتمادا على درا�سات مكثفة للمدن اجلنوبية‬
‫وال�شمالي ��ة ومب ��ادئ البيئة احل�ضرية يقرتح البحث حم ��اور رئي�سية خلطة عملية للت�شجري وخل ��ق الف�ضاءات اخل�ضراء‪ .‬واهم‬
‫�سمات الت�صميم املقرتح هو �سل�سلة من الف�ضاءات اخل�ضراء املت�صلة لتكون ن�سيج يخرتق كافة املدينة مع احلفاظ على النظام‬
‫البيئ ��ي الطبيع ��ي وخلق ف�ضاءات متنوعة اخل�ضرة‪ .‬وال بد ان ت�شمل املنفعة م ��ن التخ�ضري احل�ضري اجلانب االقت�صادي اي�ضا‬
‫ليك ��ون مكم�ل�ا للجانب البيئي‪ .‬ي�شمل ذلك حماية اال�شجار يف مواقع البن ��اء واحلفاظ على اال�شجار املميزة‪ .‬ويتطلب ذلك رفع‬
‫م�ست ��وى مهارات غر�س والعناية باال�شجار على جوانب الطرق‪ ،‬باال�ضافة اىل حت�سني نوعية الرتبة‪ .‬كذلك احلاجة اىل االفكار‬
‫اخلالق ��ة اليج ��اد مناطق امل�شاة احلرة من ال�سيارات‪ ،‬واحياء القنوات واالنهار‪ ،‬وا�ستخدام ا�سطح املباين اخل�ضراء واجلدران‬
‫اخل�ضراء مما ي�ضيف املزيد من امل�ساحات اخل�ضراء‪.‬‬
‫‪King saud university - College of Architecture and Planning‬‬
‫‪530‬‬

An Urban Greening Action Plan To Foster Sustainable Development of South Cities

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An urban greening action plan to foster

sustainable development of south cities

Conference On Technology & Sustainability in the Built Environment

King saud university - College of Architecture and Planning

Conference On Technology & Sustainability in the Built Environment

Besides expounding the underlying principles, the practical and actionable

3. Applying urban ecological principles

King saud university - College of Architecture and Planning

naturalistic or ecological principles could be more embraced to create green spaces

3.2 Optimize green space geometry and connectivity

Conference On Technology & Sustainability in the Built Environment

(1) Large patches or wide corridors

King saud university - College of Architecture and Planning

3.3 Enrich green space diversity

Conference On Technology & Sustainability in the Built Environment

King saud university - College of Architecture and Planning

3.4 Evaluate holistic benefits of urban greening

Conference On Technology & Sustainability in the Built Environment

4. Protecting nature-in-city assets

King saud university - College of Architecture and Planning

Conference On Technology & Sustainability in the Built Environment

planting, and allowed to recuperate so as to reconstitute the natural soil-water-

4.2 Conserve champion quality trees

King saud university - College of Architecture and Planning

from the best practices to improve their own protection work.

Conference On Technology & Sustainability in the Built Environment

considerations in the spirit of transgenerational urban forestry and arboriculture.

King saud university - College of Architecture and Planning

also furnish accurate information on protection justifications and guidelines to

Conference On Technology & Sustainability in the Built Environment

King saud university - College of Architecture and Planning

4.4 Transplant trees as the last resort

Conference On Technology & Sustainability in the Built Environment

4.5 Upgrade tree care quality and timeliness

King saud university - College of Architecture and Planning

poor quality planting materials. The common arboricultural maladies could be

Conference On Technology & Sustainability in the Built Environment

could take up continuing professional development (CPD) to keep them abreast

5 .Augmenting greening opportunities

King saud university - College of Architecture and Planning

5.2 Ameliorate pervasive urban soil constraints

Conference On Technology & Sustainability in the Built Environment

5.3 Mobilize innovative greening ideas and sites

King saud university - College of Architecture and Planning

Conference On Technology & Sustainability in the Built Environment

(Dunnett and Kingsbury, 2004).

King saud university - College of Architecture and Planning

Conference On Technology & Sustainability in the Built Environment

Bowers, J. (1999) Policy instruments for the conservation of remnant vegetation on

Burton, E. (2002) Measuring urban compactness in UK towns and cities. Environment

King saud university - College of Architecture and Planning

Dochinger, L.S. (1980) Interception of airborne particles by tree plantings. Journal of

Duvernoy, G. (1995) Keeping it green, political and administrative issues in the

Fernández-Juricic, E. (2000) Avifaunal use of wooded streets in an urban landscape.

Conference On Technology & Sustainability in the Built Environment

Harris, R.W. (1998) Arboriculture: Integrated Management of Landscape

Hestmark, G. (2000) Temptations of the tree. Nature 408: 911.

Jalas, J. (1955) Hemerobe und hemerochore Pflanzenarten. Ein Terminologischer

King saud university - College of Architecture and Planning