THE SOCIAL STUDIES

2018, VOL. 109, NO. 2, 74–84

https://doi.org/10.1080/00377996.2018.1451982

I’m Not for Sale: Teaching About Human Trafficking

James Moore
Teacher Education, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Even though slavery is illegal in all countries, it is still practiced in the form of human trafficking. In Human trafficking; human
fact, there are about twenty-five million men, women, and children who are victims of human rights; democracy United
trafficking, a 150-billion-dollar industry that affects every country across the globe. Modern Nations; slavery
communications, such as the Internet and cell phones, exacerbate the problem of human trafficking
and law enforcement faces enormous challenges in detecting, arresting, and prosecuting human
traffickers. Victims, fifty percent of whom are children, are sold into prostitution, forced marriages,
and forced labor in sweatshops, agriculture, and mining. Additionally, some victims are forced into
armed conflicts as children; others are killed and their organs are harvested and sold on the black
market. It is estimated that 50,000 victims are brought into the United States annually. Human
trafficking is a moral outrage, as well as a violation of American and international law. Social studies
education must teach about this egregious human rights violation and encourage students to
become involved in stopping this modern-day slavery. By incorporating lessons into their curricula,
all teachers can help produce young citizens dedicated to protecting human rights for all people.

Introduction
also cases of forced marriages, selling babies, and organ
When Charles Darwin stated, “If the misery of our poor harvesting (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2017;
be caused not by the laws of nature, but by our institu- Human Rights First, 2017; UNICEF, 2017). Of course,
tions, great is our sin” (Gould, 1996, p. 19), he under- these numbers are estimates because it is very difficult
stood that slavery was a moral atrocity rooted, not in to obtain accurate data; contrasting methodologies and
nature but in human-created institutions. In 2017, definitions also can result in wildly divergent numbers.
135 years after Darwin’s death, modern-day slavery still Thus, caution must be used when interpreting all statis-
exists across the globe (UNICEF, 2017; United States tics and data. This is a vital point for all citizens, espe-
Department of State, 2017a). In fact, it is a $150 billion cially students, to grasp when interpreting any numbers
industry that affects every country in the world, includ- and statistics.
ing the United States (Human Rights First, 2017). As of In 2000 the United Nations (UN) passed the
2017, 40.3 million men, women, and children are Palermo Protocol, a document that designates human
trapped in modern-day slavery—a moral outrage that is trafficking a crime and seeks to eliminate its practice
a scandalous betrayal of the principles of human liberty by punishing traffickers; 140 countries have signed the
and equality (Anti-Slavery International, 2018). Human Palermo Protocol, and as of 2017, 29 countries have
trafficking (slavery) is illegal in the United States and refused to sign the law (UNICEF, 2017). The United
according to international law (United Nations, 2017); Nations defines trafficking as using force, the threat of
of course, laws by themselves often fail to stop illegal or force, abduction, deception, or coercion in any
dangerous behaviors. But they are an important starting attempt to exploit human beings, including any
point in efforts to abolish modern-day slavery, an insti- exchange of money or benefits. The consent of the vic-
tution that has been universal throughout human his- tims is immaterial if it involves children (under age
tory and is reincarnated in the modern world in new 18) and any method designed to exploit them is illegal
forms. For example, labor trafficking (18%) and sex traf- (General Assembly, 2000). The UN proclaims,
ficking (79%) are the two dominant types, but there are “Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the

CONTACT James Moore j.moore2@csuohio.edu Cleveland State University, Teacher Education, 2121 Euclid Ave., RT 1319, Cleveland, OH 44114, USA.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 THE SOCIAL STUDIES 75

exploitation of the prostitution of others or other Roma, and individuals with special needs) murdered
forms of sexual exploitation, forced labor or services, systemically by a totalitarian regime steeped in hatred
slavery or practices like slavery, servitude or the spawned by an anti-Semitic and racist ideology—
removal of organs.” The Protocol establishes a variety motivated the international community to create
of services to victims—medical treatment, housing, international laws and institutions dedicated to pre-
education, employment, and psychological services— venting further genocides and other atrocities (slave
and procedures for international cooperation among labor, “medical” experiments, torture, and rape) com-
countries to stop human trafficking. This is a great mitted in World War II. Thus, the United Nations
challenge because victims, especially ones transported was formed in 1945 to maintain international peace
across international borders, are often terrified of vio- and protect human rights, which are mentioned seven
lence, face language and cultural barriers, and experi- times in the UN Founding Charter; the protection of
ence poverty and family dysfunction. human rights is a primary goal of the international
Human trafficking is a fundamental human rights organization (UN Charter). It is, along with providing
violation that should be discussed in social studies international peace and socioeconomic progress, one
courses; this is the most appropriate venue for discus- of the three pillars of the United Nations structural
sing controversial and global issues. Furthermore, organization.
because children constitute 50% of global victims (UNI- Of course, enormous cultural and religious diversity
CEF, 2017), human trafficking is relevant to K–12 stu- and competing national interests aggravate creating,
dents in American schools, including some students not to mention enforcing, international laws in a
who are victims of this dangerous practice. This issue world where national sovereignty remains supreme,
has the power to stimulate students’ interests because it agreed upon definitions of what constitutes human
has a strong moral component, like genocide, that can rights (Blanton & Kegley, 2017). For example, some
appall the conscience and motivate students to become countries may argue that human rights are rooted in
engaged in stopping human trafficking. Active student the individual while other nations argue for the
engagement—supporting international organizations, supremacy of the state or the community; the split
bringing awareness to the nature and scope of human between universalists and cultural relativists has been
trafficking, protesting, voting, and other activities—to a major issue in international law and explains, to a
further the ideals of liberty, equality, and social justice large extent, why human rights remains a controver-
is a major goal in social studies education. sial topic (Blanton & Kegley, 2017).
Therefore, this article seeks to provide teachers with Nevertheless, in 1948, The United Nations created
some valuable basic knowledge and statistics about the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
human trafficking. First, the article briefly examines (UNDHR). The core democratic principles of individ-
the United Nation’s Universal Declaration of Human ual rights and dignity, equality before the law, social
Right, a revolutionary document designed to protect justice, limited government (the proposition that sov-
the human rights of all people, regardless of religion, ereign governments cannot violate basic human
race, social class, ethnicity, age, sex/gender, or nation- rights), and due process of law are the philosophical
ality (General Assembly, 1948). Second, the article foundation of the UDHR (General Assembly, 1948).
describes the nature, types, and consequences of The 30 Articles protect the basic rights of human
human trafficking and efforts to abolish it. Moreover, beings, such as the right to food, housing, education,
the article describes how educators can offer compel- medical care, travel, and employment. Moreover, the
ling lessons on human trafficking that inform and UNDHR protects freedom of religion, expression, and
motivate students to become involved in fighting for assembly—freedoms so crucial to human liberty that
human rights for all people. they are enshrined in the First Amendment in the Bill
of Rights. The UDHR is a political and legal document
predicated on the moral premise that all human
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
beings are equal and entitled to certain rights simply
The promise of equality and liberty
by their humanity. (Historically, this is a radical idea
The horrors of the Holocaust—six million Jews and and has seldom been the reality anywhere in the world
six million others (homosexuals, political opponents, until the 20th century.)
76 J. MOORE

For example, Article One affirms “All human exploitation of human beings for significant profits for
beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. traffickers (UNICEF, 2017). Common terms for
They are endowed with reason and conscience and human trafficking include slavery, forced labor, forced
should act towards one another in a spirit of brother- prostitution, involuntary servitude, and debt bondage.
hood” (General Assembly, 1948). Article Four states Trafficking is a $150 billion industry that affects every
that “No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; nation in the world (UNICEF, 2017), and modern
slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all technologies facilitate the exploitation of victims, espe-
their forms” General Assembly, 1948). This is an cially adults and children trafficked in the sex trade.
unequivocal condemnation of human trafficking. Globally, trafficking victims are more likely to come
Article Five states that “No one shall be subjected to from vulnerable populations, such as high-poverty
torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment communities, corrupt and dysfunctional governments,
or punishment” (General Assembly, 1948). It is rea- minority populations, undocumented immigrants,
sonable to assert that forced labor and prostitution, homeless children, and abusive or fragmented families
as well as coerced marriages and being killed for (Centers for Disease Control, 2017; Government
one’s organs, constitute torture and cruel punish- Accounting Office, 2017). Globally, the statistics are
ment. Article Seven affirms that “All are equal before staggering: 40.3 million people are in modern slavery,
the law and are entitled without any discrimination including 10 million children; 27 million people are in
to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to some form of forced labor, and almost 5 million peo-
equal protection against any discrimination in viola- ple are forced into prostitution or other forms of sex-
tion of this Declaration and against any incitement ual exploitation, such as pornography or forced
to such discrimination” (General Assembly, 1948). marriages (Anti-Slavery International, 2018).
Article Twelve proclaims that “No one shall be sub- Africa, for example, experiences a high rate of
jected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, fam- human trafficking (10 million people, about 25% of
ily, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his the global total) spawned by extreme poverty, corrupt
honor and reputation. Everyone has the right to the and incompetent governments, substantial migration
protection of the law against such interference or patterns, ethnic conflicts, and wars (Attoh, 2010).
attacks” (General Assembly, 1948). Women, in particular, suffer from violent rapes, tor-
Thus, these articles are cited to condemn human traf- ture, and sexual exploitation, as well as discrimination
ficking, which, by definition, is torture, sex discrimination, (Anti-Slavery International, 2018; Attoh, 2010). In
and invasion of privacy, as a clear violation of human addition, descent-based slavery—individuals born into
rights. Furthermore, member states (countries) of the slavery because their ancestors were enslaved—is com-
United Nations have created national laws that criminalize mon in Mali, Chad, Sudan, Niger, and Mauritania
human trafficking and seek to impose harsh penalties for (Anti-Slavery International, 2018). These individuals
individuals convicted of human trafficking. For example, are slaves in the traditional sense; they can be bought
in 1865 Congress passed a Constitutional amendment and sold, sexually exploited, and are compelled to
that provided that “neither slavery nor involuntary servi- work and have no human rights. (Of course, as with
tude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party all highly complex issues, caution must be taken when
shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the interpreting statistics: there are issues of statistical
United States” (U.S. Const. Amend. XIII). American and bias; inaccurate, incomplete, or corrupt reporting on
international laws on human rights are based on the natu- behalf of countries; many victims never report their
ral law principles of liberty and equality for all human cases to the authorities; and traffickers use covert
beings; of course, transforming these political ideals into methods to avoid detection.)
concrete reality is a significant challenge for governments In the United States, more than 90% of sex traffick-
and the international community. ing cases and 57% of labor trafficking cases involve girls
and women (National Human Trafficking Resource
Center, 2017). The average age a child enters the sex
Human trafficking: A moral abomination
trade in the United States is between 12 and 14; many
Human trafficking can be manifested in several differ- of these girls have been abused or come from dysfunc-
ent forms, but the common denominator is the tional families and are targeted by traffickers (Clawson,
 THE SOCIAL STUDIES 77

Dutch, Solomon, & Goldblatt, 2009). Sex and labor traf- Child sex trafficking does not require proving force,
ficking are serious problems in the United States; the fraud, or coercion; any child who “is recruited,
Global Slavery Index (2016) estimates that 57,700 people enticed, harbored, transported, provided, obtained,
are victims of modern-day slavery, and cases have been patronized, solicited, or maintained to perform a com-
reported in all 50 states. mercial sex act” is a victim of trafficking (Department
Globally, 79% of sex trafficking victims are of State, 2017a). There are no exceptions to this U.S.
females, and circa 18% of trafficking victims are law; no cultural explanation or socioeconomic factor
forced into industrial, agricultural, construction, (i.e., the child consented because she needed money)
hospitality, health care, or mining labor (National mitigates the fact that children who are exploited in
Human Trafficking Resource Center, 2017). The any form of prostitution are trafficking victims
United States Department of State (2017a) has (Department of State, 2017a). Children are especially
articulated a clear definition of human trafficking: vulnerable physically and psychologically; this is one
Any adult who engages in commercial sex acts as reason they are targeted by traffickers. Globally, it is
the result of force, threats, deception, coercion, estimated that 5.5 million children are exploited for
fraud, or any combination of these methods is a prostitution, pornography, forced labor, forced mar-
victim of trafficking. This includes being forced riages, sex tourism, organ harvesting, domestic serv-
into prostitution to pay off the “debts” they ants, street beggars, and conscripted into military
incurred because of their transportation or sale. In units (UNICEF, 2017). These children, like adult vic-
addition, “Any person who Under such circumstan- tims, suffer from the same physical, medical, psycho-
ces, perpetrators involved in recruiting, harboring, logical, and social problems that plague all victims of
enticing, transporting, providing, obtaining, patron- human trafficking.
izing, soliciting, or maintaining a person for that While females are much more likely to be victims of
purpose are guilty of sex trafficking of an adult” sex trafficking, experts believe that the sexual exploita-
(United States Department of State, 2017a). tion of boys is underreported (United States Depart-
Sex trafficking victims, like all victims of sexual vio- ment of State, 2017c). For example, in Afghanistan the
lence, often suffer from a wide variety of physical, practice of bacha baazi—pedophilia and the sexual
emotional, and social problems (Centers for Disease exploitation of prepubescent and teen boys by much
Control, 2017). For example, victims are at high risk older and politically powerful men—is entrenched in
for injuries, chronic pain, sexually transmitted dis- much of the country (Mondloch, 2013). These boys
eases, malnutrition, gastrointestinal problems, cervical are bought or kidnapped (in some cases, the family
cancer, and headaches. Furthermore, victims suffer will sell a son to a powerful figure for profit and pres-
from depression, suicidal thoughts, posttraumatic tige) and forced to have sex, dress as females, and per-
stress disorder, anxiety, shame, fear, shock, sleep prob- form feminine activities for their masters; they are
lems, distrust, substance abuse, and social isolation essentially sex slaves (Mondloch, 2013). The victims
(Centers for Disease Control, 2017; National Center suffer irreparable harm from the normalization of
for the Victims of Crime, 2017). Socially, they are pedophilia; it is estimated that 50% of men in the rural
more likely to experience rejection from family, a Pashtun tribal areas in southern Afghanistan take boy
lower chance for marriage, and being an outcaste in lovers as sex slaves (Mondloch, 2013). This egregious
the community. Thus, helping trafficking victims is human rights violation receives very little media atten-
crucial if they are to recover from their ordeals; they tion, despite the widespread prevalence of institution-
need medical treatment, mental health therapies, and alized sex trafficking in Afghanistan, a country that
education to create healthier and happier lives. As receives significant financial aid from the United
human trafficking increases in the United States, the States. This is illegal under the “William Wilberforce
medical and health professions are increasing educa- Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of
tion for medical personnel. Stanford Medical School, 2008” that prohibits funding from going to countries
for example, is providing training, information, and that engage in human trafficking, unless granted a
resources to detect and treat victims, who have special waiver from the president.
needs resulting from their traumatic experiences The internet and other modern communication
(Stanford Medical School, 2017). technologies (cell phones, social media sites, laptops,
78 J. MOORE

and apps designed to identify, recruit, and coerce chil- is impossible to calculate the human misery—deaths,
dren into performing sex acts online) have contributed destroyed lives, lost human potential, devastated fam-
to a proliferation of human trafficking (United States ilies—associated with trafficking; it is also difficult to
Department of State, 2017b). For example, an individ- determine the economic costs in terms of lost pro-
ual in the United States can watch a live-streaming ductivity, law enforcement expenses, and medical
video of a child being raped or otherwise sexually care. Human trafficking is a moral abomination that
exploited from anywhere in the world; in fact, there violates American and international law; furthermore,
are numerous closed and protected online communi- it is a betrayal of the natural law principles of human
ties dedicated to the sexual abuse of children (United dignity, the essential equality of all human beings,
States Department of State, 2017b). The Internet and individual liberties and rights. However, while
allows for anonymity, and payments can be made by American law enforcement agencies and interna-
wire transfers that are difficult to trace. tional organizations are taking more aggressive
Governments or other militias using child soldiers approaches to stopping human trafficking and other
is another major from of human trafficking that human rights violations, social studies educators,
destroys lives (Attoh, 2010; Honwana, 2006; Rakisits, especially if human trafficking became a national
2008; United States Department of State, 2017d). focus in school curricula, can contribute to abolishing
Globally, it is estimated that 300,000 children (under modern-day slavery in its various manifestations.
18 years of age), some as young as 8 years old, are
engaged in military conflicts in some capacity
What all educators can do to stop human
(Human Rights Watch, 2017; Rakisits, 2008). They
trafficking
may serve in combat missions, act as spies or look-
outs, do service jobs (cooks, porters, messengers, or Ending human trafficking will require a concentrated
sex slaves), or participate in suicide missions. Many effort from all interested parties—governments, inter-
are abducted or recruited by force, and some join out national law enforcement agencies, American law
of utter desperation for survival (they believe the mil- enforcement agencies (these agencies possess signifi-
itary will provide food and security); in 2016, 10,000 cant human, economic, and technological resources
children were killed in military conflicts (Becker, that are lacking in many countries), human rights
2017). This figure is probably low because many child organizations, and citizens—who have the will to end
casualties are never reported, and monitoring the all forms of modern-day slavery (Advocates for
recruitment and use of children in military conflicts Human Rights, 2017). Increasing awareness and
is inadequate (Becker, 2017). Africa has 120,000 child improving education, as well as aggressive law
soldiers, or about 40% of the global total, in Nigeria, enforcement, are key factors in defeating the traffick-
the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Somalia, ers. Social studies education offers the most appropri-
Mali, and Sudan. Many child soldiers experience ate national venue for educating young citizens and
rapes, torture, and are sent into minefields as guinea motivating them to become actively engaged in fight-
pigs or are forced to commit atrocities against their ing trafficking, an activity that occurs in American
families to ensure stigmatization and prevent them schools. There are several steps educators can take to
from ever going home (Human Rights Watch, 2008). teach about human trafficking and other emotional
The United States passed the Child Soldiers Preven- and disturbing public issues.
tion Act of 2008 (CSPA), which requires the State First, educators must create a classroom atmo-
Department to report annually on the world’s gov- sphere characterized by honesty, civility, respect, toler-
ernments that recruit or use children in wars or ance for dissent, and supporting ideas and statements
armed conflicts (United States Department of State, with historically accurate information and empirical
2017d). This law allows the United States to stop for- data (Center for Research on Learning and Teaching,
eign aid to the governments in the hopes that they 2017). It is possible that there will be students in the
will change their illegal behavior. class who have been victims of trafficking or other
This brief description of human trafficking accen- criminal acts, and the teacher must be sensitive to stu-
tuates the horrors experienced by the 27 million vic- dents’ experiences. The classroom must be a physically
tims across the globe (Human Rights First, 2017). It and intellectually safe environment free of insults,
 THE SOCIAL STUDIES 79

personal attacks, incivility, and uncontrolled emo- standardized testing requirements, established curricu-
tions. Educators must establish positive relationships lum requirements, and other issues. However, the topic
with students and a climate of respect before engaging is crucial and students are victims of trafficking; there-
in human trafficking education. fore, it must be handled with sensitivity and respect.
Second, it is crucial that school districts implement Social studies issues, such as crime, poverty, and abuse,
programs that bring awareness to human trafficking. are not theoretical; students may be victims and educa-
For example, the Miami-Dade County Public Schools, tors must be aware of this fact. The topic is appropriate
the nation’s fourth largest school system and one char- for government, economics, history, global issues, and
acterized by substantial cultural diversity produced by geography courses. For example, lessons on modern
migration trends, created a program to educate slavery are a natural fit with the history of African
employees and students about human trafficking American slavery or slavery in ancient and medieval
(Miami-Dade County Public Schools, 2012). This pro- times in cultures, such as China, Rome, the Middle
gram includes fact sheets that detail the warning signs East, Greece, Egypt, and other societies (Klein, 2014).
and risk factors for child trafficking and provides Connecting the past to the present, and showing stu-
questions that teachers should bear in mind when try- dents the relevance of these issues to their lives, is an
ing to identify possible victims (National Center for effective method to motivate engagement. It is impera-
the Victims of Crime, 2017). For instance, teachers tive that teachers help students understand they don’t
should look for signs of neglect, abuse, violence, or a have to be passive bystanders to social injustices and
student’s behaviors (depression, anger, anxiety, fear, moral atrocities. Teach them that they can make the
and isolation from peers). In addition, tattoos and following choice: They are free to find their passion and
branding (some traffickers brand their victims to voice and become actively engaged in ending human
show “property” rights and intimidation) could be trafficking or other human rights violations that make a
signs of victimization (National Center for the Victims mockery of the democratic ideals that we espouse every
of Crime, 2017). Teachers must be proactive because day in schools.
many victims are terrified and may not talk about it. One comprehensive and effective method (the
Establishing positive relationships with students based author has conducted this project in history and other
on trust, caring, honesty, and respect may encourage social science courses at the secondary level) to teach
them to tell teachers, who can then take appropriate about human trafficking involves creating a project
actions. that encompasses history, geography, economics, gov-
The Miami-Dade County program also offers free ernment and law, and sociology (Chapin, 2015). The
resources and contact information for federal, state, project is appealing to students because of its moral
and local law enforcement agencies, as well as social and political characteristics and it incorporates the
service organizations (medical and counseling serv- didactic, reflective, and affective domains. This is a
ices) that can assist victims (Miami-Dade County student-centered group project that requires student
Public Schools, 2012). Florida is the third most popu- research, collection of data (primary and secondary
lar state for trafficking after California and Texas. sources, quantitative evidence for assertions), collabo-
Miami, because it is a magnet for immigrants—many ration, in-class readings, interactive lectures and dis-
of them vulnerable to trafficking because of poverty, cussions, the accumulation of resources, and a
linguistic and cultural barriers, and unfamiliarity with description of how students can become actively
their rights and the American legal systems—is a hub involved in fighting modern-day slavery (United for
of human trafficking (Miami-Dade County Public Human Rights, 2017). The final product includes a
Schools, 2012). thorough examination of modern-day human traffick-
ing, including legal definitions, the nature, causes,
extent, methods, and types of human trafficking.
Social studies and human trafficking:
Moreover, the project details the consequences of
Instructional options
human trafficking on individuals, the global economy,
First, social studies teachers must incorporate lessons countries, and international relations. It is a highly
about human trafficking into their curricula. Unfortu- interdisciplinary project involving the social studies,
nately, this may be difficult because of time constraints, the humanities, and the sciences. Finally, the project
80 J. MOORE

must address how students can engage in civic action and the impact on victims. Students are free to make
to stop the undemocratic and immoral practice of choices regarding activities and resources (teacher
human trafficking. guidance always helps). The project begins with mak-
Of course, teachers have the option of using the C3 ing a comparison between modern-day slavery and
Framework for this project (the author used a similar other forms of slavery, such as the transatlantic slave
inquiry-based method prior to the development of the trade. While many students may think slavery ended
C3 Framework), and this would be an excellent choice in the 19th century with the Emancipation Proclama-
because human trafficking can be related to all social tion (Lincoln ended slavery in the secessionist states)
studies disciplines, as well as English, math, and sci- and the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment in
ence. Thus, it is an ideal theme for the “The College, 1865, they may be surprised to learn that there are
Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social more enslaved people today (this is in absolute num-
Studies State Standards: Guidance for Enhancing the bers and does not account for rapid population
Rigor of K–12 Civics, Economics, Geography, and growth) than in 1850 (Bravo, 2007; Ohio Department
History” (NCSS, 2013). This is an inquiry-based cur- of Education, 2016). One of the most interesting and
riculum that emphasizes the importance of compelling intellectually challenging endeavors is connecting the
and supporting questions, research (based on the transatlantic slave trade to modern human trafficking.
structure of each social studies discipline), collabora- Connecting the past to the present is a primary goal in
tion, communication, and activism. The C3 Frame- social studies because it teaches the contemporary rel-
work is a student-centered approach to inquiry and evance of history, historical research, and comparing
problem-based learning; the development of hypothe- historical eras and events.
ses, questions, gathering and evaluating data to sup- However, teachers and students must use caution
port or reject hypotheses are vital components in when making historical analogies. The analogies must
inquiry-based and problem-solving educational pro- be rational and recognize the similarities and differen-
grams (Chapin, 2015). ces between different historical eras and spaces (Bravo,
The C3 Framework requires intense preparation 2007; Klein, 2014). Asking students to describe and
but offers students superb educational experiences. explain the similarities and differences between trans-
Teachers can assist students with developing a com- atlantic slavery and modern human trafficking is a
pelling question (one that is enduring, complex, intel- crucial yet intellectually difficult task that requires
lectually challenging, and interesting to students) and solid historical research under teacher supervision.
supporting questions in history, government/civics, For example, the transatlantic slave trade was rooted
geography, and economics. For example, a compelling in racial differences, differential power, and the special
question could be: How do we protect human rights needs of colonial powers for labor in the Americas
in an age of modern-day slavery? Working with stu- and other locales. However, it was only one form of
dents, teachers can help them create supporting ques- slavery; a global institution ever-present throughout
tions that can be answered by using a wide array of human history in all major civilizations where exploi-
resources, such as GIS (Geographic Information Sys- tation of human beings for labor, profits, and power is
tems, which can map the spatial distribution of traf- a common denominator (Bravo, 2007; Klein, 2014).
ficking activity), the Centers for Disease Control, the Antislavery advocates Bales and Robbins stated,
World Health Organization, the United Nations, and “Slavery as a social and economic relationship has
numerous government organizations. Social studies never ceased to exist during recorded history, but the
teachers also may wish to work with English teachers form that it takes and its definition have evolved and
to produce essays, poems, letters, or incorporate per- changed” (Bravo, 2007, p. 260). There are significant
sonal stories from trafficking victims. differences between various slavery systems in differ-
Distributing a guideline for the project is crucial so ent eras that must be understood; the structural roots
students understand the expectations and method of of modern-day slavery are different from the 15th- to
assessment. The guidelines specify what information, 19th-century’s transatlantic slave trade. For example,
topics, and questions must be included. For example, the transatlantic slave trade, as characterized by legal
students must discuss the basic facts regarding traf- ownership, high purchase costs, low profits, a scarcity
ficking, the types of trafficking, the laws to combat it, of slave labor, long-term relationships between
 THE SOCIAL STUDIES 81

masters and slaves, permanence and inheritability of identify and enslave victims? What are the demo-
slave status, and a powerful racial ideology, was used graphic characteristics of relevant countries (infant
to justify chattel slavery (Bravo, 2007). Conversely, mortality rates, life expectancy, poverty rates, GDP,
modern-day slavery avoids legal ownership, has a low and access to health care and education)? These ques-
purchase price, very high profits, and a surplus of tions can be answered by using GIS, the Internet,
potential slaves (modern-day slavery is a global phe- books and journals, and accessing vetted Web sites,
nomenon using modern communication and trans- such as National Educators to Stop Trafficking (2018).
portation systems that can produce a very large Human trafficking has a significant impact on the
population of potential slaves), which makes slaves global and national economics. Students should be
disposable. Furthermore, modern-day human traffick- researching how modern-day slavery (as well as other
ing is illegal in all countries according to international forms of discrimination and oppression) has adversely
law, and the racial element is less important but con- impacted the global economy by distorting labor mar-
tinues to play a role given the legacy of colonialism kets, competition, and supply and demand patterns.
and relationships between the developed and develop- Key questions may include the following: How does
ing nations (Bravo, 2007). trafficking impact the American economy? What is
It is vital that students understand the similarities the impact on different social classes? How does traf-
and differences between various slavery institutions ficking hinder countries of origin? How can moral
and the dangers of faulty historical analogies in efforts arguments change economic behaviors? (Some schol-
to combat modern-day slavery. Finding current solu- ars assert that American slavery was economically effi-
tions to human trafficking requires knowledge of cient and profitable and that the moral and political
modern global economics, the sophisticated methods arguments against it overcame economic reasons sup-
used by traffickers (the Internet and other computer porting slavery.) Exploring this issue will compel stu-
technologies), and the specific cultural, political, and dents to make value judgments and weight economic
economic conditions in various countries. For exam- efficiency and profits with other competing values and
ple, modern-day slavery, unlike the transatlantic slave goals. There is wealth of literature on the economics
trade, specifically targets women and girls for sexual of slavery that will help students understand multiple
exploitation in prostitution and pornography (Bravo, economic perspectives made by proponents and oppo-
2007). Thus, students should explore the status of nents of slavery.
women in many cultures and why women have less The project requires students to compare definitions
political, economic, and social power vis-a-vis men. In and various types of human trafficking and slavery;
many countries women are viewed as inferior, face white slavery (the forced enslavement of women into
violence, and are socialized to accept discriminatory forced prostitution in Europe and the United States;
treatment and be subservient and obedient; this psy- modern scholars assert that this experience was a popu-
chological subordination may produce females less lar perception that did not correspond to reality) is dif-
capable to resist human trafficking. Moreover, pov- ferent from black slavery throughout the Americas
erty, oppression, the lack of real opportunities, and (Bravo, 2007). Distributing copies of the Universal Dec-
abuse in the home/community may compel females to laration of Human Rights (UDHR) and discussing the
submit to trafficking (Bravo, 2007). key articles (identified in the second section of this arti-
As students research the historical connections cle) is a highly effective method. Teachers should ensure
among slavery institutions and modern trafficking, that all students understand the basic ideological princi-
they should use computer programs and geographic ples, such as equality, liberty, due process of law, and
software, such as Geographic Information Systems individual rights, which undergird the UDHR. Teaching
(GIS) to map trafficking routes, migration flows, iden- about trafficking from a human rights perspective allows
tify places with large slave populations, and produce students to research international law and political phi-
maps, graphs, charts, and textual data describing and losophy, including the Declaration of Independence and
analyzing human trafficking. What countries export the Constitution. Key questions to stimulate students’
the most trafficking victims? Which countries are the thinking and research may include the following: Why
primary destination for victims? What industries are do laws prohibiting trafficking fail in many cases? What
more likely to employ victims? How do traffickers can the United States do to prevent trafficking? Why do
82 J. MOORE

some countries reject the UDHR? What changes in cul- “no” positions based on their research; forcing stu-
tural values, economic policies, and legal systems are dents to argue for both sides increases their listening
needed in many developing countries to stop trafficking? skills, sharpens their research and thinking skills, fos-
When examining the political and legal dimensions ters understanding of dissenting and multiple views,
of human trafficking, students also should read and and fosters cooperative learning. Moreover, students
discuss relevant U.S. laws, such as the Violence against learn to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of all
Women Act (2013) and the William Wilberforce Traf- arguments and decide on the basis of evidence and the
ficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act importance of compromise in a democracy.
(2008). These legal documents were designed to pre- The SAC is a superb method to implement when
vent trafficking and other forms of violence (rape, teaching about human rights because it is a student-cen-
forced prostitution, forced conscription, and physical tered method that is intellectually challenging and
assaults) against all individuals. The law also provides presents multiple views generated by student research
for penalties and health services for victims. It is also (teachers facilitate the process and assist with resources
appropriate to discuss the limitations of legal systems and guidance). It does not indoctrinate students into an
and the major challenges to enforcing laws, especially orthodox view that brokers no dissent and it offers a
international law in a world characterized by national balanced approach to controversial issues. Educators
sovereignty. Furthermore, exploring international law can learn more about SAC and how to implement this
and human rights will allow students to realize the method regarding religion and other controversial
profound disagreements among nations, lawyers, topics by accessing the Curry School of Education Web
international organizations, and academics over defi- site at the University of Virginia. (http://curry.virginia.
nitions and the nature of trafficking and human rights. edu/uploads/resourceLibrary/nagc_struct_acad_cont.pdf
For example, some assert that human rights are uni- ). Preparing a SAC activity is time-consuming
versal and apply to all people regardless of nationality, (researching the issue, locating and vetting resources,
geography, religion, race, and other traits; others argue teaching students the process) but is an outstanding
that human rights are culturally specific and are to be activity with enormous academic and personal bene-
defined by sovereign nations. fits for students (Johnson & Johnson, 1988).
An appropriate method to examine this profound This project also fosters civic engagement by teach-
difference in political and moral philosophy would be ing students the importance of collective action to fur-
Structured Academic Controversy (SAC). SAC is an ther democratic ideals and work toward social justice,
excellent method because it moves beyond the “either/ freedom, and equality for all people. Teaching stu-
or” or “right or wrong” debate mentality—which, dents the warning signs for vulnerable populations,
because it emphasizes winning, may hinder under- including their friends and classmates, can make a sig-
standing dissenting views and reaching a consensus or nificant difference when they take action (reporting
compromise—and requires all participants to argue suspicious cases to the police or school officials, being
for, alternately, both sides (of course, more than two informed consumers, bringing awareness to trafficking
perspectives are possible) of a controversial issue and other human rights violations, joining anti-traf-
(Johnson & Johnson, 1988). The SAC emphasizes ficking organizations, educating younger children, or
knowledge, tolerance for dissenting views, open- starting a school club) as involved citizens. Emphasiz-
mindedness, the importance of research and evidence- ing that compassion for vulnerable individuals is a vir-
based arguments, logic, listening skills, compromise, tue but must be followed by concrete action is
and reaching a consensus. SAC requires that students important; civic participation on vital issues is an obli-
are broken into two groups that must argue both sides gation in a democracy.
of a controversial issues and then engage in discussion Students present their projects at the end of the
to reach a consensus. For example, the crucial histori- term to the class. Their projects include PowerPoint
cal question may be: Are human rights universal or presentations, posters, videos, student artwork, politi-
culturally specific? Both sides research the question, cal cartoons, photographs, music, and text detailing
choosing three or four documents that support the the definition, causes, extent, types, and consequences
“yes” position and three or four documents to support of human trafficking. The presentations may include
the “no” position. Both sides argue the “yes” and the debates, mock trials, mock legislation (drawing up
 THE SOCIAL STUDIES 83

new laws and policies that may be more effective), and Chapin, J. (2015). Middle and secondary social studies. (4th
steps for helping victims while protecting their iden- ed.). New York, NY: Pearson.
tity and safety. Students, who generally are shocked to Child Soldiers Prevention Act of 2008. (2008). 22 U.S.C. x 2151.
General Assembly. (2000). Res. 55 (25) A, U.N. Doc. A/RES/55
find out about the brutal nature and scope of modern-
(25).
day slavery, reported being motivated to help traffick- General Assembly. (Dec. 10, 1948). Res. 217 (111) A, U.N.
ing victims because it is a powerful example of a moral Doc. A/RES/217 (111).
atrocity that betrays the core ideals of democracy. Fur- Gould, S. J. (1996). The mismeasure of man. New York, NY: W.
thermore, some students reported that they have class- W. Norton & Company.
mates who are victims, especially of sex trafficking or Honwana, A. (2006). Child soldiers in Africa: The ethnography
of political violence. Philadelphia, PA: University of Penn-
violence and knowing about the issue allowed them to
sylvania Press.
help their friends in a productive manner. The resour- Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1988). Critical thinking through
ces used in this article are an excellent starting place structured controversy. Educational Leadership, 45(8), 58–64.
for teachers; they provide a wealth of factual informa- Klein, M. A. (2014). Slavery and abolition. (2nd ed.). New
tion and content knowledge—a prerequisite for pow- York, NY: Rowman and Littlefield.
erful teaching—as well as resources, lesson plans, Rakisits, C. (2008). Child soldiers in the east of the Democratic
Republic of the Congo. Refugees Survey Quarterly, 27(4),
activities, suggestions for active involvement, and
108–122. doi:10.1093/rsq/hdn054
other ideas and materials. U.S. Const. amend. XIII.
Social studies education, by teaching all students William Wilberforce Trafficking Victims Protection Reautho-
that all human beings are equal and free, can play a rization Act of 2008. (2008). 22 U.S.C. x 7101.
major role in nurturing human rights in the United
States and protecting all people in accordance with
American law. If all social studies teachers incorporate Web-Based References
human rights into their curricula (of course, it must be Advocates for Human Rights. (2017). Teach human rights.
age and maturity appropriate), the profession will culti- Retrieved from http://www.theadvocatesforhumanrights.
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of human trafficking and other human rights abuses Anti-Slavery International. (2018). Anti-Slavery: Today’s fight
(Shuttleworth, 2018). Human trafficking and other for tomorrow’s freedom. Retrieved from https://www.anti
slavery.org/
human rights violations—genocide, political oppres-
Becker, J. (2017). For children in war, some good news amidst a
sion, and discrimination—are relevant to secondary grim picture. Retrieved from https://www.hrw.org/news/
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abominations. Engrossing and challenging instruction picture
can motivate students to stop trafficking and other Bravo, K. E. (2007). Exploring the analogies between modern
human rights abuses; by doing so, they will achieve a trafficking in humans and the trans-Atlantic slave trade.
Boston University International Law Journal, 25(2), 209–
major goal of social studies instruction: passionate and
295. Retrieved from http://www.bu.edu/law/journals-
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social justice. Teachers will have no difficulty accessing Centers for Disease Control. (2017). Understanding human
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human rights education. Modern-day slavery, in all its vention/sexualviolence/trafficking.html
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ples of discussion guidelines. Retrieved from http://www.crlt.
should be for sale; powerful social studies education is
umich.edu/examples-discussion-guidelines
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(2009). Human trafficking into and within the United States:
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