focus on

biodiversity ISSUE 59

The magazine of the Mediterranean Action Plan w w w. u n e p m a p . o r g

introduction
The Mediterranean is one of the most diverse marine environments in the world: with less than 1 percent
of the world’s ocean area, the Mediterranean is home to nearly 8 percent of known species and is
recognised as one of the world’s 25 biodiversity hot spots for biodiversity. The sobering fact, however, is
that approximately one in five of the Sea’s known species are endangered and 1 percent are already extinct.

The loss, fragmentation and degradation of habitats are a direct or indirect result of human activities
such as unplanned urbanisation, unrestrained industrialisation and uncontrolled tourism development, all
of which pose significant threats to Mediterranean marine species. Other crucial environmental pressures
in the region include pollution, harmful algal blooms, invasive species, over-exploitation of marine
resources and the impact of illegal and excessive fisheries.

Maintaining the ecological health and integrity of the sea and its coastal areas is key to the development
of a sustainable future for the Mediterranean region. While, major Mediterranean habitats are highly
vulnerable to human activities and pressures continue, hope can be found in the efforts being made to
understand and protect the Mediterranean’s rich biodiversity.

In this respect, Mediterranean countries have reaffirmed their commitment to establish marine protected
areas and to protect biodiversity, including on high seas; to apply the leading principles of the ecosystem
approach in relation to biodiversity; to address complex threats to biodiversity in an integrated manner,
including climate change; and to facilitate, generate and disseminate scientific and technical knowledge
and best practices on the management of marine and coastal protected areas and endangered species in
cooperation with other competent regional organisations.

The International Year of Biological Diversity 2010 has marked a milestone in international efforts to
protect and preserve biodiversity and to renew our efforts to meet the challenges ahead. In this edition
of MedWaves we offer you a look at some of the major challenges confronting Mediterranean biodiversity
as well as some of the measures being taken to safeguard the Sea’s ecological health and integrity for
future generations.

Maria Luisa Silva Mejias

Deputy Coordinator and Officer in Charge
Mediterranean Action Plan
 4 The Mediterranean: a global environmental hot spot

6 Mediterranean cooperation to protect biodiversity

Conserving biodiversity through

8 the MedPartnership

10 Support grows for coastal zone management

Mediterranean countries step up fight

12 against alien species

Posidonia Oceanica – a cornerstone of

14 Mediterranean ecological health

ISSUE 59
Blue carbon: coastal vegetation & climate change
16 in the Mediterranean

18 Emblematic species:
The high price of bluefin tuna
The uncertain fate of Mediterranean sea turtles
Mediterranean monk seals, revered through
the ages, in grave danger

No 59 | October 2010 Editor: Luisa Colasimone MedWaves is published by the Coordinating Unit of the Mediterranean UNEP/MAP United Nations Environment
Contributors: John Bennett, Kieran Cooke (sea turtles), Action Plan in Arabic, English and French. It is an informal source of Programme / Mediterranean Action Plan
Ken Stier (bluefin tuna, monk seals) information and it does not necessarily reflect the official point of view
of MAP or UNEP. Content, except for pictures, may be reproduced without 48, Vassileos Konstantinou Avenue, 11635
Layout: Peter Millen Design, www.petermillendesign.com permission and only for non-commercial use. Credit to the source, how- Athens, Greece
Photographs: Iorgos Philipeos, Coordinator, Shoot and Save ever, is required. The publisher would appreciate receiving a copy of any
(a project to promote conservation of the Mediterranean marine publication that uses MedWaves’ news, articles and Interviews. The Tel: 0030 210 72 73 100
environment through photography and film) except page 10 designation of geographical entities and the presentation of the material Fax: 0030 210 72 53 196/7
© sxc.hu/spyros_tav; page 11 © sxc.hu/liana18579; page 12 do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part
© G. Pergent; page 14 © RAC/SPA; page 18 © Tom Puchner; of the publisher, concerning the legal status of any country, territory or E-mail: unepmedu@unepmap.gr
pages 21,23 © D.R. Schrichte; page 24 © MOm/V. Paravas. area, of its authorities or boundaries. www.unepmap.org
 The Mediterranean: a global
environmental hot spot
The Mediterranean Sea basin is both a global Portugal to Jordan and north to south from northern
tourist destination of broad international appeal, a Italy to Morocco and encompassing approximately
land associated with sun, fun and culture, and a 5,000 islands.
recognized biodiversity hot spot. Approximately 30
percent of its fauna species are unique, as are Eight thousand years of human settlement has left
approximately 60 percent1 of its 15,000-25,000 a strong imprint on the Basin. With a current
flora species 2. The Sea contains at least 7 percent population of over 460 million, nearly 40 percent
of all the marine species known worldwide3, up to of whom live in the coastal zone, Mediterranean
2,000 of which are endemic, according to the last habitats are under constant and ever-increasing
Census of Marine Life4. pressure. Less than 100,000 km2 of wild vegetation
remain. Coastal infrastructure, dam construction,
The largest of the world's five Mediterranean-climate land-based pollution, tourism, erosion, droughts,
regions, the Mediterranean Sea comprises approxi-
mately 0.82% and 0.32% of the surface area and
1 State of the Environment and Development in the Mediterranean - 2009, 70
volume of the world’s oceans respectively. The (UNEP 2009) (Med SoE).
more than 2 million km2 Mediterranean Basin is 2 The Mediterranean: A Biodiversity Hotspot Under Threat (IUCN 2008).
3 Med SoE at 70.
situated at the intersection of two major landmasses, 4Costello MJ, Coll M, Danovaro R, Halpin P, Ojaveer H, et al. (2010) A Census of
Eurasia and Africa, stretching west to east from Marine Biodiversity Knowledge, Resources, and Future Challenges. PLoS ONE 5(8):
e12110. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012110.

ISSUE 59 MAP MedWaves 4

 The Mediterranean: a global environmental hot spot

alien species and overexploitation of fauna and more than one third of crabs and crayfish, and 29
flora are all driving the decline of Mediterranean percent of amphibians. In all, IUCN found that 5
biodiversity. percent of the Mediterranean species assessed are
Critically Endangered; 7 percent Endangered and 7
Approximately 80 percent of the region’s pollution percent are Vulnerable.
comes from land-based sources, including agricultural
wastes, airborne particles and river run-off carrying Much remains unknown about the Mediterranean’s
nutrients, pathogens, heavy metals, persistent biodiversity. IUCN’s evaluations focused on only 2
organic pollutants, oil and radioactive substances 5. of the 12 animal phyla and four divisions of algae
More than half of the urban areas with population and plants recorded in the Mediterranean. These
over 100,000 do not have wastewater treatment groupings are estimated to include at least 8,500
plants, and 60 percent of the wastewater produced and possibly as many as 33,000 species. Indeed,
in these areas is discharged directly into the sea. the most recent Census of Marine Life estimated
Similarly, over four out of five landfill sites in the that approximately three-quarters of the
South and Eastern Mediterranean countries are Mediterranean deep-water species are unknown 8.
unsupervised. Rapid coastal urbanization coupled with
increasing and unsustainable tourism development Conservation initiatives in the region have produced
only adds to the pressures on the region’s environment. positive results. In the five-year period from 2004-
2009 UNEP identified 175 large biodiversity projects
According to the IUCN Red List of Threatened in the Mediterranean region, some of which have
Species, nearly 2,000 Mediterranean species of saved species from extinction9. If the Mediterranean
amphibians, birds, cartilaginous fishes, endemic is to conserve its extraordinary natural and cultural
freshwater fishes, crabs and crayfish, mammals, heritage and maintain its attractiveness as a global
dragonflies and reptiles have been assessed to tourism destination, more and increasingly effective
date6. They are among phyla with 2,600 species conservation programmes will be needed in the
recorded in the region. At least 16 species are years ahead.
already extinct, including some endemics 7.
Although reliable data is not always available, IUCN
5 Horizon 2020 – Elaboration of a Mediterranean Hot Spot Investment Programme
has estimated that approximately one in five of all (MeHSIP) (European Investment Bank 2008).
remaining species is threatened with extinction, 6 The Mediterranean: A Biodiversity Hotspot Under Threat (IUCN 2008).
7E.g., the Hula Painted Frog (Discoglossus nigriventer), the Canary Islands
including over half of all cetaceans and freshwater Oystercatcher (Haematopus meadewaldoi) and the Sardinian Pika (Prolagus sardus).
fishes, over 40 percent of all cartilaginous fishes, 8 Costello et al.
9 Med SoE at 70.

ISSUE 59 MAP MedWaves 5

 Mediterranean cooperation
to protect biodiversity
The United Nations Environment Programme’s for specially protected areas and biodiversity,
Mediterranean Action Plan - Barcelona Convention RAC/SPA in Tunisia, to facilitate its implementation.
(MAP), the world’s oldest regional seas programme, The Protocol, one of the most advanced legal
brings 21 countries bordering the Mediterranean instruments of its kind, has enabled the identification
basin together with the European Union to protect of 104 endangered or threatened species in the
the Mediterranean’s environment and jointly region. These species are now included on the
manage the resources on which the region and national lists of protected species in 18
the world depends. Mediterranean countries1, making the Protocol one
of the most protective. The Protocol also strongly
At the heart of MAP’s mission is the protection of promotes the establishment of marine and coastal
marine and coastal biodiversity. All parties to the protected areas, including those of Mediterranean
Barcelona Convention recognize that maintaining importance that may embrace or be wholly located
the ecological health and integrity of the Sea and in the high seas.
its coastal areas is essential to the development of
a sustainable future for the Mediterranean region. Implementation of the SPA and Biodiversity
The complex threats to marine and coastal biological Protocol is based on a collaborative policy platform,
diversity – pollution, coastal urbanisation, climate the ‘Mediterranean Strategic Action Programme
change, alien species, and unsustainable fishing – for Biodiversity’ (SAP/BIO), adopted in 2003. The
require a range of responses and, very often, the SAP/BIO contains well-defined objectives and
cooperation of multiple regional actors. targets based on the Johannesburg Plan of
Implementation and relevant commitments taken
In 1995, the parties to the Barcelona Convention under the Convention on Biological Diversity. In
adopted the Specially Protected Areas and addition to implementing the SPA and Biodiversity
Biodiversity Protocol (SPA and Biodiversity Protocol)
and agreed to establish a regional activity centre 1UNEP/MAP-PB, 2009 State of the Environment and Development in the Mediterranean,
Athens. UNEP/MAP-SPA, 2003 SAP-BIO in the Mediterranean, Tunis

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Mediterranean cooperation to protect biodiversity

Protocol, MAP contributes actively to the ongoing cooperation on priority issues affecting the
United Nations General Assembly process related Mediterranean environment,” says Maria Luisa
to biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction. Silva Mejias, MAP’s Deputy Coordinator and Officer
in Charge. In particular, a number of key goals are
Consistent with these actions, in 2008, the Parties in MAP’s sight:
committed to implementing ecosystem-based
management in the Mediterranean, a process that
will lead to a better understanding of ecosystem Keeping in mind the CBD Strategic Plan and
goods and services around the Mediterranean the opportunities arising from the forthcoming
and will inform the process of establishing marine Rio +20 process, the Parties to the Barcelona
protected areas. Convention are expecting to launch a revision
of the SAP/BIO in 2011.
During a 2009 Conference of the Parties to the MAP is working with the Mediterranean
Barcelona Convention held in Marrakech, the countries to support the creation of an effective
Parties took a further step by adopting a “Regional Mediterranean MPA network by 2012, including
Working Programme for the Coastal and Marine high seas.
Protected Areas in the Mediterranean including the MAP is assisting the countries in their efforts to
High Seas”. Work is already progressing under the apply the ecosystem approach and address
Regional Working Prorgramme to establish specially complex threats to biodiversity in an integrated
protected areas of Mediterranean importance manner, including climate change.
embracing high seas. A large marine ecosystem
MAP is cooperating with other regional
project for the Mediterranean, implemented since
organisations to generate and disseminate
2009, will help strengthen marine protected area
scientific and technical knowledge on
(MPA) management capacities.
management of marine and coastal protected
areas and endangered species, including topics
Overall, 800 marine and coastal protected areas
related to species protected under the SPA and
have been established in the Mediterranean, 25
Biodiversity Protocol.
of which are considered of “Mediterranean
Importance”. A substantial number, 41 percent, of
the Mediterranean’s MPAs are small, i.e., less than More generally, Silva points to MAP’s ability to
1,000 ha, and only 15 percent are mainly marine. provide the region with a platform for intergovern-
Most of these are located along the North-western mental dialogue and political decision-making at
Mediterranean’s shores. the ministerial level; its coordination of the
Mediterranean Commission on Sustainable
The challenges ahead for the MAP countries Development, which serves as a forum for addressing
remain high. The Mediterranean’s protected sustainable development in the region; and its
areas represent a mere 5 percent of the Sea’s total ability to harness the resources of a network of
surface, far below the SAP/BIO’s 20 percent goal. seven regional centres and programmes that have
And these areas do not yet represent the rich some of the world’s best technical expertise on the
diversity of the natural marine heritage. Mediterranean environment. These capabilities,
Silva says, enable MAP to “act as a catalyst, foster
MAP, however, is confident in its ability to help the regional cooperation, generate and disseminate
region’s countries address the challenges ahead. knowledge and best practices, build capacity, and
“By virtue of its mandate and its experience in the facilitate the efforts of all Mediterranean countries
region MAP is uniquely positioned to foster regional to achieve ambitious and concrete objectives.”

ISSUE 59 MAP MedWaves 7

Conserving biodiversity
through the MedPartnership
This year, UNEP’s Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP), management; pollution from land-based activities,
with the support of the Global Environment Facility, including persistent organic pollutants; and the
has joined forces with the World Bank, international conservation of biological diversity; and coordination
and regional organizations, nongovernmental and replication.
organizations and twelve Mediterranean countries1
began implementing a new strategic partnership Promoting marine protection
known as MedPartnership2. MedPartnership will conserve the Mediterranean’s
biological diversity through activities executed by
The partnership enables a coordinated and strategic SPA/RAC, WWF Mediterranean Programme (WWF-
approach to the policymaking, reforms and invest- MedPO) and FAO (funded at USD $13 million) for
ments necessary to reverse degradation of the the creation and better management of marine
Mediterranean’s marine ecosystem, coastal habitats protected areas (MPAs) and the promotion of the
and biodiversity. With total funding in excess sustainable use of fisheries resources in the
of 1.5 Billion USD, including co-funding, the Mediterranean through ecosystem – based
MedPartnership has two key elements: a UNEP/MAP management approaches.
led Regional Component that implements actions
agreed by the countries (with 47 million USD funding), Although Mediterranean countries have already
and the World Bank-led Investment Fund for the established a number of MPAs, only 3.8 percent of
Mediterranean Sea Large Marine Ecosystem the Mediterranean is under some kind of protection.
Partnership. If one MPA, the Pelagos Sanctuary, is excluded, the
total area drops to only 0.4 percent. Of this number,
The harmonization of policy and reforms and the less than half of the MPAs have a management
filling of knowledge gaps that will occur under the plan and funding for management is generally
Regional Component of the MedPartnership will lay insufficient. Part of the problem has been that
the foundation for implementation of the region’s many MPAs were created purely for species protection
Integrated Coastal Zone management (ICZM) without adequately considering the opportunities
Protocol. With this objective in mind, the project
has developed four major areas of emphasis: 1 Albania, Algeria, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Croatia, Egypt, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco,
Montenegro, Syria, Tunisia and Turkey. The Palestinian Authority also participates.
integrated coastal zone, water resource and aquifer 2 The formal name of the project is “Strategic Partnership for the Mediterranean Sea
Large Marine Ecosystem .

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Conserving biodiversity through the MedPartnership

for potential synergies and multiple benefits available says Virginie Hart, Mediterranean Marine and
through multiple-use zoning/management and Coastal Expert with the MedPartnership. “We are
networks. working closely with GEF, which has expressed
interest in using this project as a prototype for large
Nevertheless, it has been shown that MPAs help marine ecosystem projects.”
conserve marine habitats, particularly when they
include a ‘no take’ policy for fisheries. A large The initiative will help countries to implement the
study of Mediterranean MPAs found that protected priorities they agreed on in the framework of the
areas helped to increase the abundance and bio- 2003 Strategic Action Programme for the
mass of individual fishes, raised the proportion of Conservation of Biological Diversity in the
larger and older individuals, enhanced the fisheries Mediterranean region (SAP BIO) and the Barcelona
yield outside the protected area, and increased Convention's Protocol concerning Specially
the dominance of large predator species (Garcia- Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the
Charton et al., 2008). Other studies have shown Mediterranean (SPA/BD Protocol).
that increasing the duration and size of the protected
area enhances these effects (Claudet et al., 2008) 3. Some of the key results will include:

Strengthened management of 5 MPAs (Turkey,

SPA/RAC aims to conserve regionally important
Tunisia, Libya, Algeria and Croatia)
coastal and marine biodiversity through the creation
Region-wide training for MPA managers
of an ecologically representative and effective
Mediterranean MPA network (MedMPANet). The Strengthened long-term financial sustainability
for efforts in Montenegro, Croatia, Albania and
WWF-MedPO will complement these efforts by Tunisia
supporting country efforts to improve MPA
A minimum of 3 new MPAs with management
management (MedPAN South). plans (Montenegro, Croatia, Albania and
Tunisia).
MedPAN South kicked off its training efforts with Regional communication efforts focused on MPAs
a workshop in Tunisia at the end of 2009 that
brought together over 40 participants from the
On a broader more long-term level, the initiative
south and east of the Mediterranean as well as
aims to establish a truly representative
trainers from the U.S. National Oceanic and
Mediterranean network by promoting the protection
Atmospheric Administration. “We may have seen a
of biodiversity features within the jurisdiction of as
bit of history in the making, since trans-boundary
many of the Mediterranean’s riparian countries as
information sharing went far beyond the Med,”
possible.
said Anna Ludlow, Capacity Building Officer for
the MedPAN South project.
The MedPartnership’s activities will help the region’s
countries work toward the targets of effectively
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the
conserving 10 percent of the world's ecological
United Nations will promote the sustainable use of
regions and establishing a global network of MPA
Mediterranean fisheries resources through ecosystem
systems set by the 6th Conference of Parties to the
– based management.
Convention on Biological Diversity.
“The MedPartnership brings together international
For more information on the MedPartnership visit
and regional organizations, nongovernmental
www.medpartnership.org.
organizations and twelve Mediterranean countries
in the largest ever international waters partnership,” 3 See 10 Messages for 2010 – Marine Ecosystems (European Environment Agency 2010).

ISSUE 59 MAP MedWaves 9

 Support grows for
coastal zone management
The Mediterranean coastline is world famous as population is expected to reach 520 million by
a destination for holiday makers, a place to relax 2025, with one third of this number living in the
and, for the lucky, a place to live. Approximately coastal regions.
46,000 km long, with nearly 19,000 km of island
coastline the littoral zone comprises a variety of Urbanization, industry and tourism development
significant and yet fragile ecosystems such as have brought with them significant pollution
beaches, dunes, reefs, lagoons, swamps, estuaries threats. Inventories have found 101 priority pollution
and deltas. The Mediterranean’s rich history as a hotspots, mainly resulting from land-based sources.
crossroads for humanity makes its cultural heritage In addition, significant threats to marine life are
as significant as its natural one, boasting 48 posed on a daily basis by shipping, fishing and
UNESCO world heritage sites. aquaculture.

Today’s Mediterranean is a place of intensifying The Mediterranean countries have recognised

growth as fisheries, industry, agriculture and the need for strategies and stakeholder-driven
tourism have rapidly developed along the coastline. management processes to mitigate coastal vulnera-
In 2008, the permanent population of the bility. In January 2008, the Contracting Parties to
Mediterranean coastal states was approximately the Barcelona Convention signed the Integrated
460 million. Construction covers an estimated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Protocol. The
40 percent of the coastal area. By 2025, the Protocol provides an effective way to balance

ISSUE 59 MAP MedWaves 10

Support grows for coastal zone management

economic, social and environmental goals and At the time of the ratification EC Environment
priorities, making it an innovative and important Commissioner Janez Potoãnik said that that the EU
tool for long-term sustainable development of the action “sends a strong signal of commitment from
Mediterranean coastline. the EU to the protection and sustainable management
of the Mediterranean coast”.
The ICZM protocol reflects the region’s commitment
to the objectives of the UN Johannesburg Plan of “We all depend on the Mediterranean Sea. It is
Action and Article 4, Paragraph 3 of the Barcelona our shared responsibility”, said Maria Luisa Silva
Convention, which invites signatory parties to Mejias, UNEP/MAP Deputy Coordinator and Officer
promote integrated coastal zone management. in charge. “The new Protocol contains innovative
The protocol should ensure sustainable development tools to help States address threats to their coastlines.
of coastal zones through the protection and We are pleased with the EU’s ratification and are
sustainable use of coastal areas, particular coastal optimistic about the Protocol’s future implementation”.
ecosystems, coastal landscapes and islands;
through the use of environmental assessments; This EU ratification came just ahead of the 25
and through the implementation of sustainable September observance in Slovenia of Coast Day
economic activities and the preservation of cultural 2010. Coast Day is held annually on 25
heritages. September, which is the day the first member state
of the Barcelona Convention, Slovenia, ratified the
In September 2010, the European Union ratified Protocol. The event highlights the value of the
the Protocol. The EU ratification, which was the Mediterranean coast and calls for active engagement
fifth of six needed for the Protocol to enter into in its management, including through ratification
force, means that the Protocol becomes part of EU of the Protocol. This year’s activities focused on
law and will have binding effects for all EU member national experiences and good practices involving
states. Slovenia, France, Albania and Spain had the ICZM’s participatory approach, institutional
already ratified the Protocol, and a number of coordination and the roles of local authorities and
other ratifications processes are currently ongoing. stakeholders in responsible coastal planning and
management.

ISSUE 59 MAP MedWaves 11

Mediterranean countries
step up fight
against alien species
Alien species have the capacity to wreak havoc on and invasive species in the Mediterranean. The
ecosystems, setting off imbalances in the food Parties also agreed to specific measures to put into
chain and threatening the survival of native effect the strategic priorities.
species. The Mediterranean Sea is no stranger to
alien species, with estimates of 903 unwanted With more than 300,000 port calls per annum and
species in the Sea as of 2008. The principal source more than 10,000 ships transiting through the
of alien species, which include animals, plants, Mediterranean each year, it is no surprise that the
viruses and bacteria, is the discharge of ballast Sea is host to so many invaders. Large tankers and
waters from ships. bulk cargo carriers, commonly operating in the
Mediterranean, use a large amount of ballast
In June 2010, regional task force representatives water. “To ensure a ship's safety and stability
of 18 1 Contracting Parties to the Barcelona
Convention agreed on a set of eight strategic 1 Albania, Algeria, Croatia, Cyprus, the European Community, Egypt, Greece, Israel,
Italy, Libya, Malta, Monaco, Montenegro, Morocco, Spain, the Syrian Arab Republic,
priorities to address the challenge of ballast water Tunisia and Turkey.

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Mediterranean countries step up
fight against alien species

during voyages ballast water tanks are loaded with

sea water in one port, when the ship does not
have cargo. This ballast water is then discharged
in another port when the ship is being loaded with
cargo,” explains Fréderic Hébert, Director of the
Regional Marine Pollution Emergency Response
Centre for the Mediterranean Sea (REMPEC).

These discharges “can have a negative impact on

the marine environment”, says Hébert. Indeed,
invasive species are recognized as one of the greatest
threats to biodiversity globally and the world’s
oceans. By competing with Mediterranean native
species for food and space and by modifying the
habitat, invasive species can cause serious trouble
for ecosystems and impact fisheries and aquaculture.
They can also damage infrastructure such as water
intakes, hurt tourism and pose health risks to
humans, other mammals, fish and birds from toxicity.
For example, the micro-algae Alexandrium
acatenella produces paralytic shellfish poisoning voluntary interim arrangements for ballast water
toxins that have caused numerous human illnesses exchange in the Mediterranean Sea consistent with
and deaths after consumption of infected shellfish. the International Convention for the Control and
Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and
“Research shows that the Mediterranean marine Sediment, which is not yet in force. The
ecosystem and resources have been seriously Convention must be signed by at least 30 countries
affected by invasive species and remain at high risk representing at least 35% of the world’s fleet
of further invasion as maritime traffic escalates,” tonnage in order to come into force. Up to now
said Maria Luisa Silva, Officer-in-Charge of UNEP the Convention has been signed by 27 countries,
MAP. “Scientists estimate that one new species including six Mediterranean countries, representing
invades the Mediterranean every nine days”. 25.32% of the world’s fleet tonnage2.

In addition to eight strategic priorities, the 18

Contracting Party representatives also agreed to
2 Italy Slovenia and Croatia, meanwhile, have adopted a sub-regional ballast water
regulation that established a mandatory reporting system for ships coming into their ports.

ISSUE 59 MAP MedWaves 13

 Posidonia Oceanica
– a cornerstone of Mediterranean
ecological health
Posidonia oceanica is a unique, endemic species of “The importance of Posidonia oceanica to the
Mediterranean seagrass that provides a host of Mediterranean environment cannot be overstated,”
ecosystem services that are crucially important to said RAC/SPA Director, Abderrahmen Gannoun.
the region’s ecological, physical and economic “This international treasure, which remains largely
well-being. These silent underwater meadows hidden from our view, sustains life and is an
provide habitat for a quarter of the Sea’s endemic important indicator of human impacts along and
species and serve as the Sea’s most important fish the Sea’s coastal zone.”
production areas. They also stabilize the shoreline,
mitigate nutrient and sediment pollution, protect A cornerstone species for the development of
against beach erosion, help with water quality Mediterranean ecosystems, Posidonia oceanica
monitoring, encourage water transparency helpful is also one of the Sea’s most sensitive habitats.
for tourism, absorb carbon dioxide emissions and
provide an understanding of historical environmental
conditions that is useful for climate science1. 1 See “Posidonia Meadows Reflect Pollution Levels in the Mediterranean”, ScienceDaily,
July 17, 2010, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/06/100617075203.htm

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 Posidonia Oceanica – a cornerstone
of Mediterranean ecological health

Although meadows have formed an almost Mediterranean Action Plan completed the pilot
continuous belt around the Mediterranean basin, phase of the MedPosidonia Project, a three-year
with an estimated total surface area of 35,000 initiative aimed at inventorying, mapping and
square km, Posidonia oceanica has been decreasing monitoring Posidonia oceanica in four
progressively during the last 30 years, particularly Mediterranean countries – Algeria, Libya, Tunisia
near urbanized coastal areas. and Turkey. Developed in furtherance of the
Barcelona Convention’s Action Plan for the
The major threats to Posidonia oceanica’s long-term Conservation of Marine Vegetation in the
viability come from coastal development, water Mediterranean Sea with the support of the Total
pollution, invasive species, fishing, shipping and Foundation, the Project enabled the mapping of
altered water currents. Because this submarine meadows of special interest and the strengthening
forest acts as a submerged breakwater, the of monitoring networks. These tools assist
destruction of seagrass can have immediate and decision-makers and planners in the assessment of
irreversible impacts on the shoreline. Regrowth development options and in the siting of coastal
of a meadow, on the other hand, requires several infrastructure such as wastewater treatment outlets,
centuries, making its destruction essentially ports, marinas and fish farms. Together with
irreversible. capacity building and awareness building activities,
the Project has increased local understanding of
The decline of Posidonia oceanica mirrors precipitous the presence and evolution of Posidonia oceanica
seagrass losses globally. Despite providing ecosystem meadows and made it possible to strengthen
services, including an estimated $1.9 trillion per biodiversity management programs. It is anticipated
year in nutrient cycling, a recent study found that that the project’s first phase which will be extended
nearly one-third of the known seagrass area had to other areas in the future.
disappeared, that 58 percent of remaining
seagrass meadows were declining and that the “The MedPosidonia Project could serve as a model
rate of decline is accelerating, having gone from for the development of future seagrass and
less than 1 before 1940 to 7 percent since 1990, biodiversity projects,” says RAC/SPA’s
with as much as 110 square kilometers disappearing Abderrahmen. “It is essential that we continue to
each year 2. promote local expertise and support national
conservation efforts of this most important
In 2009, the Regional Action Center for Specially species.”
Protected Areas (RAC/SPA) of UNEP’s

2 Waycott et al., Accelerating loss of seagrasses across the globe threatens coastal
ecosystems, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106 (30) 2009.

ISSUE 59 MAP MedWaves 15

Blue carbon: coastal vegetation &
climate change in the Mediterranean
Vegetated coastal habitats are emerging as poten- the total burial of organic carbon in ocean sedi-
tially very significant weapons in the fight to ments. Blue carbon sinks therefore rank among
sequester carbon and mitigate climate change the biosphere’s most intense carbon sinks1.
effects. Seagrasses, mangroves, salt-marsh plants In the case of seagrass meadows, carbon-containing
and other coastal vegetation are known as “blue particles become trapped in the leaves and, through
carbon sinks” because of their ability to absorb their roots and rhizomes, are deposited as
and remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. sediment on the seafloor, where they can be
They also support a variety of essential ecosystem stored for long periods of time. Estimated to cover
functions such as providing habitat and spawning between 0.3-0.6 million km2 globally, seagrasses
areas for many species, improving water quality, have an impact beyond their extent because of
buffering shorelines and producing oxygen. their slow turnover time. Indeed, scientists
estimate that seagrasses may be responsible for
Scientists believe that the carbon burial capacity of approximately 15 percent of total carbon storage
marine vegetated habitats may be far greater than in the ocean2.
the average burial rate in the open ocean. While
covering less than 0.2 percent of the sea floor, blue
carbon sinks play a major role in the ocean carbon 1Nellemann, C., Corcoran, E., Duarte, C. M., Valdés, L., De Young, C., Fonseca, L.,
Grimsditch, G. (Eds), Blue Carbon - A Rapid Response Assessment (United Nations
cycle, contributing an estimated 50-71 percent of Environment Programme 2009).
2 Laffoley, Dd’A. & Grimsditch, G. (eds), The management of natural coastal carbon
sinks, 23 (IUCN 2009).

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Blue carbon: coastal vegetation & climate change in the Mediterranean

The Mediterranean’s endemic seagrass species, ecosystem services and improve the status of their
Posidonia oceanica, is currently thought to be the coastal resources,” says Gabriel Grimsditch of the
most effective seagrass species for long-term carbon United Nations Environment Programme.
storage, having a capacity to accumulate carbon A number of steps have been suggested 5.
beyond boreal forests and comparable to wetlands. Governments can regulate activities responsible for
the loss of blue carbon sinks – e.g., development,
“Posidonia oceanica is invaluable and irreplaceable, dredging, pollution from nutrients and sediments,
a cornerstone habitat for Mediterranean marine erosion, deforestation, unsustainable fishing, etc.
ecosystems and a powerful climate mitigation Efforts can be made to restore large-scale blue
tool,” say Carlos Duarte of the Spanish Council for carbon sink areas that have been lost, particularly
Scientific Research and a leading global expert on those with high sequestration potential. Although
blue carbon sinks. restoration is time consuming, meadows will
eventually grow across the sea floor exponentially.
Despite their remarkably important roles in the Additional research on the conditions that result in
health of local ecosystems and the global climate, high carbon sink capacity is also needed.
blue carbon sinks are being destroyed every day.
A recent assessment indicated that nearly one-third According to Grimsditch, UNEP and a wide range
of the known seagrass area globally has disappeared, of scientists from academia, government and the
and that the rate of loss has grown quickly (to NGO community are coordinating to tackle a
more than 7 percent per year) since 2000, with as number of questions such as how much blue
much as 110 km2 disappearing annually 3. Overall, carbon is being sequestered; the variability among
between one-third and one-half of the area ecosystems in carbon sequestration (i.e., between
covered of seagrass meadows and mangrove ecosystems at different latitudes and in different
forests and a large, but unknown, fraction of the habitats, species, environments, etc.); how much
global salt marsh cover have disappeared due to sequestration is lost when ecosystems degrade
anthropogenic activities 4. As a result, over 25 and at what rate; how to develop a standardized
percent of the CO2 removal capacity of blue method for verifying sequestration; and how to
carbon sinks has been lost, along with their capacity assess the socio-economic value of conserving
to support marine biodiversity and provide other and restoring blue carbon sinks.
essential services.
“It is time that the climate benefits of blue carbon
Experts believe action is urgently needed and that sinks be included in economic assessments and
there is enormous potential for win-win benefits of valued in our decision making processes,” says
the kind being pursued through rainforest conser- Grimsditch. “We are losing an extraordinarily
vation. “By protecting and restoring blue carbon valuable resource and defense against climate
sinks, nations with extensive shallow coastal areas change, and time is running out.”
like those in the Mediterranean Basin can mitigate
CO2 emissions, sustain the value of essential

3 Waycott et al., Accelerating loss of seagrasses across the globe threatens coastal
ecosystems, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106 (30) 2009.
4 Duarte, C.M., Middelburg, J.J. , Caraco, N., Major role of marine vegetation on
the oceanic carbon cycle, 2 Biogeosciences 1–8, 2005.
5 See, e.g., The management of natural coastal carbon sinks, at 27-28 and
Blue Carbon at 69.

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 The high price
of bluefin tuna
Many of us enjoy fresh fish or sushi. But at what Committee recommended maintaining the current
cost? Consider bluefin tuna, fished in the allowable catch of bluefin tuna of 13,500 tonnes
Mediterranean for over 1,000 years, a magnificent per year between 2011-2013. The SCRS said this
fish weighing up to 700 kilograms. Today, bluefin limit would “likely allow the stock to increase”

more than €450 per kilogram; a single 220-kg fish

is prized among sushi connoisseurs and can sell for with at least a 60 percent chance of recovery

once sold for €120,000 in Japan. But there is

by 2023.

higher, hidden ecological cost of this delicacy: with The SCRS recommendation, which is to be taken
every bite, the species appears to be in greater up by ICCAT in November, immediately triggered
danger of extinction. reactions from fishermen and environmental
groups alike. The Fishing, Trade and Consumer
The lucrative global sushi market has stoked demand Affairs Association for Bluefin Tuna (APCCR)
for the bluefin’s nutritious red meat (Roman armies declared that there was “no possibility” that the
used to march on dried tuna), resulting in significant fisheries would collapse and that the bluefin
over-fishing. Scientists agree that recent harvesting recovery plan provided for a “clear increase in
has been several times higher than what is stocks”. Environmental groups, however, have
sustainable, and there is increasing concern that strongly challenged the decision and the data
this iconic species, which man has marvelled at underlying it.
through the ages, is headed for a collapse.
“Bluefin tuna fishing nations are providing
The status of bluefin tuna, Thunnus thynnus, was scientists with out-of-date, incomplete and often
the subject of a 4-8 October 2010 meeting of the unreliable information,” said Remi Parmentier, a
Standing Committee on Research and Statistics Pew Environment Group observer at the meeting.
(SCRS), science advisors to the International “Because of these glaring gaps in data, scientists
Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tuna, are essentially being asked to gaze into a crystal
the intergovernmental body responsible for ball and pick a number for bluefin tuna catch
managing Atlantic tuna stocks. A year ago the limits. It allows fishing countries to assign bluefin
SCRS determined that East Atlantic and tuna catch limits based on unfounded optimism
Mediterranean stocks were now less than 15 percent instead of objective science. No species should
of their pre-industrial fishing size. This year, the have to rely on a crystal ball for its survival.”

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The high price of bluefin tuna

This impending ecological disaster has been ICCAT acknowledged in a 2010 report that its limits
developing ever since fishing went industrial after during the decade were “largely ineffective in
World War II. The pace of depletion has accelerated, controlling overall catch”2. The SRCS expressed
particularly in the last two decades, thanks in part the risk, cautioning, as it has in the past, that
to government subsidies. Fishing in the Western “unless fishing mortality rates are substantially
and Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean has reduced in the near future, further reduction in
extended into the Central Atlantic, where bluefin spawning stock biomass is likely to happen leading
tuna from the east and west congregate. This to a risk of fisheries and stock collapse.3”
expansion has encouraged fleets to grow, creating
even more pressure for subsidies. The quality of the catch is as troubling as its volume.
Spawning stock biomass (SSB) refers to adults (10
Among the most contentious issues is the discrepancy years into a typical life span of 40 years), which are
between catch quotas, which are intended to crucial for replenishing the population. In recent
return the fisheries to a sustainable state, and years large ‘spawners’ have become the principal
actual catch levels. The first quota, set in 2002, targets for fishermen, particularly those employing
established a limit of 32,000 metric tonnes for the purse seine nets, which account for more than 60
years 2003-2006. These levels have been gradually percent of the total catch. Most of these spawners
ratcheted downward to 28,500 tonnes in 2008, are then put into marine ‘ranches’ or ‘fattening
22,000 in 2009 and 13,500 in 2010. Declared farms’ to bulk up for maximum profitability.
catches reached or exceeded the targets for Although these trends have accelerated the
most of these years, and, because of significant impairment of the SSB, existing quotas would
underreporting, actual catches were undoubtedly allow the capture of most or all adult bluefins4,
much higher.
Ahead of the two-month Mediterranean fishing
In 2007, for instance, ICCAT estimated that the season this past spring, WWF said its own analysis
real catch was 61,000 tonnes (47,800 for the showed the bluefin tuna that spawn -- those aged
Mediterranean, and 13,200 tonnes for the East four years and older -- will have disappeared by
Atlantic), in a year when the quota was less than 2012 at current rates.” For years people have been
half that (29,500 t). Overall, illegal, unregulated asking when the collapse of this fishery will happen,
and under-reported fishing is believed to add and now we have the answer," declared Sergi
another third to declared catches, and there are Tudela, Head of Fisheries at WWF Mediterranean.
some indications that this portion may be increasing.
“You don’t need a PhD in fisheries modelling to
“Given the history of fish population collapses know that you don’t take something out of its
elsewhere, and their ecological and socio-economic environment just as it is breeding,” notes Dr. Susan
consequences…it is perhaps surprising that author- Lieberman, Pew’s international policy director.
ities responsible for managing this population have
not been more rigorous in supporting effective ICCAT has adopted a number of measures to
conservation measures,” stated a 2009 report in rebuild the bluefin population to a sustainable level
Conservation Letters1. The report observed that, by 2023. These included tightening quotas,
“authorities have been unable or unwilling to resist
political pressure by the bluefin tuna fishing industry
1 MacKenzie, B. et al., Impending collapse of bluefin tuna in the northeast Atlantic and
to implement recommended measures.” Mediterranean, Conservation Letters 2 (2009) 25-34.
2 See Report for biennial period, 2008-09, Part II - Vol. 2 at 120 (ICCAT 2010).
3 Ibid.
4 See Mackenzie, B. et al.

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 The high price of bluefin tuna

shortening the fishing season, increasing the bluefin tuna to Annex II [covering endangered or
minimum size of fish that can be taken, restricting threatened species] until population recovery is
individual vessel quotas, and instituting a program ensured. Under Protocol procedures, the Parties
to put observers on board. NGOs and an increasing are legally empowered to uplist and downlist
number of governments, however, support a species,” says Daniel Cebrian of the Regional
suspension of fishing bluefin, particularly in the key Action Centre for Specially Protected Areas.
Mediterranean spawning grounds, such as in the
southern Balearics and the Sicilian Channels. “The Strict limits or a suspension might just save the
right thing would be to impose a zero quota,” said bluefin tuna industry. Although this is the logic
Pew’s Lieberman last year. of sustainability, many businesses remain focused
on the prospect of short-term profit. As Andy
A key question then is whether it is really too late Rosenberg of Conservation International says,
to avoid a collapse. Because bluefin is a long-lived “The difficulties associated with preventing
species it would take at least ten years before the declines in the first place or rebuilding depleted
population would show definite signs of recovery. stocks are primarily due to the difficulty of reducing
The Conservation Letters report noted that, even if fishing pressure in the face of resistance by the
tuna fishing were banned in the northeast Atlantic fishing industry to strict management controls.”
and Mediterranean until 2022, “the populations
will probably fall to record lows in the next few For now, the future of the bluefin tuna, one of
years, unless environmental conditions promote nature’s great wonders, is uncertain. EU states are
exceptionally high recruitment [reproduction],” bound under the Marine Strategy Framework
observed the Conservation Letters report. Directive to ensure the recovery of Atlantic bluefin
tuna by 2015 and to restore ecosystem health by
In March 2010, the government of Monaco tabled a 2020. NGOs are pressuring ICCAT, the EU and
proposal to have bluefin tuna listed as a threatened Mediterranean governments to suspend bluefin
species under Article 1 of the Convention on fisheries or lower quotas to more sustainable levels
International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), and to bring commercial fishing fleets around to a
which would have resulted in a ban on international longer-term view. At the same time, the protection
trade of bluefin. It would have been the first time of marine areas is being pursued. In 2008, ICCAT
a major commercial fish was protected under members committed to protect spawning areas
CITES, but the proposal was ultimately defeated. identified by the SCRS. And this past June,
At the time, Masanori Miyahara, the director of Contracting Parties to the Barcelona Convention
the Fisheries Agency of Japan, told the New York adopted key sites, such as the waters around the
Times that, “Cites Appendix One is too inflexible... Balearic Islands, north Levantine Sea and the
once a species is listed in a Cites appendix, it will Sicilian Channel, as priority conservation areas in
never be delisted or down-listed as the history of a first step toward meeting commitments under
Cites clearly shows”. the Convention on Biological Diversity to establish
a coherent network of marine protected areas
Bluefin tuna is already listed in annex III of the by 2012
Specially Protected Areas and Biodiversity Protocol
for the Mediterranean, which lists species whose The name tuna derives from a Greek word meaning
exploitation is regulated. “Given that exploitation ‘to rush”, because of the fish’s ability to accelerate
of this species has been subject to longstanding quickly and dart through the sea at speeds of up
inefficient regulation, and that its population is to 100 km/hr. The question now is whether the
declining at a pace qualifying them for endangered bluefin tuna is racing to oblivion.
species status, the Parties to the Barcelona
Convention may consider temporarily uplisting

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The uncertain fate of
Mediterranean sea turtles

It is midnight on the Greek island of Zakynthos in creatures, in existence for about 150 million years.
the Mediterranean. A sea turtle is wading ashore, Yet now this reptile, which lives almost all its life
ready to lay its eggs. Suddenly there is a blast of at sea but nests on land, is facing an ever more
music from a beach front nightclub. The sand precarious future, its marine and land based habitats
vibrates with the noise. The turtle, acutely sensitive under threat, its population numbers declining.
to movement, turns round and returns to the sea,
aborting her eggs in the water. There are three species of marine turtle in the
Mediterranean - the leatherback turtle
Off the coast of southern Turkey, at Kazanli, another (Dermochelys coriacea), the green turtle (Chelonia
female turtle is swimming towards the shore. But mydas) and the loggerhead (Caretta caretta). Two
the beach she was hatched on more than 25 years other species have been sighted occasionally: the
ago and to which she is now returning to nest and hawkshill (Eretmochelys imbricata) and the Kemps
lay her eggs is disappearing due to erosion. ridley (Lepidochelys kempii). Of these, only the
green and loggerhead turtle nest in the
Meanwhile, further west, off the coast of southern Mediterranean: it is on these two species that
Italy, a fishing trawler out after tuna and swordfish conservation efforts have been concentrated.
is pulling in its catch. A turtle is caught on the line There is grave concern about both species.
and is dead by the time it's taken on board. “Green turtles are on the brink of extinction and
The sea turtle is one of the earth's most ancient the loggerheads are not very much better off,”

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The uncertain fate of Mediterranean sea turtles

says Lily Venizelos, director of the Mediterranean Mass tourism is one of the main threats. Twenty
Association to Save the Sea Turtles (MEDASSET). one countries surround the Mediterranean, with
150m people living in coastal regions. Each year
Though there is a substantial body of research on that coastal population swells with the influx of
turtles in the Mediterranean, with large numbers several million tourists.
tagged and tracked by satellite to try to map
migratory patterns and breeding habits, there is Zakynthos in the Ionian Sea is one of the main
still a dearth of knowledge on population size and nesting areas for loggerhead turtles. Between May
of how these mighty animals live out the cycle of and July the turtle will crawl onto the island’s
their lives. beaches and scoop deep holes in the sand to lay
clutches of up to 100 soft, ping pong-ball shaped
“The quality of terrestrial mapping is excellent,” eggs. The eggs hatch in August with baby turtles
says MEDASSET’s Venizelos, “but we don’t know rushing, en masse, towards the sea. This coincides
as much about overwintering and feeding areas.” with the peak of the tourism season. Though
As Brendan Godley, a marine biologist at the efforts have been made to carve out conservation
University of Exeter in the United Kingdom, put it areas, nesting sites are still trampled upon, while
last year, “The more we look, the more we find speedboats and jet skis threaten turtles in shallow
that highlights how complicated these animals are.” waters.

What we do know does not make for happy Fishing, with all its modern equipment and combi-
reading. Up to the 1970s Mediterranean turtles nations of bottom trawling, long lines and drift
were hunted and killed for their flesh and oil, nets, has a big impact on turtle numbers. Every
their carapaces sold as souvenirs. The population year many thousands of turtles of varying ages are
plunged: studies indicate the number of female caught as by catches. Some turtles are returned to
green turtles nesting each year - limited to just a the water alive but many perish.
few sites on the southern coast of Turkey and in
the eastern Mediterranean - is less than 400 while Coastal erosion and the depletion of such
the annual breeding population of loggerheads is resources as sea grass meadows – a favorite feeding
estimated at between 2,200 and 2,700. ground for the green turtle – impact turtle numbers.
Pollution, whether from industry or tourist rubbish,
Most of the trade in turtle flesh has now stopped, is another threat. Turtles can mistake a plastic bag
thanks to protective international agreements and for a jellyfish. One study of 54 dead loggerheads
legislation. Yet the outlook for this creature that found that 42 had various forms of rubbish in their
survived the extinction of the dinosaurs is bleak. digestive tract. Climate change, with alterations in

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 The uncertain fate of Mediterranean sea turtles

sea and sand temperatures and rising sea levels, is such as setting up rescue centers, encouraging
a potential future threat to the turtle's survival. fisher people to modify their fishing gear and,
perhaps most important of all, raising public
Some progress on conservation has been made. In awareness of just how critical is the outlook for
1996, the Mediterranean countries confirmed their these magnificent creatures.
commitment to the conservation of marine turtles
by including the five species of marine turtle Important work to implement the Action Plan
recorded for the Mediterranean in the List of as well as the Strategic Action Plan for the
Endangered and Threatened Species annexed to Conservation of Biological Diversity (SAP BIO) has
the Protocol concerning Specially Protected Areas also been occurring on the national level. In 2008,
and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean. for example, the Albanian Herpetofauna Society-
UNEP’s Mediterranean Action Plan (UNEP MAP) H.A.S in collaboration with MEDASSET launched a
administers the Protocol, which is part of the conservation project in the Drini Bay and Patoku
Barcelona Convention. Sea turtles are also protected Lagoon in northern Albania. The three-year project,
under the Convention on International Trade in which is wrapping up this year, contributed to sea
Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES) turtle and habitat conservation, population dynamics,
and under the Convention on the Conservation migratory routes monitoring, capacity building,
of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats environmental education and awareness raising in
(Bern Convention). Albania. Says Lily Venizelos, “Education of the
public and particularly children is essential if we are
In addition, UNEP MAP has developed an Action ever going to build the awareness and sensitivity
Plan for the Conservation of Mediterranean Marine necessary to protect this magnificent creature.
Turtles (the Action Plan). UNEP MAP coordinates We must act now, before the sea turtle in the
and monitors the various international agreements Mediterranean is just a memory.”
and legislation aimed at conserving the turtle, and
UNEP MAP’s Regional Activity Center for Specially
Protected Areas (RAC/SPA) in Tunisia compiles
research and undertakes a wide range of work

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Mediterranean
monk seals, revered through
the ages, in grave danger
Pity the Mediterranean Monk Seal, once a revered loss, due to rapidly expanded human population,
icon of Mediterranean culture, now one of the also including tourism presence almost everywhere
most endangered mammals in the world. along coastlines, and ensuing pollution, with
Prehistoric rock painting shows them in south Spain. debris clogging formerly suitable caves. Fishermen
Monk seal head appears on some of the earliest deliberately kill seal as pests for the damage they
coins, minted in 500 BC, and Homer and Aristotle cause to fishing nets and for rare raids on offshore
mentioned this species. To ancient fishermen and fish farms.
seafarers, seeing a monk seal was a good omen.
At that time, they were not hard to see: the seals As a result, the historical range and population
congregated, bred and gave birth on beaches. of monk seals has declined dramatically. They are
completely extinct in several former habitats,
Times have changed. In the last centuries, monk including the Black Sea, Bosphorus, the
seals have taken pains to avoid human contact as Dardanelles and the Sea of Marmara, and virtually
much as possible. Pregnant seals prefer coastal all the West and Central Mediterranean. Indeed,
caves with aquatic entrances inaccessible from nowadays they are estimated to be less than 500
land, even though these are prone to heavy surf, individual seals scattered over a wide range. The
tidal and storm surges, dramatically raising mortality sparse population itself is a threat, encouraging
rates. Today, just 50 percent of pups survive their possible inbreeding and severely restricting natural
first two months and most die in the first two genetic variability.
weeks, according to the IUCN, which has listed
monk seals as critically threatened for the last Two sites are considered viable population centers
14 years. – one in the Aegean Sea, split between Turkey
(with some 100 individuals) and Greece (with
The main threats are stepped up conflicts with between 150-250), and one in the Atlantic Ocean
fisherman over dwindling fish resources, habitat on Cabo Blanco (Western Saharan coasts), with

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Mediterranean monk seals, revered through the ages, in grave danger

another small group in Madeira archipelago. Being According to Daniel Cebrian of RAC/SPA fisheries
at opposite ends of the distribution range thwarts management measures are required around breeding
natural population exchange and leaves other areas, in order to sharply reduce interactions
fragmented subpopulations isolated in vulnerable between monk seals and fisheries people. “The
groups of as few as 5 individuals. creation of a mosaic of fish nursery areas would
also benefit local fisheries,” says Cebrian. Cebrian
Monk seals are susceptible to other threats, including also suggests that there is an urgent need to
disease and toxic algae. In the summer of 1997, relocate pups born in exposed caves during seasons
two-thirds of the Cabo Blanco population was with the highest mortality risks and to restore
wiped out, either by an algae bloom or virus. populations to range countries while ensuring
Almost 14 years later there are estimated to be the enforcement of state-warranted protection
200 individuals, still under the 1997 population. measures.
Captive breeding programs, meanwhile, have so
far not taken place. Preservations efforts have been most active in
the Aegean Sea, where WWF, for one, has
In September 1985, the Contracting Parties to the programmes involving artisanal fishermen as
Barcelona Convention included the protection of guardians of the sea. In Turkey, WWF works in
the Mediterranean Monk Seal among their priority collaboration with the Turkish NGO, SAD-AFAG
objectives for the Mediterranean Action Plan (The Underwater Research Society - Mediterranean
(Genoa Declaration, 1985). To assist the Seal Research Group). Local fishermen have been
Mediterranean countries in achieving this objective, enlisted to protect monk seal breeding caves and
the Regional Activity Centre for Specially Protected to increase fish stocks by creating no-fishing zones
Areas (RAC/SPA), in collaboration with and patrolling against illegal fishing activities.
Mediterranean experts and concerned organizations,
prepared an Action Plan for the management of In Greece, the Alonissos Marine Park (extending
the Mediterranean Monk Seal under UNEP/MAP around the Northern Sporades island) has been set
coordination. The main aim of the Plan was to aside as a monk seal preserve. The Park is the
reduce the adverse pressures and ensure the gradual focus of the work done by the Hellenic Society for
recovery of the species through the implementation the Study and Protection of the Monk Seal (MOm),
of a number of immediate and long-term actions. which has devised a challenging national action
Since that time UNEP MAP and RAC/SPA have plan, including a broad range of objectives, from
supported national and regional activities. developing awareness to better law enforcement.

A 2009 RAC/SPA progress report on the implemen- If the monk seal is to have a future in Greece “it
tation of the Action Plan1 concluded that there is a will occur only if a significant portion of Hellenic
lack of monitoring in a number of Mediterranean civil society will attribute to the seals the value they
countries, especially in those with low density and deserve, and if saving monk seals from extinction
that interactions between fisheries and monk seal will be seen as the epitome of reversing the devas-
are not reported. The assessment stated that more tating trend of loss of naturalness which is plagu-
information exchanges, awareness building, training ing the Mediterranean, Greece included,” notes
and social support is needed, as are mechanisms the National Strategy and Action Plan for the
for coordinating and financing conservation Conservation of the Mediterranean Monk Seal in
actions. Greece, 2009 - 2015 issued last year.

1 Assessment of the implementation of the Action Plan for the management of the
Mediterranean Monk Seal (UNEP 2009).

ISSUE 59 MAP MedWaves 25