A2A C182 Pilot's Manual P3d PDF

A2ASIMULATIONS
C182
ACCU-SIM C182 SKYLANE

ACCU-SIM C182
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A2ASIMULATIONS
C182
ACCU-SIM
C182 SKYLANE
4 A2ASIMULATIONS ::: C182 MANUAL www.a2asimulations.com
CONTENTS
6 THE CESSNA 182
16 DESIGNER’S NOTES
18 FEATURES
20 QUICK START GUIDE
24 ACCU-SIM AND THE COMBUSTION ENGINE
30 SPECIFICATIONS
34 CHECKLISTS
40 PROCEDURES EXPLAINED
46 PERFORMANCE
62 EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
68 EMERGENCIES EXPLAINED
72 AIRPLANE & SYSTEMS DESCRIPTION
86 AIRPLANE HANDLING, SERVICE & MAINTENANCE
98 ACCU-SIM AND THE C182 SKYLANE
102 CREDITS
www.a2asimulations.com C182 MANUAL ::: A2ASIMULATIONS

5
THE CESSNA 182
The Jack of All Trades and Master of All

T
HE MASTER OF ALL TRADES? WELL, PERHAPS THAT IS A BIT
elaborate; however, the Cessna 182 is the proven master of a great
many aeronautical “trades”, indeed. So, what are the “trades” that
we want a General Aviation (GA) aeroplane to be the master of? Well, we
want it to be fast, carry lots of fuel, people and baggage, climb well, stall
gently, be easy to land and fly, be economical to operate and maintain,
and generally be a safe and pleasant ride for us and our passengers --
that’s a lot to ask of one aeroplane. After all, the physical world is based
upon compromise and give and take; what is gained here is lost there, etc.
Because of this necessary compromise, when it comes to mastering all
of these “trades”, virtually every aeroplane fails to make the grade. Some
exhibit very high performance but are a handful to fly for the average
pilot and others are as gentle as a puppy, but do not perform so well.
That ubiquitous physical compromise is present in most instances.
NOW CONSIDER THE CESSNA 182: The C-182T will cruise at 140KTAS at 10,000 while
It has a light and simple fixed gear but it can cruise as burning only 12 gallons an hour or so and this while
fast, or nearly so, as many retractable gear aircraft. It carrying full fuel (88 U. S. gallons), four adults and
can haul over 1,200 pounds of passengers, fuel and/or some baggage and being a gentle and predictable
cargo. It will climb at nearly 1,000 fpm fully loaded and aeroplane for the weekend pilot to confidently fly with
has an excellent ceiling and higher altitude perfor- his family. Since 2005 the Garmin G1000 Glass Cockpit
mance even without turbocharging due to its generous has been available in the C-182. This makes instrument
supply of power. Due to very large and effective flaps, and low visibility flying easier and safer.
its slow speed and departed flight regimes are excel- While practical and simple to operate, many consider
lent, predictable and better in most circumstances the high-performance capability of Cessna 182 to be
than other aircraft in its class. Accordingly, a pilot may the ultimate aeroplane for the casual, sportsman flyer.
get it in and out of very small fields with confidence. The Master of all trades? Well, almost all. It cannot
Its engine is reliable, easily maintained and not unduly break the sound barrier or reach 40,000. However, it is
thirsty for fuel or oil. While it has a constant speed the master of so many trades that really matter, that no
propeller, it is a simple and basic aeroplane to operate one could reasonably ask for more.
that may be quickly mastered by even relatively low-
time pilots. It possesses a large and comfortable cabin HOW?
for four plus a capacious baggage compartment. While By now you ought to have the feeling that there is very
it is maneouverable and quick on the controls, it is also little that the C-182 cannot do - without ease, grace
stable around all axes and possesses no dangerous or and élan. So, how did Cessna achieve this aeronautical
surprising traits. It is an excellent IFR aeroplane. The superlative?
C-182 and feels substantial and robust; it is well-made As any dog breeder will tell you, ancestry makes
and can operate in and out of fairly rough airstrips. a great deal of difference. The C- 182’s immediate
Its high wing allows unlimited downward visibility. ancestor is the Cessna 180, the 182 being essentially
Its rear cabin window gives a pilot increased visibility the tricycle gear version of the 180. In creating the
and grants a more spacious and open feeling to rear C-180, the first thing Cessna did was to borrow what
passengers. was an already proven wing design from the all metal

7
THE CESSNA 182
C-170/172. Below its high wing, however, the C-180/182 of power and a tailwheel are ready-made for bush flying.
is an entirely new aeroplane. The 170 had almost all of the features required for a bush
The C-182’s cowling is larger and fuselage is longer aeroplane. What was wanted was a larger, more robust
than the C-172’s, and the cabin does not taper rear- airframe and an increase in power. Thus came the C-180,
wards adding a good deal of useful space. The C-182’s which, with a nose wheel is the C-182.
undercarriage is sturdier and more robust to handle its
heavier weight. The C-182’s six cylinder 230 h. p. engine BUSH LEAGUE
is almost 60% more powerful than that of the C-172’s Contrary to popular belief, bush flying did not begin
but its gross weight is only 30% greater. This gives the after W.W. II.; it began in Canada in 1919. Ellwood Wilson
C- 182 a very respectable power- loading of 13.52 lb./ was a Canadian forester who was employed by the
hp. While the C-172 and the C-182 share the same wing, Laurentide Company located in Quebec. Laurentide
that wing is more than large enough to give the C-182 trained foresters whom they hired out to large lumber
a relatively light wing- loading of 17.8 lb./sq. ft. It is companies. Of forester Wilson’s many duties, surely
this combination of high power and low weight which very high in importance was the hopefully early detec-
produces the excellent performance that the C-182 tion and reportage of forest fires. One day Mr. Wilson
demonstrates. had a brilliant idea: The forests were too vast for even
Greater power and a larger propeller produce more hundreds of foresters like himself to properly patrol and
P-effect and torque which require appropriately sized map; however, from an aeroplane the entire forest could
tail surfaces to counter them. Accordingly, the C-182’s be well-patrolled and mapped and any sign of smoke
tail surfaces (fin/rudder and stabilizer/elevators) were that might indicate a burgeoning fire could be instantly
made larger to accommodate the additional power up detected and reported.
front. While this results in a somewhat heavy feeling He obtained two surplus Curtiss HS-2L flying boats
elevator whilst on the ground and at slow speeds, in from the Canadian government. Between 4 and 8 June,
the air the elevator is not disproportionately heavy as 1919, the first aerial fire-patrol and photography mis-
compared to other aircraft in its class. sions were piloted by RCAS Captain Stuart Graham and
Taking all of these design elements together, engineer Walter Kahre. One of their cross-country flights
pound for pound the C-182 emerges as one of the of 645 miles to Lac-àla- Tortue, was at that time, the
most capable GA aircraft of all time, a true Master of longest cross-country flight in Canada.
All Trades. Superlative performance has been justly This and subsequent forest patrol flights of the Curtiss
rewarded, with over 23.000 having been built, the JS-2Ls are considered to be the very first bush aircraft
C-182 is the second most popular and numerously operations. Laurentide Company initially financed these
produced high performance GA aeroplane of all time, flights which received tremendous publicity in Canada.
just after the C-172. Soon thereafter a new subsidiary was formed, Laurentide
Air Services, Ltd., the first exclusively bush operator in
WHY? Eastern Canada.
So, why did Cessna go to so much trouble to create an
aeroplane with all of the ability that the C-182 pos-
sesses? As usual, there is more than one answer. One Curtiss HS-2L
reason was due to market conditions. After the end of in military use
World War II, there was a fast growing demand for the during W. W. I.
so-called bush plane. The simplest definition of a bush
plane is one which will be primarily operated in and
out of rough, short and remote fields and waterways;
those which could not in any real way be considered to
be airports or airfields.
It has been long established that high -wing, tail-
wheel aeroplanes are best for bush flying. High wings
sit well above the sometimes tall brush and far from
stones and other debris which might be kicked up.
The sturdy main gear of a tailwheel aeroplane is best
suited for rough landings in fields which might actually A Curtiss HS-2L
damage a more delicate nosewheel strut. Also, a of Laurentide
tailwheel aeroplane’s propeller is higher off the ground Air Services
in the early
when taking off, landing and taxiing than the propeller 1920s.
of a nosewheel aeroplane, putting it farther away from
stones, etc.
Cessna’s high wing aeroplanes, with a sufficient amount

Curtiss JN-4 “Jenny”
An Airco DH-4
which was
used in Air Meanwhile, in Western Canada, in Edmonton, Wilfred
Mail service May and his brother Court began the first commercial
in the 1920’s. bush flying business in that area, called May Airplanes,
Ltd. Flying a surplus Curtiss JN- 4 “Jenny” they,
along with pilot George Gorman and mechanic Peter
Derbyshire flew newspapers and small packages to
outlying towns and villages.
Soon, these nascent companies were recognized to
be successfully providing a vital service in the rugged
and often isolated area of central Canada. In 1919, Carl
Ben Eielson, an Alaskan originally from North Dakota,
Piper J-3 began flying passengers in a surplus “Jenny” from
“Grasshopper”. Fairbanks to and from outlying villages. In 1924 the U.S.
Post Office granted Eielson a license to deliver mail in
and around the Fairbanks area, but now in a far more
powerful DH-4.
From these humble beginnings, bush flying in
Canada, Alaska and the northern continental United
States quickly blossomed into a major industry with
thousands of aeroplanes connecting what were
formerly remote and wild places with the rest of the
Very popular world. Food, medicine, doctors and other vital com-
for bush flying modities and people were, for the first time, now able
is the Piper to be delivered to so many remote regions which had
Super Cub been formerly bereft of these necessities.
with oversized
tundra tires for After W. W. II, aircraft manufactures recognised that
rough fields. bush flying companies would be operating again with-
out the restrictions upon civilian aviation that the war,
out of necessity, had applied. It was not long before
many of the Piper Cubs and Super Cubs, Stinsons,
Aeroncas, all of the so -called “Grasshoppers” of the U.
S. and Canadian Air Services began to show their age
-- rough field and water flying taking its inevitable toll
on them. New aircraft to replace these noble veterans
were wanted.

9
THE CESSNA 182
THE CESSNA “AIRMASTER” - WHERE THE END OF THE WAR AND A

IT ALL BEGINS — FOR A WHILE NEW BEGINNING FOR CESSNA
In 1935 Cessna introduced what was to be a very useful In 1945, Cessna produced its only post-war radial-
bush and cargo single-engine aeroplane- the C-145/165 engined, five place aeroplane, the C-190/195. While
‘Airmaster”. These were rugged, substantial aircraft Cessna had first designed and flown the 190 in 1945, it
made of wood and steel tubing with fabric covering. was not until 1947 that it was introduced it to the public.
The wing was cantilever and did not require any exter- This is possibly because Cessna was hesitant to jump
nal struts. Like virtually all aircraft of that era it had a back into the post-war general aviation market with
tail wheel. It was ideal for rough country operations. such an expensive aeroplane (which apparently did
With its capacious fuselage and an excellent useful load not at all daunt Beechcraft). Instead, the first Cessna
of 970 lbs. and later well over 1,100 lbs, with the 165 hp introduced after the war was the modest, two-place, 65
(123 kW) Warner engine installed. It was a very capable hp C-120 which was available to the public in 1946.
rough country aeroplane. The sole difference between a C-190 and a C-195
While Cessna’s production of civilian Airmasters is its engine: the C-190 having a 240 h. p. Continental
ended at the U. S. ’s entry on to W.W. II on December W670-23 radial engine, and a C-195 a 300 h. p. Jacobs
8, 1941, a few Airmasters, now called UC-77B, UC-77C, R-755 radial engine. Both engines have a diameter of
and UC-94 entered the into the military services of the 42” which makes the 190/195’s forward fuselage quite
U.S. A number of them were also used by the Air Forces large and most capacious. With seating for five (two
of Australia and Finland. up front, three aft) the 195’s useful load is 1,250 lbs.
The powerful and rugged 4-place, high wing permitting full 75 gallon tanks plus four - 200 lb. or five
Airmaster is the direct ancestor of all post- war Cessna - 160 lb. souls on board. Its published cruise is 170 mph
single –engine aircraft. (148 k; 274 km/h) at 70% power at 7, 500’. This was
remarkable performance for a light aeroplane in 1947
and quite similar to the modern C-182.
While the 190/195’s wing is, as with the pre-war
Civilian 1938 Cessna
C-165 “Airmaster” “Airmaster”, a cantilever design, unlike the “Airmaster”
the C-190/195 is of all- metal construction. Cessna
apparently came to the understanding (as would Piper
later in the decade) that manufacturing fabric-covered
aeroplanes is highly labor intensive and therefore
more costly to build than an all-metal aircraft. The
C-190/195’s airfoil is the familiar NACA 2412 as used by
Cessnas’ 170, 150, 172 and 182 to this day.
An expensive “luxury” type, the C-190/195 was not
intended or expected to greatly fuel the post-war private
General Aviation market. These large, 5-place aircraft
were intended primarily to be used for commercial char-
ter and business transportation rather than as a light
aeroplane for personal use. Many of the 190/195s were
converted to floatplanes which made them very useful
commuter aircraft in areas where there were few or no
airports. In this sense it could be said that the C-190/195
Cessna C-37 Airmaster set up for
bush operations with removed was a bush plane, although bush planes are generally
wheel pants and large tyres. not so well-appointed nor so elegant.
As impressive as its performance may be, the mas-
sive C-190/195 was too costly, its thirsty radial engine
required a good deal of maintenance, and its general
appearance, while sleek and attractive, was a definite
throwback to aircraft of the thirties. Cessna understood
that something new was wanted in the brave new era
of peace.
SOMETHING NEW
Introduced in 1946, the basic and affordable 2-place
Cessna 120 was an instant success. It spawned the
C-140 which was then slightly stretched and in 1948
became the four-place 170. The 170 eventually

A Cessna C-195 on 1949 Cessna 195. Sleek,
amphibious floats. A very powerful …and expensive.
capable bush aeroplane.
morphed into the all-metal, tricycle undercarriage Continental O-470-K engine. Some 180s have engines
Cessna 172 in 1956, which is where the modern era of up to 300 h.p. The 180’s larger fuselage also gave
Cessna aircraft begins. the cabin a bit more room, particularly in width, and
The whole story of the how the C-172 came to be and tail surfaces were re-designed to accommodate the
how it evolved may be found in the A2A C-172 Manual increase in power.
and, accordingly, will not be repeated here. I do com- On 26 May, 1952, with Cessna’s chief engineering
mend it to you, dear reader, even though I must admit test pilot William D. Thompson at the controls, the
that I wrote it. Nevertheless, you still may find it worthy first Cessna 180, N41697, made its maiden flight. It
of a glance or two, as therein is discussed the genesis was certified by the FAA’s predecessor, the CAA (Civil
and early development of the post- W.W. II Cessna line Aeronautics Authority), on 23 December of that year;
of light aircraft. a nice Christmas present indeed for Cessna to give
All went swimmingly well for a while, but Cessna itself. During 1953, the C-180 was made available to the
became inundated by the pleas of those who loved public. This was the “Golden Year” of aviation, in that
the C-170 but wanted to go faster and carry more load. it was 50 years since the Wright Brothers made what
Some of those were bush pilots who operated in and is considered to be the first powered flight; something
out of the most primitive places on earth and who Cessna did not fail to mention in its advertisements for
required aeroplanes with lots of power, load capacity, the 180.
high performance and strength. Others simply wished
to take their families on trips without having to land for
fuel so often.
While the C-170 was an excellent, relatively inexpen- C-170 tail
sive personal aeroplane for use in relatively civilized surfaces were
places, it did not have sufficient power, load carrying originally
round-shaped.
capability and overal performance necessary for
serious bush flying (and it is all serious). As of 1952,
except for the C-190/195, Cessna did not produce an
aeroplane that could be inexpensively used as a bush
plane.
Surely tired and frustrated at hearing how rival Piper
Cubs and Super Cubs were hauling goods and people
all around the remote northern regions, in 1952 Cessna
The more
decided to satisfy these clamouring requests and powerful C-180
began to design the C-180. tail surfaces are
square- shaped
THE CESSNA 180 - A RUGGED, and larger.
HEAVY HAULER This was later
adopted for
The first thing that Cessna did in designing the 180 the C-170.
was to slightly increase the size of the fuselage to
accommodate a new, more powerful engine, the 225 h.
p. Continental O-470-A, O-470-J, and later a 230 h. p.

11
THE CESSNA 182
Even though the Cessna 180 has the same wing as

the later model all-metal Cessna 170, the 180 is a very
different aeroplane. It is heavier, more powerful and
more capable in every way. Unlike the C-170, C-180
with its 1,100 lb. useful load can comfortably carry four
adults and full fuel. Here is a basic comparison:
Piper PA-22
Cessna 170 Cessna 180 Tri-Pacer. Note-
Empty Weight 1,205 lbs. 1,700 lbs. fully steerable
Useful Load 950 lbs. 1,100 lbs. nosewheel
Power 145 h.p. 230 h.p.
Cruise 105 K 142 K
Stall (Full flaps at MGW) 43 K 48 K
Range (Statute miles) 590 1,024
Absolute Ceiling 15,500 ft. 17,700 ft.
Rate of Climb at MGW 590 fpm 1,100 fpm interest for the future to put nosewheels on their two
top selling aeroplanes. They likely did not consider
Without question the Cessna 180 performed very that this was going to be a big problem. After all,
well with its six- cylinder horizontally opposed 230 h. they were already manufacturing two very popular
p. Continental engine. It was just what the bush pilots prime candidates for this modification, the C-170
were looking for: an economical but hardy, heavy and the newer C-180. It is likely that the Board had
loader that could go long distances quickly without for some time resisted this rather expensive and
having to re-fuel. This was a much better deal than extensive change until it was painfully pointed out to
the larger C- 190/195, which was far more expensive them that Cessna had indeed fallen far behind their
to purchase, maintain and operate. It was even more competitors in this regard, particularly Piper with its
capable and rugged than the excellent C-37 Airmaster. prescient tricycle undercarriage Tri-Pacer which was
introduced to the public in early 1951. Not having
FOLLOW THE MONEY produced any single engine aircraft with a nosewheel
All of this was just fine; however, Cessna was not only by 1954 was certainly a major concern for Cessna.
in the business of selling aeroplanes to bush pilots, Ultimately convinced to go ahead, the Board directed
as commercially sound as that was. The really plush Cessna’s engineers to go to the drawing board and
market in the burgeoning and prosperous middle come up with a satisfactory solution. However, put-
1950’s was private pilots who wanted a fast aeroplane ting a nosewheel on an existing tailwheel aircraft is
that could carry themselves and their families for long much easier said than done.
distances and not cost the Earth to do so. The C-170
was fine but its performance was, to be charitable, not SO, WHAT’S THE BIG DEAL?
spectacular. First, the main gear must be moved back behind the
However, the C-180 could do all that the C-170 could centre of gravity (C. G.) so that the aeroplane will firmly
not. Cessna tried to sell the C-180 to private pilots but sit forward on its new nosewheel. This may sound at
universally met with strong resistance over one matter first blush to be a simple and obvious matter, but it is
in particular - the C-180 has a tail wheel. In the middle more of a problem than it might appear with respect
of the 1950’s new aeroplanes had nosewheels. to a high wing aeroplane such as the Cessna 180. One
More and more private pilots of that era were no reason (of many) for the complication is because the
longer content nor comfortable with an aeroplane with main undercarriage is necessarily attached to the
a tail wheel with its inherent instability on the ground, bottom of the C-180’s fuselage and that fuselage has
the high possibility of a groundloop at landing and the already been designed to absorb and transfer the
poor visibility over the nose when taxiing. Once a pilot stresses of taxiing and landing at the former, more for-
had experienced flying an aeroplane with a nosewheel, ward attachment point of its main undercarriage legs.
he or she was not willing to go back to the tailwheel. Low-wing, tailwheel aeroplanes which are re-designed
Accordingly, Cessna had no good argument regarding for a nosewheel have many of the same problems as
this when pilots baulked at the C-180. The solution was those of high-wing aeroplanes, however moving the
more than obvious and Cessna, with yawning empty main undercarriage attachment point farther aft on the
coffers anxiously awaiting to be filled with the loot to wing is a simpler matter.
be gained by new purchases, went to work to remedy Of course, there are a few exceptions to the
the deficiency. bottom of fuselage location for main undercarriage
attachment on a high-wing, nosewheel aeroplane,
IT LOOKS SO EASY, BUT… particularly with regard to some twin engine,
Sometime during 1954, Cessna’s Board of Directors high-wing aeroplanes such as the Aero Commander,
were convinced that it would be in Cessna’s best the Mitsubishi MU-2 and the Britten-Norman BN-2

LEFT: Aero
Commander
Islander. In each of these examples, the main gear note- main Other considerations include:
assembly is located in the engine nacelles. High- undercarriage in
wing singles such as the C-180 do not have such a engine nacelle 1. The nosewheel assembly’s added mass
convenient place to attach the main gear as do those CENTER: and drag below the data line which
aeroplanes. Accordingly, the internal structure of the Britten-Norman will likely cause pitch – down.
fuselage of the formerly “standard” undercarriage BN-2 Islander. 2. The additional weight of the nosewheel
Note- main
C-180 had perforce to be altered. It required that which reduces the aeroplane’s useful load.
undercarriage
the new stress points, created by the relocated main attached to 3. The new tri-cycle geometry must allow for
gear, adequately transfer and distribute rough-field engine nacelle precise and positive braking, taxiing.
taxiing and landing forces into the fuselage struc- RIGHT: Grumman 4. The placement of the main undercar-
ture; forces which in the real world are not always AA-5B “Tiger”- riage legs must not prevent and ought
perfectly gentle and benign. note simple to aid entry into the aeroplane.
The exact placement rearward of the main gear must non-steerable, 5. The transfer of forces during taxi-
castering
also be resolved. This is a complicated matter of bal- ing and landing must not unduly dis-
nosewheel
ance and compromise that involves the consideration turb the pilot and passengers.
of a number of matters such as:
There are probably a few more considerations as
1. The location of the C. G. within a useable range well, but I presume that the point has been made.
after the nosewheel is installed. This must Once these many thorny problems are resolved to
take into account the weight of the nosewheel the best of the design engineers’ ability, the matter
assembly, since its position is well forward with of the nose wheel assembly itself and its placement
respect to the aircraft datum or fuselage station. must be addressed. The area beneath the engine
While the main undercarriage sits slightly behind and its accessories where there was little to no space
the C.G. and having two wheels and legs, etc. is must now house the nosewheel assembly attach-
heavier, it does not necessarily offset the forward ment. This includes a strut of sufficient strength
moment arm of the new nosewheel assembly. and robustness to withstand rough field taxiing
2. The balance of the aeroplane when on the and less than gentle landings. Not only that, but the
ground. The main undercarriage legs must nosewheel’s steering mechanism and its linkages
be placed far enough aft to provide a stable must also be considered. In some nosewheel aircraft
platform for the aeroplane to sit upon. It such as the Grumman AA-5A “Cheetah” and the
must also be far enough aft to prevent the AA-5B “Tiger”, the Tecnam P Twenty-Ten and many
aeroplane from tending to easily tip back homebuilt aircraft, this particular problem at least
onto its tailskid under normal operating, has been simplified by installing a free- castering
load and wind conditions; however… nosewheel whereby all ground steering is achieved
3. The main undercarriage legs must not be so far by differential braking and not by a direct link to the
aft so as to prevent rotation or create too high a nosewheel. Additionally, free-castering nosewheel
load for the elevator to lift the nose on takeoff. A permits a very tight turning circle and many pilots
certain aft placement of the main undercarriage report that they like it better than a steerable
legs might make for a very stable aeroplane nosewheel. Cessna desired to provide a fully steering
whilst on the ground, but if it is placed too far nosewheel as did Piper’s Tri-Pacer and many other
aft the resulting geometry may cause a situa- aircraft, so the complex linkages from the rudder
tion in which the elevator may not be powerful pedals to the nosewheel had to be designed and
enough to lift the nose during the takeoff. space for all of this had to be found.

13
THE CESSNA 182
The very first Cessna 182 (N4966E)
ABOVE RIGHT:
1956 C-182 panel
PRESENTING: (APPROPRIATE with a few radios, and fuel injected engine was available in the T182T. The
FANFARE) THE CESSNA 182 etc. added. introduction of the Garmin G1000 “Glass Cockpit” was
In November 1955 the C-172 was introduced to the public, introduced as standard equipment in 2004. A diesel
BELOW RIGHT:
albeit as a 1956 model. Within a few months, in early 1956, 1956 C-182. Even engined 182, the T182JT-A, was tested in 2012 and set for
the C-182 took its opening bow. It was an instant suc- with a nosewheel delivery to its first customer this year.
cess in the GA market. The following year the C-182 was flip- overs are
upgraded and became the “Skylane”. Bush pilots, how- possible. THE C-182T
ever, continued and continue to date to operate C-180s as With each new model the Cessna 182 shows thought-
even the best nose wheel system is considered to be too ful improvements which enhance its usefulness and
delicate for operations in rough country. With over 23,000 convenience, sometimes in large gulps, sometime in
C-182/Skylanes having been produced to date the C-182/ smaller ones. The “T” model 182 is no exception and
Skylane has certainly proven to be a popular ride. displays a number of changes from the previous “S”
model.
IT KEEPS GETTING BETTER, BUT Aside from the optional Garmin G1000 “Glass
THE ’PLANE REMAINS THE SAME Cockpit” (not modelled) there are other electronic
The C-182/Skylane did not sit dormant for very long before enhancements. Recognizing that the electrical system
improvements and modifications were incorporated by of the 182 had become more sophisticated as well as
Cessna. Engines, landing gear material, larger windows, more capacious. The avionics master switch now con-
and cabin appointments have changed and its useful load trols a split electrical bus. Also, there is an additional
has steadily increased. However, even with all of these main bus with a standby battery position. For safety in
changes, the Cessna 182 remains the same simple, fast, the event that there should occur an electrical system
heavy hauling, comfortable, easy to fly aeroplane that it malfunction the avionics are divided onto two discrete,
was when it was first introduced in November, 1955. separately switchable busses. Should a particular
Sure, over the years there have been a few modifica- component or group of components malfunction and it
tions to the airframe, the vertical fin and rudder being becomes necessary to shed electrical load on the main
swept back with “D” model in 1960, and the most system, basic navigation and/or communication capa-
dramatic and obvious change being the cut down rear bility may be preserved by shutting down power to Nav
fuselage and the installation of “Omni-Vision” (a rear I or II and/or Com I or II while leaving the other radios
cabin window) with “E” model in 1961. In 1996, with operational. Bus #1 switches the Honeywell Bendix/
the “S” model, the familiar Continental O-470-U engine King KLN 94, if so equipped, plus the #1 Nav/Com. Bus
was replaced by the fuel injected Lycoming IO-540 of #2 switches the Bendix/King KMD 550 multifunction
similar power. Other than that the 182’s changes have display (MFD), if so equipped, the #2 Nav/Com and the
been modest and subtle, updated radios, fancier cabin transponder.
appointments and such. The “T” model continues Cessna’s safe and wise
The retractable gear R182 was introduced in 1977, practice of dividing the most important instruments
and a turbocharged T182 was introduced in 1980. between electric and hydraulic power, so that if one
Both retractable gear and a turbocharged engine were system should fail, at least half of the instruments
available in the TR182 in 1978. In 2001, a turbocharged would still operate.The Directional Gyro (or HSI if one

is installed) is powered by the electrical system while 3. Improved cowling promoting more
the Attitude Indicator (Artificial Horizon) is driven by efficient air movement within.
the vacuum system. There are two constantly working 4. Draggy wire antennae on the vertical fin replaced
vacuum pumps in C-182T’s with Nav I and Nav II equip- with flat plate antennae aligned with the airflow.
ment and one vacuum pump in Nav III 182s. 5. Sleeker cockpit entry steps on the
Cosmetically the 182”T” continues the practice main undercarriage legs.
of painting on the trim over the white base colour.
Previously, and prior to 2003 the trim stripes were Also, the 230-horsepower Lycoming IO-540 has been
decals which were clear coated to preserve them from de-rated to operate at 2,400 rpm max. which will surely
the weather, etc. Not surprisingly, this did not work tend to increase the practical TBO (time between over-
out so well in all instances and more than a few decal- haul) and reduce maintenance costs. The “S” model’s
trimmed 182Ts are showing a bit of ragged wear. Since three-blade McCauley prop with curved leading and
2003 the 182 has painted on trim. trailing edges is standard equipment on the “T’.
The 182T’s seats are available covered in either Over the years pilot ergonomics has not been
fabric or leather, at no cost difference (A2A opted for ignored by Cessna. In the 182’s cockpit everything
the leather). The control yokes are leather bound for is where you might expect it to be and all controls,
better traction when hauling back that heavy eleva- switches and buttons fall nicely to hand. Flap, gear
tor. The LED interior lighting makes after dark flying a and trim controls feel like what they control, and
pleasure. Unlike former 182’s painted spinners the “T” operate intuitively. However, the optional electric
model’s spinner is a spiffy polished aluminium. elevator trim button on the pilot’s control yoke is
The “T” model also underwent a thorough aerody- highly recommended being that the 182’s high wing
namic drag reduction program that added four knots and generous quotient of power on a thrust line
over the “S” model under the same power: some distance below it makes this aeroplane want
trim and plenty of it upon every change of power
1. Sleeker undercarriage leg and and/or airspeed. While the C-182T has a 24 volt
wheel-pants fairing. electrical system, in keeping up with the times for
2. Improved wingtips with internally the pilot’s and passengers’ convenience, for the first
mounted navigation lights. time there is now a 12 volt outlet plug for an out-
board electrical device such as a GPS, laptop, IPad,
or whatever.
PERFORMANCE COMPARISON LIKE AN OLD, COMFORTABLE

Cessna 182S Cessna 182T PIPER 235 PAIR OF SHOES
SKYLANE SKYLANE DAKOTA From its inception the Cessna 182 filled a need in
Lycoming Lycoming Lycoming the GA industry that it still fills, and with distinction.
Engine
IO-540-AB1A5 IO-540-AB1A5 O-540-J3A5D Steadily evolving since its introduction 1955 it has
Horsepower 230 230 235 never strayed far from its original incarnation. If a
pilot who flew the very first C-182 were to fly the latest
Top Speed 146 KTS. 150 KTS. 148 KTS.
model, he or she would still find the cockpit to be a
Cruise speed 142 KTS. 145 KTS. 143 KTS. familiar environment; and with the exception, perhaps,
Stall Speed (full flaps) 49 KTS. 49 KTS. 56 KTS. of the flap control, originally manual and now electric,
Takeoff everything would still essentially be where it always
Ground Roll 805 ft. 795 ft. 795 ft.
had been and operate as it always did. He or she would
find it just as satisfying to fly as it always has been, like
Over 50 ft obstacle 1,515 ft. 1,514 ft. 1,216 ft.
putting on an old, comfortable pair of shoes; and that
Rate Of Climb 865 fpm 924 fpm 1,010 fpm. quality, in the end, may be the Cessna 182’s greatest
Ceiling 14,900 ft. 18,100 ft. 18,100 ft. achievement.
Gross Weight 3,100 lbs. 3,100 lbs. 3,000 lbs. The Cessna 182 flies and operates like a basic,
simple aeroplane that any low-time Private Pilot could
Empty Weight 1,775 lbs. 1,897 lbs. 1,608 lbs.
easily check out in within an hour or two at most, while
Useful load 1,213 lbs. 1,382 lbs. it constantly delivers the high performance of a more
Fuel Capacity 92 gal. 88 gal. 72 gal. complex and demanding aeroplane. No doubt, as time
Range 817 nm. 968 nm. 650 nm. passes, continuing improvements will be made to the
Landing venerable Cessna 182 that will surely enhance it in
many ways. But the basic aeroplane, that master of
Ground Roll 590 ft. 590 ft. 825 ft.
virtually all aeronautic trades, will remain a familiar old
Over 50 ft obstacle 1,350 ft. 1,350 ft. 1,725 ft. friend and perhaps the greatest of all GA aeroplanes.

15
DESIGNER’S NOTES

would be “does it have
T HE 182 TO ME, MEANS BUSINESS.

It’s large, comfortable, and tough.
Upon first entering the cabin, you are greeted with
electric trim?” if not, I would
recommend they stop what
they are doing and get one
installed immediately.”
When you start to slow down for your approach, you
an expansive, wide, and especially long interior. My need to be mindful of the trim at all times. Because if
initial thought was, “wow, four people would be you don’t have enough trim dialed in as you cross the
very comfortable in here, even for long cross country threshold, you may not be able to flare this properly.
flights.” The rear baggage is also easily accessible just This is not an airplane you fly with a thumb and finger;
behind the rear seat, making the entire lengthy interior you fly and especially land a Skylane with a tightly
accessible in flight. clenched fist and a strong fore arm.
If you are familiar with it’s smaller brother, the However, once in the flare (assuming you have it
Skyhawk, your eyes should catch some additional properly trimmed), the heavy elevator really counters
gauges including a CHT (cylinder head temp), a large any instinct to over flare. I find the Skylane to be one of
fuel gallons per hour gauge, manifold pressure, a blue the easiest planes to land (again, if properly trimmed)
prop handle, a cowl flaps lever, and rudder trim. And in as the wing continues to fly well even at high angles of
general, the panel is wider and more expansive. attack. If you don’t have it trimmed properly, however,
If you are like me, when you first step into a cockpit, you will be in for a hard touchdown.
you will grab the yoke or stick to get a feel for the When you do finally touch down, the feel of the
controls and linkage. When I first pulled back on the wheels digging into the pavement tells you just how
yoke in the Skylane, I thought “who put sand bags on tough this bird’s landing gear is. Even if you did land
the elevator?” It’s that heavy, and by my own measure- it very hard, the feeling is this plane could take a
ments, a Skyhawk requires 6 lbs to lift the elevator while lot more. The large tires dig into the pavement, and
the Skylane requires a whopping 25lbs. Having spoken the gear flexes beautifully. This is no doubt a plane
with several 182 owners and pilots, this heavy elevator is originally designed for some very tough terrain.
a “love – hate” relationship, with most loving it. Once you have slowed down and exit the runway,
Starting the powerful Lycoming 540 engine, you are the feather light taxi forces feel as if someone laid a red
greeted by a throaty exhaust note. This plane sounds carpet out for you after your flight. It’s just the easiest,
mean. However, when you start to taxi, it reminds me most pleasurable airplane to taxi. I cannot imagine
of an old 1970’s American car power steering. While the improving on this aspect.
rudders feel just as light as a feather, you’re aware that No question, the Cessna 182 Skylane is an airplane
these delicate forces are moving a large and powerful that can do everything you ask it too, and I can see
vehicle. how owners can become quite attached and loyal to
At takeoff, a 3-bladed prop has a distinctly strong their Skylane. It’s also no surprise why the Skylane is
pull off the line and reaches 60 mph almost twice the world’s most produced high performance general
as fast as the Skyhawk or Cherokee. As soon as you aviation airplane of all time. I hope you enjoy your
lift off into a climb, you will see climb rates between Accu-Sim Skylane, as we have certainly enjoyed
1,000-2,000 ft / min. And being a high performance making (and flying) it.
airplane, after takeoff you will want to pull the throttle
back to 23” of manifold pressure, which is about 2/3rds
throttle. As you climb higher into thinner air, you can
slowly increase the throttle to maintain 23”. If you are
planning for a higher altitude cruise, you are in for a
treat because with it’s high lift wing, drooping wing
tips, and 541 cu engine, it will continue to climb strong
right to your desired height.
Once you settle, and begin trimming for cruise, you
will see a nice increase of 15-20 KTS over the smaller
GA planes and the entire time you will also enjoy a
smoother ride from the higher wing loading.
Being a high wing airplane with power, any signifi-
cant power or speed changes will require a strong pull
or push on the yoke until you adjust trim. This can get
especially heavy on final, if you don’t dial in enough
nose up trim. To quote Dudley Henriques, “If someone
told me they just bought a 182, my first question THE AIR TO AIR SIMULATIONS TEAM

17
FEATURES

A true propeller simulation. Persistent airplane even when the
computer is off.
Interactive pre-flight inspection system.
Four naturally animated passengers that
Gorgeously constructed aircraft, inside can sit in any seat.
and out, down to the last rivet.
3D Lights ‘M’ (built directly into the
Physics-driven sound environment. model).
Complete maintenance hangar internal Pure3D Instrumentation.

systems and detailed engine tests
including compression checks. In cockpit pilot’s map.
Visual Real-Time Load Manager. Authentic fuel delivery includes priming

and proper mixture behavior. Mixture can
Piston combustion engine modeling.Air be tuned by the book using the EGT or by
comes in, it mixes with fuel and ignites, ear. It’s your choice.
parts move, heat up, and all work in
harmony to produce the wonderful A2A specialized materials with authentic
sound of a Lycoming 540 engine. Now metals, plastics, and rubber.
the gauges look beneath the skin of your
aircraft and show you what Accu-Sim is Oil pressure system is affected by oil
all about. viscosity (oil thickness). Oil viscosity is
affected by oil temperature. Now when
Authentic Bendix King Avionics stack you start the engine, you need to be
including the KMA 26 Audio Panel, two careful to give the engine time to warm.
KX 155A NAV/COMMS, KR 87 ADF, KT 76C
Transponder, KN 62A DME, and KAP 140 Eight commercial aviation sponsors have
Two Axis Autopilot with altitude pre- supported the project including Phillips
selection. Optional KI 525 HSI. 66 Aviation, Champion Aerospace, and
Knots2u speed modifications.
Three in-sim avionics configurations
including no GPS, GPS 295, or the GNS And much more …
400. Built-in, automatic support for 3rd
party GNS 430 and 530, GTN 650 and 750.
Electric starter with accurate cranking

power.
Dynamic ground physics including both

hard pavement and soft grass modeling.
Primer-only starts.

19
QUICK START GUIDE

C
HANCES ARE, IF YOU ARE
reading this manual, you
have properly installed
the A2A Accu-Sim C182 Skylane.
However, in the interest of
customer support, here is a brief
description of the setup process,
system requirements, and a quick
start guide to get you up quickly
and efficiently in your new aircraft.
SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
The A2A Simulations Accu-Sim C182
Skylane requires the following to run:
▶▶ Requires licensed copy of
Lockheed Martin Prepar3D
OPERATING SYSTEM:
▶▶ Windows XP SP2
▶▶ Windows Vista
▶▶ Windows 7
PROCESSOR:
2.0 GHz single core processor (3.0GHz and/or multiple
core processor or better recommended)
HARD DRIVE:
250MB of hard drive space or better
VIDEO CARD:
DirectX 9 compliant video card with at least 128 MB
video ram (512 MB or more recommended)
OTHER:
DirectX 9 hardware compatibility and audio card with
speakers and/or headphones
INSTALLATION
Included in your downloaded zipped (.zip) file, which
you should have been given a link to download after pur-
chase, is an executable (.exe) file which, when accessed,
contains the automatic installer for the software.
To install, double click on the executable and follow
the steps provided in the installer software. Once com-
plete, you will be prompted that installation is finished.

21
CHAPTER NAME
IMPORTANT: If you have Microsoft

Security Essentials installed, be sure
to make an exception for Lockheed
Martin Prepar3D as shown right.
REALISM SETTINGS
The A2A Simulations Accu-Sim
C182 Skylane was built to a
very high degree of realism and
accuracy. Because of this, it was
developed using the highest real-
ism settings available in Lockheed
Martin Prepar3D.
The following settings are
recommended to provide the most
accurate depiction of the flight
model. Without these settings,
certain features may not work
correctly and the flight model will
not perform accurately. The figure
below depicts the recommended
realism settings for the A2A Accu-
Sim C182 Skylane.
FLIGHT MODEL
To achieve the highest degree of
realism, move all sliders to the
right. The model was developed in
this manner, thus we cannot attest
to the accuracy of the model if
these sliders are not set as shown
above. The only exception would
be “Crash tolerance.”
INSTRUMENTS AND LIGHTS

Enable “Pilot controls aircraft
lights” as the name implies
for proper control of lighting.
Check “Enable gyro drift” to
provide realistic inaccuracies
which occur in gyro compasses
over time.
“Display indicated airspeed”
should be checked to provide a
more realistic simulation of the
airspeed instruments.
ENGINES “Auto-rudder” turned off if you

Ensure “Enable auto mixture” is have a means of controlling the
NOT checked. The C182 has a fully rudder input, either via side
working mixture control and this swivel/twist on your specific
will interfere with our extensively joystick or rudder pedals.
documented and modeled mixture
system. ENGINE STRESS DAMAGES ENGINE
(Acceleration Only). It is
FLIGHT CONTROLS recommended you have this
It is recommended you have UNCHECKED.

QUICK FLYING TIPS
To Change Views Press A or SHIFT + A.
Keep the engine at or above 800 RPM. Failure to do

so may cause spark plug fouling. If your plugs do foul
(the engine will sound rough), try running the engine
at a higher RPM. You have a good chance of blowing
them clear within a few seconds by doing so. If that
doesn’t work, you may have to shut down and visit the
maintenance hangar.
Reduce power after takeoff. This is standard procedure

with high performance aircraft.
On landing, raise your flaps once you touch down to

settle the aircraft, pull back on the stick for additional
elevator braking while you use your wheel brakes.
Be careful with high-speed dives, as you can lose

control of your aircraft if you exceed the max allowable
speed.
For landings, take the time to line up and plan your

approach. Keep your eye on the speed at all times.
Using in-sim accelerated time may cause

odd system behavior.
Keep throttle above 1/3 when flying at high RPM to avoid

fouling plugs.
A quick way to warm your engines is to use auto start

(CTRL-E) or re-load your aircraft while running.

23
ACCU-SIM AND THE
COMBUSTION ENGINE
The piston pulls

in the fuel / air
mixture, then
compresses the
mixture on its
way back up.
The spark plug

ignites the
compressed air
/ fuel mixture,
driving the piston
down (power),
then on it’s way
back up, the
burned mixture
is forced out
the exhaust.

T
HE COMBUSTION ENGINE IS BASICALLY AN AIR PUMP. IT CREATES
power by pulling in an air / fuel mixture, igniting it, and turning the
explosion into usable power. The explosion pushes a piston down
that turns a crankshaft. As the pistons run up and down with controlled
explosions, the crankshaft spins. For an automobile, the spinning
crankshaft is connected to a transmission (with gears) that is connected
to a driveshaft, which is then connected to the wheels. This is literally
“putting power to the pavement.” For an aircraft, the crankshaft is
connected to a propeller shaft and the power comes when that spinning
propeller takes a bite of the air and pulls the aircraft forward.
The main difference between an engine designed ever used a wood stove or fireplace, you know when
for an automobile and one designed for an aircraft is you open the vent to allow more air to come in, the
the aircraft engine will have to produce power up high fire will burn more. The same principle applies to an
where the air is thin. To function better in that high, engine. Think of an engine like a fire that will burn as
thin air, a supercharger can be installed to push more hot and fast as you let it.
air into the engine. Look at these four images on the left and you will
understand basically how an engine operates.
OVERVIEW OF HOW THE ENGINE The piston pulls in the fuel / air mixture, then
WORKS AND CREATES POWER compresses the mixture on its way back up.
Fire needs air. We need air. Engines need air. Engines The spark plug ignites the compressed air / fuel
are just like us as – they need oxygen to work. Why? mixture, driving the piston down (power), then on
Because fire needs oxygen to burn. If you cover a fire, it it’s way back up, the burned mixture is forced out
goes out because you starved it of oxygen. If you have the exhaust.

25
ACCU-SIM AND THE COMBUSTION ENGINE
AIR TEMPERATURE Why not just use the most economical

Have you ever noticed that your car engine runs mixture all the time?
smoother and stronger in the cold weather? This is Because a leaner mixture means a hotter running
because cold air is denser than hot air and has more engine. Fuel actually acts as an engine coolant, so the
oxygen. Hotter air means less power. richer the mixture, the cooler the engine will run.
However, since the engine at high power will be
nearing its maximum acceptable temperature, you
would use your best power mixture (0.08%) when you
Cold air is need power (takeoff, climbing), and your best economy
denser and so mixture (.0625%) when throttled back in a cruise when
provides more engine temperatures are low.
WEAK oxygen to your
engine. More
So, think of it this way:
▶▶ For HIGH POWER, use a RICHER mixture.
oxygen means
more power.
▶▶ For LOW POWER, use a LEANER mixture.
THE MIXTURE LEVER

Most piston aircraft have a mixture lever in the
STRONG cockpit that the pilot can operate. The higher you
fly, the thinner the air, and the less fuel you need
to achieve the same mixture. So, in general, as you
climb you will be gradually pulling that mixture lever
backwards, leaning it out as you go to the higher,
thinner air.
How do you know when you have the right mixture?

MIXTURE The standard technique to achieve the proper mixture in
Just before the air enters the combustion chamber it is flight is to lean the mixture until you just notice the engine
mixed with fuel. Think of it as an air / fuel mist. getting a bit weaker, then richen the mixture until the
A general rule is a 0.08% fuel to air ratio will produce engine sounds smooth. It is this threshold that you are
the most power. 0.08% is less than 1%, meaning for dialing into your 0.08%, best power mixture. Be aware, if
every 100 parts of air, there is just less than 1 part fuel. you pull the mixture all the way back to the leanest posi-
The best economical mixture is 0.0625%. tion, this is mixture cutoff, which will stop the engine.
Just before the

air enters the
combustion chamber
it is mixed with
fuel. Think of it as
an air / fuel mist.
When you push the
throttle forward, you
are opening a valve
allowing your engine
to suck in more
fuel / air mixture.

INDUCTION valve. Through that little crack, air is streaming in. If you
As you now know, an engine is an air pump that runs turned your ear toward it, you could probably even hear
based on timed explosions. Just like a forest fire, it a loud sucking sound. That is how much that engine is
would run out of control unless it is limited. When you trying to breath. Those throttle valves are located at the
push the throttle forward, you are opening a valve base of your carburetor, and your carburetor is bolted
allowing your engine to suck in more fuel / air mixture. on top of your intake manifold. Just below those throttle
When at full throttle, your engine is pulling in as much valves and inside your intake manifold, the air is in a near
air as your intake system will allow. It is not unlike a vacuum. This is where your manifold pressure gauge’s
watering hose – you crimp the hose and restrict the sensor is, and when you are idling, that sensor is reading
water. Think of full power as you just opening that that very low air pressure in that near vacuum.
water valve and letting the water run free. This is 100% As you increase power, you will notice your manifold
full power. pressure comes up. This is simply because you have
In general, we don’t run an airplane engine at full used your throttle to open those throttle plates more,
power for extended periods of time. Full power is only and the engine is able to get the air it wants. If you
used when it is absolutely necessary, sometimes on apply full power on a normal engine, that pressure
takeoff, and otherwise in an emergency situation that will ultimately reach about the same pressure as the
requires it. For the most part, you will be ‘throttling’ outside, which really just means the air is now equal-
your motor, meaning you will be be setting the limit. ized as your engine’s intake system is running wide
open. So if you turned your engine off, your manifold
MANIFOLD PRESSURE = AIR PRESSURE pressure would rise to the outside pressure. So on a
You have probably watched the weather on television standard day at sea level, your manifold pressure with
and seen a large letter L showing where big storms are the engine off will be 30”.
located. L stands for LOW BAROMETRIC PRESSURE
(low air pressure). You’ve seen the H as well, which IGNITION
stands for HIGH BAROMETRIC PRESSURE (high air The ignition system provides timed sparks to trig-
pressure). While air pressure changes all over the ger timed explosions. For safety, aircraft are usually
world based on weather conditions, these air pressure equipped with two completely independent ignition
changes are minor compared to the difference in air systems. In the event one fails, the other will continue
pressure with altitude. The higher the altitude, the to provide sparks and the engine will continue to run.
much lower the air pressure. This means each cylinder will have two spark plugs
On a standard day (59°F), the air pressure at sea installed.
level is 29.92 in. Hg BAROMETRIC PRESSURE. To keep An added advantage to having two sparks instead
things simple, let’s say 30 in. Hg is standard air pres- of one is more sparks means a little more power.
sure. You have just taken off and begin to climb. As you The pilot can select Ignition 1, Ignition 2, or BOTH by
reach higher altitudes, you notice your rate of climb using the MAG switch. You can test that each ignition
slowly getting lower. This is because the higher you fly, is working on the ground by selecting each one and
the thinner the air is, and the less power your engine watching your engine RPM. There will be a slight drop
can produce. You should also notice your MANIFOLD when you go from BOTH to just one ignition system.
PRESSURE decreases as you climb as well. This is normal, provided the drop is within your pilot’s
manual limitation.
Why does your manifold pressure
decrease as you climb?
Because manifold pressure is air pressure, only it’s The air and fuel
measured inside your engine’s intake manifold. Since are compress
by the piston,
your engine needs air to breath, manifold pressure is
then the ignition
a good indicator of how much power your engine can system adds the
produce. spark to create
a controlled
Now, if you start the engine and idle, why explosion.
does the manifold pressure go way down?
When your engine idles, it is being choked of air. It is
given just enough air to sustain itself without stalling.
If you could look down your carburetor throat when an
engine is idling, those throttle plates would look like they
were closed. However if you looked at it really closely,
you would notice a little space on the edge of the throttle

27
ACCU-SIM AND THE COMBUSTION ENGINE
ENGINE TEMPERATURE
All sorts of things create heat in an engine, like fric-
tion, air temp, etc., but nothing produces heat like
COMBUSTION. The hotter the metal, the weaker its
strength.
Aircraft engines are made of aluminum alloy, due
to its strong but lightweight properties. Aluminum
maintains most of its strength up to about 150°C. As
the temperature approaches 200°C, the strength starts
to drop. An aluminum rod at 0°C is about 5× stronger
than the same rod at 250°C, so an engine is most
prone to fail when it is running hot. Keep your engine
temperatures down to keep a healthy running engine.
Without the layer of oil between
LUBRICATION SYSTEM (OIL) the parts, an engine will
An internal combustion engine has precision machined quickly overheat and seize.
metal parts that are designed to run against other metal
surfaces. There needs to be a layer of oil between those Above is a simple illustration of a crankshaft that is
surfaces at all times. If you were to run an engine and pull located between two metal caps, bolted together. This
the oil plug and let all the oil drain out, after just minutes, is the very crankshaft where all of the engine’s power
the engine would run hot, slow down, and ultimately ends up. Vital oil is pressure-injected in between these
seize up completely from the metal on metal friction. surfaces when the engine is running. The only time the
There is a minimum amount of oil pressure required crankshaft ever physically touches these metal caps is at
for every engine to run safely. If the oil pressure falls startup and shutdown. The moment oil pressure drops
below this minimum, then the engine parts are in below its minimum, these surfaces make contact. The
danger of making contact with each other and incurring crankshaft is where all the power comes from, so if you
damage. A trained pilot quickly learns to look at his oil starve this vital component of oil, the engine can seize.
pressure gauge as soon as the engine starts, because if However, this is just one of hundreds of moving parts
the oil pressure does not rise within seconds, then the in an engine that need a constant supply of oil to run
engine must be shut down immediately. properly.

MORE CYLINDERS, MORE POWER making bigger cylinders, adding more cylinders, or both.
The very first combustion engines were just one or Horsepower, on the other hand, is the total power that
two cylinders. Then, as technology advanced, and the engine is creating. Horsepower is calculated by combin-
demand for more power increased, cylinders were ing torque with speed (RPM). If an engine can produce
made larger. Ultimately, they were not only made 500 foot pounds of torque at 1,000 RPM and produce the
larger, but more were added to an engine. same amount of torque at 2,000 RPM, then that engine is
Below are some illustrations to show how an producing twice the horsepower at 2,000 RPM than it is
engine may be configured as more cylinders are at 1,000 RPM. Torque is the twisting force. Horsepower is
added. how fast that twisting force is being applied.
The more cylinders you add to an engine, the more If your airplane has a torque meter, keep that engine
heat it produces. Eventually, engine manufactur- torque within the limits or you can break internal com-
ers started to add additional “rows” of cylinders. ponents. Typically, an engine produces the most torque The “Corn Cob,”
the most powerful
Sometimes two engines would literally be mated in the low to mid RPM range, and highest horsepower in piston aircraft
together, with the 2nd row being rotated slightly so the the upper RPM range. engine to reach
cylinders could get a direct flow of air. production.
THE PRATT & WHITNEY R4360

Pratt & Whitney took this even further, creating the
R4360, with 28 Cylinders (this engine is featured in the
A2A Boeing 377 Stratocruiser). The cylinders were run
so deep, it became known as the “Corn Cob.” This is the
most powerful piston aircraft engine to reach produc-
tion. There are a LOT of moving parts on this engine.
TORQUE VS HORSEPOWER
Torque is a measure of twisting force. If you put a foot
long wrench on a bolt, and applied 1 pound of force at the
handle, you would be applying 1 foot-pound of torque to
that bolt. The moment a spark triggers an explosion, and
that piston is driven down, that is the moment that piston
is creating torque, and using that torque to twist the
crankshaft. With a more powerful explosion, comes more
torque. The more fuel and air that can be exploded, the
more torque. You can increase an engine’s power by either

29
SPECIFICATIONS

PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS
Speeds
Note that high speed figures are with wheel
fairings. Subtract 2 KIAS when removed.
Maximum at Sea Level: 150 ktas
Cruise, 80% Power at 7000 ft: 145 ktas
Range
Recommended lean mixture with fuel allowance for engine
start, taxi, takeoff, climb and 45 minutes reserve.
80% Power @ 7000 ft (max): 773 nm / 5.4 hrs
55% Power @ 10000 ft (econ): Range 930 nm / 7.6 hrs
Rate Of Climb At Sea Level

924 fpm
Service Ceiling
18,100 ft
Takeoff
Ground Roll: 795 ft
Total Distance Over 50 ft Obstacle: 1514 ft
Landing
Ground Roll: 590 ft
Total Distance Over 50 ft Obstacle: 1350 ft
Stall Speed
Flaps Up, Power Off: 54 kcas
Flaps Down, Power Off: 49 kcas

31
SPECIFICATIONS
GENERAL Max Weights

Engine Max Takeoff Weight: 3100 lbs.
Textron Lycoming, IO-540-AB1A5, Normally aspirated, Max Baggage Area Weight: 200lbs
direct drive, air-cooled, horizontally opposed, fuel injected, Max Ramp Weight: 3110 lbs
six cylinder engine with 541 cu. in. displacement. Max Landing Weight: 2950 lbs
Horsepower Rating and Engine Speed:
230 rated BHP at 2,400 RPM.
Standard Airplane Weights
Propeller Standard Empty Weight: 1918 lbs.
Three blade, constant speed, 79” 14.9° to 31.7° pitch Maximum Useful Load (total fuel,
McCauley, Model Number B3D36C431/80VSA-1. passengers, and baggage): 1192 lbs
Fuel Limitations
Total Capacity: 92.0 U.S. gallons. VNE (Never Exceed)
Total Usable: 87.0 U.S. gallons. Do not exceed 175 KIAS in any speed operation.
Total Capacity Each Tank: 46.0 U.S. gallons.
Total Usable Each Tank: 43.5 U.S. gallons. VNO (Maximum Structural)
Specified Octane: 100LL Grade Aviation Fuel Do not exceed 140 KIAS except in smooth
air, and then only with caution.
Oil Capacity
Sump Oil Capacity: 8 U.S. Quarts VA (Maneuvering Speed)
Total Oil Capacity: 9 U.S. Quarts Do not make full or abrupt control movements above this speed.
3,100 Pounds: 110 KIAS
Recommended Oil Viscosity for 2,600 Pounds: 101 KIAS
Temperature Range: 2,100 Pounds: 91 KIAS
Temperature SAE Grade
Above 16°C (60°F) 50 (w100) VFE (Maximum Flap Speed)
-18°C (0°F) to 32°C (90°F) 20W-50 Do not exceed this speed with flaps
All Temperatures 15W-50 10° Flaps: 140 KIAS
10° to 20° Flaps: 120 KIAS
NOTE: The oil viscosity listed in the manual are slightly 20° to 30° Flaps: 100 KIAS
different than in the simulation because they are each
referencing a different name brand of aviation oil. Airspeed Indicator Markings
White Arc (flaps extended)
Full Flap Operating Range (41 – 100 KIAS)
Green Arc (flaps retracted)
Normal Operating Range (51 – 140 KIAS)
Yellow Arc
Operations must be conducted with caution
and only in smooth air (140-175 KIAS)
Red Line
Maximum speed for all operations is 175 KIAS

Powerplant Limitations NORMAL OPERATIONS
Maximum Engine Speed: 2400 RPM Airspeeds For Normal Operation
Maximum Cylinder Head Temperature: 500° F (260° C) Unless otherwise noted, the following speeds
Maximum Oil Temperature: 245°F (118°C) are based on a maximum weight of 3100 pounds
Oil Pressure Minimum: 20 PSI and may be used for any lesser weight.
Oil Pressure Maximum: 115 PSI
Takeoff
Center Of Gravity Limits Normal Climb: 70-80 KIAS
NORMAL CATEGORY Short Field Takeoff, Flaps 20°, Speed at 50 Feet: 58 KIAS
Center of Gravity Range: Forward: 33.0 inches aft of
datum at 2250 pounds or less, with straight line variation Enroute Climb, Flaps Up
to 35.5 inches aft of datum at 2700 pounds or less, with Normal, Sea Level: 85-95 KIAS
straight line variation to 40.9 inches aft of datum at 3100 Best Rate-of-Climb, Sea Level: 80 KIAS
pounds, continuing to aft limit at 3100 pounds. Best Rate-of-Climb, 10,000 Feet: 74 KIAS
Aft: 46.0 inches aft of datum at all weights. Best Angle-of-Climb, Sea Level: 65 KIAS
Reference Datum: Lower portion of front face of firewall. Best Angle-of-Climb, 10,000 Feet: 68 KIAS
Maneuver Limits Landing Approach

This airplane is certificated in the normal category. Normal Approach, Flaps Up: 70-80 KIAS
The normal category is applicable to aircraft intended Normal Approach, Flaps FULL: 60-70 KIAS
for non aerobatic operations. These include any Short Field Approach, Flaps FULL: 60 KIAS
maneuvers incidental to normal flying, stalls (except
whip stalls), lazy eights, chandelles, and turns in Balked Landing
which the angle of bank is not more than 60°. Maximum Power, Flaps 20°: 55 KIAS
Aerobatic maneuvers, including spins, are not approved.
Maximum Recommended Turbulent Air Penetration Speed
Flight Load Factor Limits 3100 lbs: 110 KIAS
Flight Load Factors (Maximum Takeoff Weight - 3100 lbs.): 2600 lbs: 101 KIAS
*Flaps Up: +3.8g, -1.52g 2100 lbs: 91 KIAS
*Flaps FULL: +2.0g
*The design load factors are 150% of the above, and in Maximum Demonstrated Crosswind Velocity
all cases, the structure meets or exceeds design loads. Takeoff or Landing: 15 KTS

33
CHECKLISTS

CABIN
1. Pitot Tube Cover —REMOVE. Check for pitot blockage.
2. Pilot’s Operating Handbook —ACCESSIBLE TO PILOT.
3. Airplane Weight and Balance —CHECKED.
4. Parking Brake —SET.
5. Control Wheel Lock —REMOVE.
6. Ignition Switch —OFF.
7. Avionics Master Switch —OFF.
WARNING: When turning on the master switch,
using an external power source, or pulling the
propeller through by hand, treat the propeller as if
the ignition switch were on. Do not stand, nor allow
anyone else to stand, within the arc of the propeller,
since a loose or broken wire or a component
malfunction could cause the propeller to rotate.
8. Master Switch —ON.

9. Fuel Quantity Indicators —CHECK QUANTITY
and ENSURE LOW FUEL ANNUNCIATORS
(L LOW FUEL R) ARE EXTINGUISHED.
10. Avionics Master Switch —ON.
11. Avionics Cooling Fan —CHECK AUDIBLY FOR OPERATION.
13. Static Pressure Alternate Source Valve —OFF.
14. Annunciator Panel Switch —PLACE AND HOLD IN
TST POSITION and ensure all annunciators illuminate.
NOTE: When Master Switch is turned ON, some
annunciators will flash for approximately 10 seconds
before illuminating steadily. When panel TST switch
is toggled up and held in position, all remaining
lights will flash until the switch is released.
15. Fuel Selector Valve —BOTH.

16. Flaps —EXTEND.
17. Pitot Heat —ON. (Carefully check that pitot tube
is warm to the touch within 30 seconds.)
18. Stall Warning System —CHECK (gently
move the stall vane upward and verify that
the stall warning horn is heard)
19. Pitot Heat —OFF.
20. Master Switch —OFF.
21. Trim Controls —Neutral.
22. Baggage Door —CHECK, lock with key.

35
CHECKLISTS
BEFORE STARTING STARTING ENGINE

ENGINE (WITH BATTERY)
1. Preflight Inspection —COMPLETE. 1. Throttle —OPEN 1/4 INCH.
2. Passenger Briefing —COMPLETE. 2. Propeller —HIGH RPM
3. Seats and Seat Belts —ADJUST and 3. Mixture —IDLE CUTOFF.
LOCK. Ensure inertia reel locking. 4. Propeller Area —CLEAR.
4. Brakes —TEST and SET. 5. Master Switch —ON.
5. Circuit Breakers —CHECK IN. 6. Flashing Beacon —ON.
6. Electrical Equipment —OFF.
NOTE: If engine is warm,
NOTE: The avionics master omit priming procedure of
switch must be off during steps 7, 8, and 9 below.
engine start to prevent possible
damage to avionics. 7. Auxiliary Fuel Pump Switch —ON.
8. Mixture —SET to FULL RICH (full
7. Avionics Master Switch —OFF. forward) until stable fuel flow is
8. Cowl Flaps —OPEN indicated (usually 3 to 5 seconds), then
9. Fuel Selector Valve —BOTH. set to IDLE CUTOFF (full aft) position.
10. Avionics Circuit Breakers —CHECK IN. 9. Auxiliary Fuel Pump —OFF.
10. Ignition Switch —START
(release when engine starts).
11. Mixture —ADVANCE smoothly
to RICH when engine starts.
NOTE: If engine floods (engine has
been primed too much), turn off
auxiliary fuel pump, set mixture to
idle cutoff, open throttle 1/2 to full,
and motor (crank) engine. When
engine starts, set mixture to full
rich and close throttle promptly.
12. Oil Pressure —CHECK.

13. Ammeter —CHECK (charging)
14. Navigation Lights —ON as required.
15. Taxi and Landing Light
Switches — ON as required
17. Radios —ON.
18. Flaps —RETRACT.

BEFORE TAKEOFF NORMAL TAKEOFF
1. Parking Brake —SET. 1. Wing Flaps —0°-20°.
2. Passenger Seat Backs —MOST 2. Power —FULL THROTTLE
UPRIGHT POSITION. and 2400 RPM.
3. Seats and Seat Belts —CHECK SECURE. 3. Mixture — RICH (above 5000
4. Cabin Doors —CLOSED and LOCKED. feet pressure altitude, lean
for maximum RPM)
5. Flight Controls —FREE and CORRECT.
4. Elevator Control —LIFT NOSE
6. Flight Instruments —CHECK and SET.
WHEEL (at 50-60 KIAS).
7. Fuel Quantity —CHECK.
5. Climb Speed —70 KIAS (flaps
8. Mixture —RICH. 20°) or 80 KIAS (flaps 0°)
9. Fuel Selector Valve —RECHECK BOTH. 6. Wing Flaps —RETRACT.
10. Elevator and Rudder Trim
—SET for takeoff
11. Throttle —1800 RPM.
a. Magnetos —CHECK (RPM drop
should not exceed 175 RPM
on either magneto or 50 RPM
differential between magnetos).
b. Propeller Control —CYCLE
SHORT FIELD TAKEOFF
(from high to low RPM; return 1. Wing Flaps —20°.
to high RPM) (push full in) 2. Brakes —APPLY.
c. Vacuum Gage —CHECK. 3. Power —FULL THROTTLE
d. Engine Instruments and and 2400 RPM.
Ammeter —CHECK. 4. Mixture —L RICH (above
12. Annunciator Panel —Ensure no 5000 feet pressure altitude,
annunciators are illuminated. lean for maximum RPM)
13. Throttle —CHECK IDLE. 5. Brakes —RELEASE.
14. Throttle —1000 RPM or LESS. 6. Elevator Control —MAINTAIN
15. Throttle Friction Lock —ADJUST. SLIGHTLY TAIL LOW ATTITUDE.
16. Strobe Lights —AS DESIRED. 7. Climb Speed —60 KIAS (until
all obstacles are cleared).
17. Radios and Avionics —SET.
8. Wing Flaps —RETRACT slowly
18. NAV/GPS Switch (if installed) —SET.
after reaching 70 KIAS.
19. Autopilot (if installed) —OFF.
20. Cabin Windows —CLOSED
and LOCKED.
21. Wing Flaps —SET for takeoff (0°-20°)
22. Cowl Flaps —OPEN
23. Brakes — RELEASE

37
CHECKLISTS
ENROUTE CLIMB BEFORE LANDING

1. Airspeed —85-95 KIAS. 1. Pilot and Passenger Seat Backs
2. Power —23 in. Hg or FULL THROTTLE —MOST UPRIGHT POSITION.
(whichever is less) and 2400 RPM. 2. Seats and Seat Belts —
3. Mixture —15 GPH or FULL SECURED and LOCKED.
RICH (whichever is less) 3. Fuel Selector Valve —BOTH.
4. Fuel Selector Valve —BOTH 4. Mixture —RICH.
5. Cowl Flaps —OPEN AS REQUIRED 5. Propeller —HIGH RPM
6. Landing/Taxi Lights —ON.
7. Autopilot —OFF.
CRUISE
1. Power —15-23 in. Hg, 2000-2400 NORMAL LANDING
RPM (no more than 80%).
2. Elevator and Rudder Trim —ADJUST. 1. Airspeed —70-80 KIAS (flaps UP).
3. Mixture —LEAN. 2. Wing Flaps —AS DESIRED (0°-10°
below 140 KIAS, 10°-20° below 120
4. Cowl Flaps —CLOSED KIAS, FULL below 100 KIAS).
3. Airspeed —60 KIAS (Flaps FULL).
4. Trim —ADJUST
5. Touchdown —MAIN WHEELS FIRST.
6. Landing Roll —LOWER
NOSE WHEEL GENTLY.
DESCENT 7. Braking —MINIMUM REQUIRED.
1. Power —AS DESIRED.

2. Mixture —ENRICHEN as required.
3. Cowl Flaps —CLOSED
4. Altimeter —SET.
5. NAV/GPS Switch —SET.
6. Fuel Selector Valve —BOTH.
7. Wing Flaps —AS DESIRED (0°-10°
below 140 KIAS, 10°-20° below 120
KIAS, FULL below 100 KIAS).

SHORT FIELD LANDING AFTER LANDING
1. Airspeed —70-80 KIAS (flaps UP). 1. Wing Flaps —UP.
2. Wing Flaps —FULL (below 100 KIAS). 2. Cowl Flaps —OPEN
3. Airspeed —60 KIAS (until flare).
4. Trim —ADJUST
5. Touchdown —MAIN WHEELS FIRST.
6. Brakes —APPLY HEAVILY.
7. Wing Flaps —RETRACT for
maximum brake effectiveness. SECURING AIRPLANE
1. Parking Brake —SET.
2. Throttle —IDLE
3. Electrical Equipment,
Autopilot —OFF.
BALKED LANDING 5. Mixture —IDLE CUT OFF
(pulled full out).
1. Throttle —FULL OPEN and 2400RPM
6. Ignition Switch —OFF.
2. Wing Flaps —RETRACT TO 20°.
3. Climb Speed —55 KIAS.
8. Control Lock —INSTALL.
4. Wing Flaps —10° (until obstacles
9. Fuel Selector Valve —LEFT or
are cleared). Retract (after reaching
a safe altitude and 70 KIAS). RIGHT to prevent cross feeding.

39
PROCEDURES
EXPLAINED

STARTING ENGINE Since the engine is closely cowled for efficient in-flight
When the engine starts, smoothly advance the mixture engine cooling, precautions should be taken to avoid
control to full rich and retard the throttle to desired idle overheating during prolonged engine operation on the
speed. If the engine is under primed (most likely in cold ground. Also, long periods of idling may cause fouled
weather with a cold engine) it will not start at all, and spark plugs.
additional priming will be necessary. After starting,
if the oil pressure gauge does not begin to indicate MAGNETO CHECK
pressure within 30 seconds in the summer time and The magneto check should be made at 1800 RPM as
approximately one minute in very cold weather, stop follows. Move ignition switch first to R position and
the engine and investigate. Lack of oil pressure can note RPM. Next move switch back to BOTH to clear the
cause serious engine damage. other set of plugs. Then move switch to the L position,
note RPM and return the switch to the BOTH position.
NOTE: Additional details concerning cold weather starting RPM drop should not exceed 175 RPM on either mag-
and operation may be found under COLD WEATHER neto or show greater than 50 RPM differential between
OPERATION paragraphs in this section. magnetos. If there is a doubt concerning operation
of the ignition system, RPM checks at higher engine
RECOMMENDED STARTER DUTY CYCLE speeds will usually confirm whether a deficiency exists.
Crank the starter for 10 seconds followed by a 20 An absence of RPM drop may be an indication of faulty
second cool down period. This cycle can be repeated grounding of one side of the ignition system or should
two additional times, followed by a ten minute cool be cause for suspicion that the magneto timing is set in
down period before resuming cranking. After cool advance of the setting specified.
down, crank the starter again, three cycles of 10
seconds followed by 20 seconds of cool down. If the
engine still fails to start, an investigation to determine
the cause should be initiated.
LEANING FOR GROUND OPERATIONS

For all ground operations, after starting the engine and
when the engine is running smoothly:
1. Set the throttle to 1200 RPM.

2. Lean the mixture for maximum RPM.
3. Set the throttle to an RPM appropriate for ground
operations (800 to 1000 RPM recommended)
NOTE: If ground operation will be required after the

BEFORE TAKEOFF checklist is completed, lean the mixture ALTERNATOR CHECK
again (as described above) until ready for the TAKEOFF Prior to flights where verification of proper alternator
checklist. and alternator control unit operation is essential (such
as night or instrument flights), a positive verification
TAXIING can be made by loading the electrical system momen-
When taxiing, it is important that speed and use of tarily (3 to 5 seconds) with the landing light or by
brakes be held to a minimum and that all controls be operating the wing flaps during the engine runup (1800
utilized to maintain directional control and balance. RPM). The ammeter will remain within a needle width
Taxiing over loose gravel or cinders should be done at of its initial reading if the alternator and alternator
low engine speed to avoid abrasion and stone damage control unit are operating properly.
to the propeller tips.
LANDING LIGHTS
BEFORE TAKEOFF If landing lights are to be used to enhance the visibility
WARM UP of the airplane in the traffic pattern or enroute, it is
If the engine idles (approximately 600 RPM) and recommended that only the taxi light be used. This will
accelerates smoothly, the airplane is ready for takeoff. extend the service life of the landing light appreciably.

41
PROCEDURES EXPLAINED
TAKEOFF a short field, 20° wing flaps and an obstacle clearance

POWER CHECK speed of 60 KIAS should be used.
It is important to check full throttle engine operation Soft or rough field takeoffs are performed with 20°
early in the takeoff roll. Any sign of rough engine flaps by lifting the airplane off the ground as soon as
operation or sluggish engine acceleration is good cause practical in a slightly tail low attitude. If no obstacles
for discontinuing the takeoff. If this occurs, you are are ahead, the airplane should be leveled off imme-
justified in making a thorough full throttle static run-up diately to accelerate to a higher climb speed. When
before another takeoff is attempted. The engine should departing a soft field with an aft C.G. loading, the
run smoothly and turn approximately 2350 - 2400 RPM. elevator trim control should be adjusted towards the
Full throttle run-ups over loose gravel are especially nose down direction to give comfortable control wheel
harmful to propeller tips. When takeoffs must be made forces during the initial climb.
over a gravel surface, advance the throttle slowly. This
allows the airplane to start rolling before high RPM is CROSSWIND TAKEOFF
developed, and the gravel will be blown behind the Takeoffs under strong crosswind conditions normally are
propeller rather than pulled into it. performed with the minimum flap setting necessary for
Prior to takeoff from fields above 5000 feet pressure the field length, to minimize the drift angle immediately
elevation, the mixture should be leaned to give maximum after takeoff. With the ailerons partially deflected into
RPM at full throttle, with the airplane not moving. This the wind, the airplane is accelerated to a speed slightly
mixture setting should provide a fuel flow that closely higher than normal, then the elevator control is used to
matches that shown on the Maximum Power Fuel Flow quickly, but carefully, lift the airplane off the ground and
placard. After full throttle is applied, adjust the throttle to prevent possible settling back to the runway while
friction lock clockwise to prevent the throttle from drifting. When clear of the ground, make a coordinated
moving back from a maximum power position. Similar turn into the wind to correct for drift.
friction lock adjustments should be made as required in
other flight conditions to hold the throttle setting. ENROUTE CLIMB
Normal enroute climbs are performed with flaps up, at
WING FLAP SETTINGS 23 in.hg. manifold pressure or full throttle, whichever is
Normal takeoffs use wing flaps UP - 20° (10° preferred). less, 2400 RPM, and 85 to 95 KIAS for the best combina-
Using 20° wing flaps reduces the ground roll and total tion of performance, visibility, engine cooling, economy
distance over an obstacle by approximately 20 percent. and passenger comfort (due to lower noise level). The
Flap deflections greater than 20° are not approved for mixture should be full rich during climb at altitudes up
takeoff. If 20° wing flaps are used for takeoff, the flaps to 5000 feet pressure altitude.
should stay at 20° until all obstacles are cleared and If it is necessary to climb more rapidly to clear moun-
a safe flap retraction speed of 70 KIAS is reached. For tains or reach favorable winds at higher altitudes, the

best rate of climb speed should be used with MCP. This complete any flight.
speed is 80 KIAS at sea level, decreasing to 74 KIAS at The Cruise Performance Table shows the true
10,000 feet. For maximum power climb use full throttle airspeed and nautical miles per gallon during cruise for
and 2400 RPM with the mixture set in accordance with various altitudes and percent powers, and is based on
the Maximum Power Fuel Flow placard. standard conditions and zero wind. This table should
If an obstruction dictates the use of a steep climb be used as a guide, along with the available winds aloft
angle, the best angle of climb speed should be used information, to determine the most favorable altitude
with flaps up and maximum power. This speed is 64 and power setting for a given trip. The selection of
KIAS at sea level, increasing to 68 KIAS at 20,000 feet. cruise altitude on the basis of the most favorable
This type of climb should be of the minimum dura- wind conditions and the use of low power settings are
tion and engine temperatures should be carefully significant factors that should be considered on every
monitored due to the low climb speed. For maximum trip to reduce fuel consumption.
power, the mixture should be set in accordance with In addition to power settings, proper leaning
the Maximum Power Fuel Flow placard. The fuel flow techniques also contribute to greater range and are
values on the placard are minimum fuel flows. figured into cruise performance tables. To achieve the
recommended lean mixture fuel consumption figures
MAXIMUM POWER FUEL FLOW shown in the Performance Section, the mixture should
Altitude Fuel Flow be leaned using the Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT)
S.L. 20.5 GPH indicator as noted.
2000 Feet 19.0 GPH For reduced noise levels, it is desirable to select the
4000 Feet 17.5 GPH lowest RPM in the green arc range for a given percent
6000 Feet 16.5 GPH power that will provide smooth engine operation. The
8000 Feet 15.5 GPH cowl flaps should be opened, if necessary, to maintain
10,000 Feet 14.5 GPH the cylinder head temperature at approximately two-
12,000 Feet 13.5 GPH thirds of the normal operating range (green band).
The Cruise Performance charts provide the pilot with
CRUISE cruise performance at maximum gross weight. When
Normal cruise is performed between 55% and 80% of normal cruise is performed at reduced weights there
the rated MCP. However, any power setting within the is an increase in true airspeed. During normal cruise
green arc ranges on the manifold pressure indicator at power settings between 55% and 80%, the true
and tachometer may be used. The power setting airspeed will increase approximately 1 knot for every
and corresponding fuel consumption for various 150 pounds below maximum gross weight. During
altitudes can be determined by using the data in the normal cruise at power settings below 70%, the true
Performance Section. airspeed will increase approximately 1 knot for every
125 pounds below maximum gross weight.
NOTE Cruise flight should use 75% power as much as The fuel injection system employed on this engine is
possible until the engine has operated for a total of 50 considered to be non-icing. In the event that unusual
hours or oil consumption has stabilized. Operation at this conditions cause the intake air filter to become clogged
higher power will ensure proper seating of the piston rings or iced over, an alternate intake air door opens auto-
and is applicable to new engines, and engines in service matically for the most efficient use of either normal or
following cylinder replacement or top overhaul of one or alternate air, depending on the amount of filter block-
more cylinders. age. Due to the lower intake pressure available through
the alternate air door or a partially blocked filter,
The Cruise Performance charts provide the pilot manifold pressure can decrease from a cruise power
with flight planning information for the Model 182T in setting. This manifold pressure should be recovered by
still air with speed fairings installed. Power, altitude, increasing the throttle setting or setting a higher RPM
and winds determine the time and fuel needed to as necessary to maintain desiredpower.
CRUISE PERFORMANCE TABLE

80% POWER 75% POWER 65% POWER 55% POWER
ALTITUDE
KTAS NMPG KTAS NMPG KTAS NMPG KTAS NMPG
Sea Level 141 10.2 138 10.6 129 11.3 118 11.8
4,000 feet 144 10.4 140 10.8 131 11.4 120 12.0
8,000 feet --- --- 142 11.0 133 11.6 122 12.1
10,000 feet --- --- --- --- 135 11.8 124 12.3

43
PROCEDURES EXPLAINED
LEANING USING THE EGT INDICATOR STALLS

At or below 80% power in level cruise flight, the The stall characteristics are conventional and aural
exhaust gas temperature (EGT) indicator is used to lean warning is provided by a stall warning horn which
the fuel-air mixture for best performance or economy. sounds between 5 and 10 KIAS above the stall in all
The Cruise Performance charts are based on the EGT configurations.
to adjust the mixture to Recommended Lean per EGT
Table below: LANDING
Normal landing approaches can be made with power
MIXTURE DESCRIPTION EGT on or power off with any flap setting within the flap
Recommended Lean 50° Rich of Peak EGT airspeed limits. Surface winds and air turbulence are
Best Economy Peak EGT usually the primary factors in determining the most
Best Power 125° Rich of Peak EGT comfortable approach speeds. Steep slips with flap set-
tings greater than 20° can cause a slight tendency for
Operation at peak EGT provides the best fuel the elevator to oscillate under certain combinations of
economy. This results in approximately 4% greater airspeed, sideslip angle, and center of gravity loadings.
range than shown in this POH accompanied by approxi- Landing at slower speeds will result in shorter land-
mately a 3 knot decrease in speed. Under some condi- ing distances and minimum wear to tires and brakes.
tions, engine roughness may occur while operating at Power must be at idle as the main wheels touch the
peak EGT. In this case, operate at the recommended ground. The main wheels must touch the ground
lean mixture. before the nosewheel. The nosewheel must be lowered
to the runway carefully after the speed has diminished
NOTE: Any change in altitude or power setting will require to avoid unnecessary nose gear loads. This procedure
a change in the recommended lean mixture setting and a is very important for rough or soft field landings.
recheck of the EGT setting. The EGT indicators take several
seconds, after a mixture adjustment, to start to show EGT SHORT FIELD LANDING
changes. Finding peak EGT and adjusting the mixture to the For a short field landing in smooth air conditions,
applicable setting should take approximately one minute approach at 60 KIAS with FULL flaps using enough
when the adjustments are made carefully and accurately. power to control the glide path. Slightly higher
Adjusting the mixture quickly is not recommended. approach speeds should be used in turbulent air
conditions. After all approach obstacles are cleared,
FUEL SAVINGS PROCEDURES FOR smoothly reduce power and hold the approach speed
FLIGHT TRAINING OPERATIONS by lowering the nose of the airplane. The main wheels
For best fuel economy during normal operations, the must touch the ground before the nosewheel with
following procedures are recommended. power at idle. Immediately after the main wheels
touch the ground, carefully lower the nosewheel and
1. After engine start and for all ground opera- apply heavy braking as required. For maximum brake
tions, set the throttle to 1200 RPM and lean the performance, retract the flaps, hold the control wheel
mixture for maximum RPM. After leaning, set full back, and apply maximum brake pressure without
the throttle to the appropriate RPM for ground skidding the tires.
operations. Leave the mixture at this setting
until beginning the BEFORE TAKEOFF checklist. CROSSWIND LANDING
After the BEFORE TAKEOFF checklist is complete, When landing in a strong crosswind, use the minimum
lean the mixture again as described above, flap setting required for the field length. If flap settings
until ready to perform the TAKEOFF checklist. greater than 20° are used in sideslips with full rudder
2. Adjust the mixture for placarded deflection, some elevator oscillation may be felt at
fuel flows during MCP climbs. normal approach speeds. However, this does not affect
3. Lean the mixture at any altitude for control of the airplane. Although the crab or combina-
RECOMMENDED LEAN or BEST ECONOMY tion method of drift correction may be used, the wing
fuel flows when using 80% or less power. low method gives the best control. After touchdown,
hold a straight course with the steerable nosewheel,
NOTE Using the above recommended procedures can with aileron deflection as applicable, and occasional
provide fuel savings in excess of 5% when compared to braking if necessary.
typical training operations at full rich mixture. In addition, The maximum allowable crosswind velocity is
the above procedures will minimize spark plug fouling since dependent upon pilot capability as well as airplane
the reduction in fuel consumption results in a proportional limitations. Operation in direct crosswinds of 15 knots
reduction in tetraethyl lead passing through the engine. has been demonstrated.

BALKED LANDING
In a balked landing (go-around) climb, reduce the flap
setting to 20° immediately after full power is applied
and climb at 55 KIAS. Above 5000 feet pressure altitude,
lean the mixture to obtain maximum RPM. After clear-
ing any obstacles, carefully retract the flaps and allow
the airplane to accelerate to normal climb airspeed.
COLD WEATHER OPERATION

When air temperatures are below 20°F (-6°C), the use of
an external preheater and an external power source are
recommended whenever possible to obtain positive
starting and to reduce wear and abuse to the engine
and electrical system. Preheat will thaw the oil trapped
in the oil cooler, which probably will be congealed prior
to starting in extremely cold temperatures.
HOT WEATHER OPERATION

Avoid prolonged engine operation on the ground.

45
PERFORMANCE

P
ERFORMANCE DATA CHARTS ON THE
following pages are presented so that
you may know what to expect from
the airplane under various conditions, and
also, to facilitate the planning of flights in
detail and with reasonable accuracy. The data
in the charts has been computed from actual
flight tests with the airplane and engine in
good condition and approximating average
piloting techniques. It should be noted that
performance information presented in the
range and endurance profile charts allows for
45 minutes reserve fuel at the specified power
setting. Fuel flow data for cruise is based on
the recommended lean mixture setting at all
altitudes. Some indeterminate variables such
as mixture leaning technique, fuel metering
characteristics, engine and propeller condition,
and air turbulence may account for variations
of 10% or more in range and endurance.
Therefore, it is important to utilize all available
information to estimate the fuel required
for the particular flight and to flight plan in a
conservative manner.

47
PERFORMANCE
STALL SPEEDS AT 3100 POUNDS SHORT FIELD TAKEOFF DISTANCE

CONDITIONS: Power Off CONDITIONS:
▶▶ Flaps 20°
NOTES ▶▶ 2400 RPM, Full Throttle and Mixture
1. Altitude loss during a stall recovery set Prior to Brake Release
may be as much as 250 feet. ▶▶ Cowl Flaps OPEN
2. KIAS values are approximate. ▶▶ Paved, level, dry runway
▶▶ Zero Wind
MOST REARWARD CENTER OF GRAVITY Lift Off 49 KIAS
Flap Setting Angle of Bank Speed at 50 ft: 58 KIAS
0º 30º 45º 60º
UP 50 54 59 71 NOTES:
20º 43 46 51 61 1. Short field technique as specified.
FULL 40 43 48 57 2. Prior to takeoff, the mixture should be
leaned to the Maximum Power Fuel Flow
MOST FORWARD CENTER OF GRAVITY schedule in a full throttle, static run-up.
Flap Setting Angle of Bank 3. Decrease distances 10% for each 9 knots head-
0º 30º 45º 60º wind. For operation with tail winds up to 10 knots,
UP 51 55 61 72 increase distances by 10% for each 2 knots.
20º 44 47 52 62 4. Where distance value have been deleted,
FULLº 41 44 49 58 climb performance after lift-off is less
than 150 FPM at takeoff speed.
NOTE: Maximum demonstrated crosswind component is 5. • For operation on dry, grass runway, increase
15 KTS (not a limitation). distances by 15% of the “ground roll” figure.
6. Where distance value has been deleted,
climb performance is minimal.
SHORT FIELD TAKEOFF DISTANCE AT 3100 POUNDS


49
PERFORMANCE
MAXIMUM RATE-OF-CLIMB AT 3100 POUNDS

CONDITIONS:
▶▶ Flaps UP
▶▶ 2400 RPM, Full Throttle and mixture set to Maximum Power Fuel Flow Placard.
▶▶ Cowl Flaps OPEN

TIME, FUEL AND DISTANCE TO CLIMB AT 3100 POUNDS
CONDITIONS:
▶▶ Flaps UP
▶▶ 2400 RPM, Full Throttle and mixture set to Maximum Power Fuel Flow Placard.
▶▶ Cowl Flaps OPEN
▶▶ Standard Temperature
NOTES:
1. Add 1.7 gallons of fuel for engine start, taxi and takeoff allowance.
2. Increase time, fuel and distance by 10% for each 10°C above standard temperature.
3. Distances shown are based on zero wind.
MAXIMUM RATE OF CLIMB
NORMAL CLIMB - 90 KIAS

51
PERFORMANCE
CRUISE PERFORMANCE
CONDITIONS:
▶▶ 3100 Pounds
▶▶ Recommended Lean Mixture
▶▶ Cowl Flaps CLOSED
PRESSURE ALTITUDE SEA LEVEL

NOTE:
1. Maximum cruise power is 80% MCP. Power set-
tings above 80% are listed to aid interpolation.
2. For best economy, operate at peak EGT.
PRESSURE ALTITUDE 2000 FEET

53
PERFORMANCE


55
PERFORMANCE
PRESSURE ALTITUDE 10,000 FEET


57
PERFORMANCE
RANGE PROFILE
CONDITIONS:
▶▶ 3100 Pounds
▶▶ Normal Climb to 10,000 feet then, Maximum Performance Climb, with Placard Mixture
▶▶ Recommended Lean Mixture for CruiseStandard Temperature
▶▶ Zero Wind
NOTES: This chart allows for the fuel used for engine start, taxi, takeoff and climb, and the
distance during a normal climb up to 10,000 feet and maximum climb above 10,000 feet.
45 MINUTES RESERVE 45 MINUTES RESERVE

64 GALLONS USABLE FUEL 87 GALLONS USABLE FUEL

ENDURANCE PROFILE
CONDITIONS:
▶▶ 3100 Pounds
▶▶ Normal Climb to 10,000 feet then, Maximum Performance Climb, with Placard Mixture
▶▶ Recommended Lean Mixture for CruiseStandard Temperature
▶▶ Zero Wind
NOTES: This chart allows for the fuel used for engine start, taxi, takeoff and climb, and the
distance during a normal climb up to 10,000 feet and maximum climb above 10,000 feet.
45 MINUTES RESERVE 45 MINUTES RESERVE

64 GALLONS USABLE FUEL 87 GALLONS USABLE FUEL

59
PERFORMANCE
SHORT FIELD LANDING DISTANCE AT 2950 POUNDS

CONDITIONS:
▶▶ Flaps FULL
▶▶ Zero Wind
▶▶ Power IDLE
▶▶ Paved, Level, Dry Runway
▶▶ Maximum Braking
▶▶ Speed at 50 ft: 60 KIAS
NOTE
1. Short field technique as specified in Section 4.
2. Decrease distances 10% for each 9 knots headwind. For operation with
tail winds up to 10 knots, increase distances by 10% for each 2 knots.
3. For operation on dry grass runway, increase dis-
tances by 45% of the “ground roll” figure.
4. If landing with flaps up, increase the approach speed by
10 KIAS and allow for 40% longer distances.

61
EMERGENCY
PROCEDURES

T
HIS SECTION PROVIDES CHECKLIST AND EXPLAINED PROCEDURES
for coping with emergencies that may occur. Emergencies caused
by airplane or engine malfunctions are extremely rare if proper
preflight inspections and maintenance are practiced. En-route weather
emergencies can be minimized or eliminated by careful flight planning
and good judgment when unexpected weather is encountered. However,
should an emergency arise, the basic guidelines described in this section
should be considered and applied as necessary to correct the problem.
In any emergency situation, the most important task is continued control
of the airplane and maneuver to execute a successful landing.
AIRSPEEDS FOR EMERGENCY

OPERATION
Engine Failure After Takeoff
Wing Flaps Up: 75 KIAS
Wing Flaps Down: 70 KIAS
Maneuvering Speed
3100 lbs: 110 KIAS
2600 lbs: 101 KIAS
2100 lbs: 91 KIAS
Maximum Glide
3100 lbs: 76 KIAS
2600 lbs: 70 KIAS
2100 lbs: 58 KIAS
Precautionary Landing With Engine Power: 70 KIAS

Wing Flaps Up: 75 KIAS
Wing Flaps Down: 70 KIAS

63
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
ENGINE FAILURE DURING ENGINE FAILURE DURING

TAKEOFF ROLL FLIGHT (RESTART
1. Throttle — IDLE. PROCEDURES)
2. Brakes—APPLY. 1. Airspeed —76 KIAS (best glide speed)
3. Wing Flaps —RETRACT. 2. Fuel Selector Valve —BOTH.
4. Mixture —IDLE CUT OFF (pull full out). 3. Fuel Pump Switch —ON.
5. Magnetos Switch —OFF. 4. Mixture —RICH (if restart
6. Master Switch (ALT and BAT) —OFF. has not occurred).
5. Magnetos Switch —BOTH (or
START if propeller is stopped).
NOTE: If the propeller is windmilling, the engine
will restart automatically within a few seconds. If
the propeller has stopped (possible at low speeds),
turn the ignition switch to START, advance the
ENGINE FAILURE throttle slowly from idle and lean the mixture
from full rich as required for smooth operation.
IMMEDIATELY
6. Fuel Pump Switch —OFF.
AFTER TAKEOFF
NOTE: If the fuel flow indicator immediately
1. Airspeed —75 KIAS (flaps drops to zero (indicating an engine-driven
UP)- 70 KIAS (flaps DOWN). fuel pump failure), return the Auxiliary
2. Mixture —IDLE CUT OFF (pull full out). Fuel Pump Switch to the ON position.
3. FUEL SELECTOR Valve —PUSH
DOWN and ROTATE to OFF
4. Magnetos Switch —OFF.
5. Wing Flaps —AS REQUIRED
(FULL recommended).
7. Cabin Door —UNLATCH.
8. Land —STRAIGHT AHEAD.
RED TYPE = commit to memory.

EMERGENCY LANDING PRECAUTIONARY
WITHOUT ENGINE POWER LANDING WITH
1. Passenger Seat Backs —MOST ENGINE POWER
UPRIGHT POSITION.
1. Passenger Seat Backs —MOST
2. Seats and Seat Belts —SECURE. UPRIGHT POSITION.
3. Airspeed —75 KIAS - Flaps UP 2. Seats and Seat Belts —SECURE.
70 KIAS - Flaps 10° - FULL
3. Airspeed —75 KIAS.
4. Mixture —IDLE CUT OFF (pull full out).
4. Wing Flaps —20°.
5. FUEL SELECTOR Valve —PUSH
5. Selected Field —FLY OVER, noting
DOWN and ROTATE to OFF
terrain and obstructions.
6. magnetos Switch —OFF.
6. Avionics Master Switch and
7. Wing Flaps —AS REQUIRED Electrical Switches —OFF.
(FULL recommended).
7. Wing Flaps —FULL (on final approach).
8. Master Switch (ALT and BAT)
8. Airspeed —70 KIAS.
—OFF (when landing is assured).
9. Master Switch (ALT and BAT) —OFF.
9. Doors —UNLATCH PRIOR
TO TOUCHDOWN. 10. Doors —UNLATCH PRIOR
TO TOUCHDOWN.
10. Touchdown —SLIGHTLY TAIL LOW.
11. Touchdown —SLIGHTLY TAIL LOW.
12. Mixture —IDLE CUT OFF (pull full out).
13. Magnetos Switch —OFF.

65
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
FIRE DURING START ENGINE FIRE IN FLIGHT

ON GROUND 1. Mixture —IDLE CUT OFF.
1. Ignition Switch —START, 2. FUEL SELECTOR Valve —PUSH
Continue Cranking to get a start DOWN and ROTATE to OFF
which would suck the flames and 3. Fuel Pump Switch —OFF.
accumulated fuel into the engine. 4. Master Switch (ALT and BAT) —OFF.
If engine starts: 5. Cabin Vents —OPEN (as needed)
6. Cabin Heat and Air —OFF (push full in).
2. Power —1800 RPM for a few minutes.
7. Airspeed —100 KIAS (If fire is not
3. Engine —SHUTDOWN and extinguished, increase glide speed
inspect for damage. to find an airspeed - within airspeed
If engine fails to start: limitations - which will provide
an incombustible mixture).
4. Throttle —FULL OPEN (push full in). 8. Forced Landing —EXECUTE (as
5. Mixture —IDLE CUT OFF (pull full out). described in Emergency Landing
6. MAGNETOS Switch —START Without Engine Power).
(continue cranking)
7. Fuel Selector Valve —OFF
8. Fuel Pump —OFF.
9. MAGNETOS Switch —OFF
10. MASTER Switch (Alt and BAT) —OFF
11. Engine —SECURE
AMMETER SHOWS
12. Parking Brake —RELEASE.
13. Fire Extinguisher —OBTAIN
EXCESSIVE RATE
(have ground attendants OF CHARGE (FULL
obtain if not installed).
SCALE DEFLECTION)
14. Airplane —EVACUATE.
15. Fire —EXTINGUISH using fire 1. Alternator —OFF.
extinguisher, wool blanket, or dirt. 2. Nonessential Electrical
16. Fire Damage —INSPECT, repair damage Equipment —OFF.
or replace damaged components or 3. Flight —TERMINATE as
wiring before conducting another flight. soon as practical.

LOW VOLTAGE VACUUM SYSTEM
ANNUNCIATOR (VOLTS) FAILURE
ILLUMINATES DURING LEFT Vacuum (L VAC) Annunciator or Right
FLIGHT (AMMETER Vacuum (VAC R) Annunciator Illuminates.
INDICATES DISCHARGE) IF VACUUM IS NOT WITHIN NORMAL OPERATING
LIMITS, A FAILURE HAS OCCURRED IN THE VACUUM
NOTE: Illumination of “VOLTS” on the annunciator
SYSTEM AND PARTIAL PANEL PROCEDURES
panel may occur during low RPM conditions with an
MAY BE REQUIRED FOR CONTINUED FLIGHT.
electrical load on the system such as during a low
RPM taxi. Under these conditions, the annunciator
1. Vacuum Gauge —CHECK to ensure
will go out at higher RPM. The master switch need
vacuum within normal operating limits.
not be recycled since an overvoltage condition has
not occurred to deactivate the alternator system.

2. Alternator Circuit Breaker
(ALT FLD) —CHECK IN.
3. Master Switch —OFF (both sides).
4. Master Switch —ON.
5. Low Voltage Annunciator (VOLTS) —
CHECK OFF.
If low voltage annunciator
(VOLTS) illuminates again:
7. Alternator—OFF.
8. Nonessential Radio and
Electrical Equipment —OFF.
9. Flight —TERMINATE as
soon as practical.

67
EMERGENCIES
EXPLAINED

T
HE FOLLOWING AMPLIFIED EMERGENCY PROCEDURES ELABORATE
upon information contained in the Emergency Procedures
Checklists portion of this section. These procedures also include
information not readily adaptable to a checklist format, and material
to which a pilot could not be expected to refer in resolution of a specific
emergency. This information should be reviewed in detail prior to
flying the airplane, as well as reviewed on a regular basis to keep pilot’s
knowledge of procedures fresh.
ENGINE FAILURE FORCED LANDINGS

If an engine failure occurs during the takeoff roll, the If all attempts to restart the engine fail and a forced land-
most important thing to do is stop the airplane on the ing is imminent, select a suitable field and prepare for
remaining runway. Those extra items on the checklist the landing as discussed under the Emergency Landing
will provide added safety after a failure of this type. Without Engine Power checklist. Transmit Mayday
Prompt lowering of the nose to maintain airspeed and message on 121.5 MHz giving location and intentions
establish a glide attitude is the first response to an and squawk 7700. Before attempting an “off airport”
engine failure after takeoff. In most cases, the landing landing with engine power available, one should fly over
should be planned straight ahead with only small the landing area at a safe but low altitude to inspect the
changes in direction to avoid obstructions. Altitude terrain for obstructions and surface conditions, proceed-
and airspeed are seldom sufficient to execute a 180° ing as discussed under the Precautionary Landing With
gliding turn necessary to return to the runway. The Engine Power checklist. Prepare for ditching by securing
checklist procedures assume that adequate time or jettisoning heavy objects located in the baggage area
exists to secure the fuel and ignition systems prior and collect folded coats for protection of occupants’ face
to touchdown. After an engine failure in flight, the at touchdown. Transmit Mayday message on 121.5 MHz
most important course of action is to continue flying giving location and intentions and squawk 7700. Avoid a
the airplane. Best glide speed should be established landing flare because of difficulty in judging height over
as quickly as possible. While gliding toward a suitable a water surface. The checklist assumes the availability of
landing area, an effort should be made to identify the power to make a precautionary water landing. If power is
cause of the failure. If time permits, an engine restart not available, use of the airspeeds noted with minimum
should be attempted as shown in the checklist. If the flap extension will provide a more favorable attitude for
engine cannot be restarted, a forced landing without a power off ditching. In a forced landing situation, do not
power must be completed. set the AVIONICS MASTER switch or the airplane MASTER

69
EMERGENCIES EXPLAINED
switch to the OFF position until a landing is assured. NOTE: If disorientation precludes a visual determination of
When these switches are in the OFF position, the airplane the direction of rotation, the symbolic airplane in the turn
electrical systems are de-energized. Before performing coordinator may be referred to for this information.
a forced landing, especially in remote and mountainous
areas, activate the ELT transmitter by positioning the ROUGH ENGINE OPERATION
cockpit-mounted switch to the ON position. OR LOSS OF POWER
SPARK PLUG FOULING
LANDING WITHOUT ELEVATOR CONTROL A slight engine roughness in flight may be caused by
Trim for horizontal flight with an airspeed of approxi- one or more spark plugs becoming fouled by carbon
mately 80 KIAS by using throttle and elevator trim or lead deposits. This may be verified by turning the
controls. Then do not change the elevator trim control ignition switch momentarily from BOTH to either L or
setting; control the glide angle by adjusting power R position. An obvious power loss in single ignition
exclusively. At flare out, the nose down moment result- operation is evidence of spark plug or magneto
ing from power reduction is an adverse factor and the trouble. Assuming that spark plugs are the more
airplane may land on the nose wheel. Consequently, likely cause, lean the mixture to the recommended
at flare, the elevator trim control should be adjusted lean setting for cruising flight. If the problem does
toward the full nose up position and the power adjusted not clear up in several minutes, determine if a richer
so that the airplane will rotate to the horizontal attitude mixture setting will produce smoother operation. If
for touchdown. Close the throttle at touchdown. not, proceed to the nearest airport for repairs using
the BOTH position of the ignition switch unless
FIRES extreme roughness dictates the use of a single igni-
Although engine fires are extremely rare in flight, the tion position.
steps of the appropriate checklist should be followed if
one is encountered. After completion of this procedure, MAGNETO MALFUNCTION
execute a forced landing. Do not attempt to restart A sudden engine roughness or misfiring is usually
the engine. The initial indication of an electrical fire is evidence of magneto problems. Switching from BOTH
usually the odor of burning insulation. The checklist for to either L or R ignition switch position will identify
this problem should result in elimination of the fire. which magneto is malfunctioning. Select different
power settings and enrichen the mixture to determine
TOTAL VACUUM SYSTEM FAILURE if continued operation on BOTH magnetos is possible.
If both the vacuum pumps fail in flight, the directional If not, switch to the good magneto and proceed to the
indicator and attitude indicator will be disabled, and nearest airport for repairs.
the pilot will have to rely on the turn coordinator
if he inadvertently flies into clouds. If an autopilot ENGINE-DRIVEN FUEL PUMP FAILURE
is installed, it too may be affected. The following Failure of the engine-driven fuel pump will result in
instructions assume that only the electrically powered an immediate loss of engine power, similar to fuel
turn coordinator is operative, and that the pilot is not exhaustion or starvation, but while operating from a
completely proficient in instrument flying. fuel tank containing adequate fuel. A sudden reduc-
tion in indicated fuel flow will occur just before loss
SPINS of engine power. If the engine-driven fuel pump fails,
NEVER INTENTIONALLY SPIN an aircraft that is not immediately set the auxiliary fuel pump switch (FUEL
designed and built to be spun (aerobatic aircraft). PUMP) to the ON position to restore engine power. The
Should an inadvertent spin occur, the following flight should be terminated as soon as practical and
recovery procedure should be used: the engine-driven fuel pump repaired.
1. Retard throttle to idle position. LOW OIL PRESSURE

2. Place ailerons in neutral position. If the low oil pressure annunciator (OIL PRESS)
3. Apply and hold full rudder oppo- illuminates and oil temperature remains normal,
site to the direction of rotation. the oil pressure sending unit or relief valve may
4. Just after the rudder reaches the stop, be malfunctioning. Land at the nearest airport to
move the control wheel briskly for- inspect the source of trouble. If a total loss of oil
ward far enoughto break the stall. pressure is accompanied by a rise in oil temperature,
5. Hold these control inputs until rotation there is good reason to suspect an engine failure
stops. Premature relaxation of the con- is imminent. Reduce engine power immediately
trol inputs may extend the recovery. and select a suitable forced landing field. Use only
6. As rotation stops, neutralize rudder, and make the minimum power required to reach the desired
a smooth recovery from the resulting dive. touchdown spot.

ELECTRICAL POWER SUPPLY malfunctions, as evidenced by an excessive rate of
SYSTEM MALFUNCTIONS charge shown on the ammeter, the alternator should
Malfunctions in the electrical power supply system can be turned off, nonessential electrical equipment turned
be detected by periodic monitoring of the ammeter off and the flight terminated as soon as practical.
and low voltage annunciator (VOLTS); however, the
cause of these malfunctions is usually difficult to deter- INSUFFICIENT RATE OF CHARGE
mine. A broken alternator drive belt or wiring is most The low voltage annunciator (VOLTS) may come on and
likely the cause of alternator failures, although other ammeter discharge indications may occur during low
factors could cause the problem. A defective alternator RPM conditions with an electrical load on the system,
control unit can also cause malfunctions. Problems such as during a low RPM taxi. Under these conditions,
of this nature constitute an electrical emergency and the annuciator will go off at higher RPM.
should be dealt with immediately. Electrical power If the overvoltage sensor should shut down the
malfunctions usually fall into two categories: excessive alternator and trip the alternator circuit breaker (ALT
rate of charge and insufficient rate of charge. The fol- FLD), or if the alternator output is low, a discharge rate
lowing paragraphs describe the recommended remedy will be shown on the ammeter followed by illumination
for each situation. of the low voltage annunciator (VOLTS). Since this may
be a “nuisance” trip out, an attempt should be made
EXCESSIVE RATE OF CHARGE to reactivate the alternator system. To reactivate, set
After engine starting and heavy electrical usage at the avionics master switch to the OFF position, check
low engine speeds (such as extended taxiing) the that the alternator circuit breaker (ALT FLD) is in, then
battery condition will be low enough to accept above set both sides of the master switch to the OFF position
normal charging during the initial part of a flight. and then to the ON position. If the problem no longer
However, after thirty minutes of cruising flight, the exists, normal alternator charging will resume and
ammeter should be indicating less than two needle the low voltage annunciator (VOLTS) will go off. The
widths of charging current. If the charging rate were avionics master switch may then be returned to the
to remain above this value on a long flight, the battery ON position. If the annunciator illuminates again,
would overheat and evaporate the electrolyte at an a malfunction is confirmed. In this event, the flight
excessive rate. Electronic components in the electri- should be terminated and/or the current drain on the
cal system can be adversely affected by higher than battery minimized because the battery can supply
normal voltage. The alternator control unit includes an the electrical system for only a limited period of time.
overvoltage sensor which normally will automatically Battery power must be conserved for later operation of
shut down the alternator if the charge voltage reaches the wing flaps and, if the emergency occurs at night, for
approximately 31.5 volts. If the overvoltage sensor possible use of the landing lights during landing.

71
AIRPLANE & SYSTEMS
DESCRIPTION

T
HIS SECTION PROVIDES
description and operation of
the airplane and its systems.
FLIGHT CONTROLS
The airplane’s flight control system consists of conven-
tional aileron, rudder, and elevator control surfaces.
The control surfaces are manually operated through
cables and mechanical linkage using a control wheel
for the ailerons and elevator, and rudder/brake pedals
for the rudder.
TRIM SYSTEM
A manually operated rudder and elevator trim is
provided. The rudder is trimmed through a bungee
connected to the rudder control system and a trim
control wheel mounted on the control pedestal. This
is accomplished by rotating the horizontally mounted
trim control wheel either left or right to the desired trim
position. Rotating the trim wheel to the right will trim
nose-right; conversely, rotating it to the left will trim
nose-left. The elevator is trimmed through the elevator
trim tab by utilizing the vertically mounted trim control
wheel. Forward rotation of the trim wheel will trim
nose-down, conversely, aft rotation will trim nose-up.
INSTRUMENT PANEL
The instrument panel is of all-metal construction,
and is designed in segments to allow related groups
of instruments, switches and controls to be removed
without removing the entire panel. For specific details
concerning the instruments, switches, circuit breakers,
and controls on the instrument panel, refer to related
topics in this section.
COCKPIT FAMILIARIZATION
The center panel contains various avionics equipment
arranged in a vertical rack. This arrangement allows
each component to be removed without having to
access the backside of the panel. Below the panel are
the throttle, mixture, alternate static air and lighting
controls.

73
AIRPLANE & SYSTEMS DESCRIPTION
1. Oil Temperature and Oil 20. Day / Night / Test Switch 40. Propeller Control
Pressure Indicator 21. Audio Control Panel 41. Throttle Control
2. Fuel Quantity Indicators 22. GPS Receiver 42. Rudder Trim
3. Vacuum Gauge / Ammeter 23. Nav / Com Radio #1 43. Cowl Flap Control Lever
4. EGT and CHT Indicator 24. Nav / Com Radio #2 44. Fuel Selector
5. Digital Clock / OAT Indicator 25. ADF Receiver 45. Elevator Trim Control
6. Turn Coordinator 26. Transponder 46. Alternate Static Air Control
7. Airspeed Indicator 27. Autopilot 47. Glareshield and Pedestal
8. Directional Indicator 28. Distance Measuring Dimming Control
9. Attitude Indicator Equipment (DME) 48. Radio Panel Dimming Control
10. Tachometer 29. ELT Remote Switch / Annunciator 49. Avionics Master Switch
11. Vertical Speed Indicator 30. Hour Meter 50. Pitot Heat
12. Altimeter 31. Avionics Circuit Breaker Panel 51. Lights
13. GPS Annunciator / Switch 32. Headset Inputs 52. Auxiliary Fuel Pump Switch
14. ADF Indicator 33. Pilot’s Operating Handbook 53. Master Switch
15. Course Deviation Indicator 2 34. Glove Box 54. Ignition Switch
16. Course Deviation and 35. Cabin Defrost 55. Controls Lock
Glide Slope Indicator 1 36. Cabin Heat 56. Map
17. Annunciator Lights 37. Cabin Air 57. Manifold Pressure / Fuel
18. Upper Panel 38. Flap Switch Lever and Indicator Flow Indicator
19. Callsign Panel 39. Mixture Control

GROUND CONTROL another valve opens on the next stroke, and it ejects
Effective ground control while taxiing is accomplished the burned mixture out the exhaust. During this time,
through nose wheel steering by using the rudder oil below is lubricating those cylinder walls and piston
pedals; left rudder pedal to steer left and right rudder rings keep that oil below and out of the combus-
pedal to steer right. When a rudder pedal is depressed, tion chamber. Well, all the above is how things are
a spring loaded steering bungee (which is connected to supposed to work, but as all things in life, nothing is
the nose gear and to the rudder bars) will turn the nose perfect.
wheel through an arc of approximately 11° each side of
center. By applying either left or right brake, the degree Blue Smoke
of turn may be increased up to 29° each side of center. If your cylinders are worn or damaged, the cylinders
can suck oil up past these rings. This oil is then
WING FLAP SYSTEM present when the chamber combusts, burning it,
The single-slot type wing flaps, are extended or and ejecting it. Two things happen. You will see blue
retracted by positioning the wing flap switch lever on smoke coming out the exhaust and oil sediments will
the instrument panel to the desired flap deflection build inside your combustion chamber, slowly degrad-
position. The switch lever is moved up or down in a ing that cylinder’s ability to properly work.
slotted panel that provides mechanical stops at the
10°, 20° and 30° positions. To change flap setting, the Black Smoke
flap lever is moved to the right to clear mechanical Your engine is a vacuum pump, sucking in an air / fuel
stops at the 10° and 20° positions. A scale and pointer mixture, igniting it, then ejecting the burned remains.
to the left of the flap switch indicates flap travel in However, if you have a bad cylinder, a faulty ignition,
degrees. The wing flap system circuit is protected by fouled plugs, or fuel injection issues, the complete
a 10- ampere circuit breaker, labeled FLAP, on the left burning of the air / fuel mixture can be compromised.
side of the control panel. The result is black smoke (unburned fuel) seen coming
out of the cylinders. If you see black smoke, get the
LANDING GEAR SYSTEM aircraft on the ground and to a maintenance facility to
The landing gear is of the tricycle type, with a steer- find the cause of the problem.
able nose wheel and two main wheels. Wheel fairings
are optional equipment for both the main and nose
wheels. Shock absorption is provided by the tubular
spring steel main landing gear struts and the air/
oil nose gear shock strut. Each main gear wheel is
equipped with a hydraulically actuated disc type brake
on the inboard side of each wheel.
CONTROL LOCKS
A control lock is provided to lock the aileron and
elevator control surfaces to prevent damage to these
systems by wind buffeting while the airplane is parked.
The lock consists of a shaped steel rod and flag. The
flag identifies the control lock and cautions about its
removal before starting the engine. To install the control
lock, align the hole in the top of the pilot’s control wheel
shaft with the hole in the top of the shaft collar on the
instrument panel and insert the rod into the aligned
holes. Installation of the lock will secure the ailerons in
a neutral position and the elevators in a slightly trailing
edge down position. Proper installation of the lock will
place the flag over the ignition switch. In areas where
high or gusty winds occur, a control surface lock should
be installed over the vertical stabilizer and rudder. The
control lock and any other type of locking device should
be removed prior to starting the engine.
MY ENGINE IS SMOKING
Remember, your engine is a piston-powered air pump.
Valves open, a piston sucks in air / fuel, ignites it,

75
ENGINE LUBRICATION SYSTEM continuously splashed on the part is enough, yet other
The engine utilizes a full pressure, wet sump type times actual pressure is required to keep these metal
lubrication system with aviation grade oil as the parts separated. The heavy crankshaft that is respon-
lubricant. The capacity of the engine sump, located sible for twisting the propeller is one part that is in
on the bottom of the engine, is nine quarts with one critical need of this pressure at all times. Running the
additional quart contained in the engine oil filter. Oil is engine without oil pressure for just minutes is enough
drawn from the sump through a filter screen on the end to seize up the engine.
of a pickup tube to the engine driven oil pump. Oil from
the pump passes through a full-flow oil filter, a pres- Oil Temperature
sure relief valve at the rear of the right oil gallery, and a Understanding how temperature affects the viscosity
thermostatically controlled remote oil cooler. Oil from of the lubricant is very important (viscosity is the term
the remote cooler is then circulated to the left oil gal- used to describe the lubricants resistance to flow). As
lery and propeller governor. The engine parts are then your engine oil increases in temperature, it’s viscosity
lubricated by oil from the galleries. After lubricating the decreases, which means that it flows more freely. And
engine, the oil returns to the sump by gravity. The filter vice-versa, as the lubricant cools down, it’s viscosity
adapter in the full-flow filter is equipped with a bypass increases, making it more resistant to flow.
valve which will cause lubricating oil to bypass the Accusim models this effect of oil viscosity, so under-
filter in the event the filter becomes plugged, or the oil standing how it affects you, the pilot, is important.
temperature is extremely cold. When you start your engine on a cold morning, know
An oil dipstick/filler tube is located on the upper that the oil inside your engine has a high viscosity. You
left side of the engine case. The dipstick and oil filler must be respectful of this, as pushing an engine with
tube are accessed through a door located on the left thick, cold oil can cause premature oil system leaks or
center portion of the upper engine cowling. The engine worse.
should not be operated on less than four quarts of oil. If you must start a very cold engine, give it just
To minimize loss of oil through the breather, fill to eight enough throttle to keep it running (not so low that it is
quarts for normal flights of less than three hours. For struggling to run). Hold the idle at the lowest possible
extended flight, fill to nine quarts (dipstick indication RPM and wait for the oil temperature to rise. As it rises,
only). the oil will thin, and you may also notice the RPM actu-
ally increase due to the thinner oil being easier to push
Oil Pressure through all those small areas. So ultimately, as the oil
Oil is the lifeblood of your engine. The countless metal temperature rises the oil pressure drops.
parts in motion depend on constantly having a film of
oil covering and separating them. Theoretically, there IGNITION AND STARTER SYSTEM
should be no metal on metal contact, but pressur- Engine ignition is provided by two engine-driven
ized oil in between. Some times simply having oil magnetos, and two spark plugs in each cylinder. The
right magneto fires the lower right and upper left spark
plugs, and the left magneto fires the lower left and
upper right spark plugs. Normal operation is conducted
with both magnetos due to the more complete burning
of the fuel/air mixture with dual ignition.
Ignition and starter operation is controlled by a
rotary-type switch located on the left switch and
control panel. The switch is labeled clockwise, OFF,
R, L, BOTH, and START. The engine should be oper-
ated on both magnetos (BOTH position) except for
magneto checks. The R and L positions are for checking
purposes and emergency use only. When the switch is
rotated to the spring loaded START position, (with the
master switch in the ON position), the starter contactor
is closed and the starter, now energized, will crank the
engine. When the switch is released, it will automati-
cally return to the BOTH position.
Electric Starter
The C182 Skylane has a direct-drive, electric starter,
which functions very much the same way as the starter
used in automobiles.

Turning the starter on, engages the starter motor to from the cabin by means of the cowl flap control lever
the engine, and it cranks the engine over with electric- located on the right side of the control pedestal and
ity. As the engine is turning over, the pilot is providing is labeled OPEN, COWL FLAPS, CLOSED. Any time the
the engine with all of its fuel and ignition requirements, control lever is repositioned, it must first be moved to
with the expectation the engine starts firing (combust- the right to clear the detent.
ing), and begins to run on its own power (using fuel Before starting the engine, before takeoff and during
and spark). high power operation, the cowl flap control lever
Once the engine reaches a certain speed, the starter should be placed in the OPEN position for maximum
motor automatically disengages and the engine runs free, cooling. This is accomplished by moving the control
lever to the right to clear a detent, then moving the
AIR INDUCTION SYSTEM control lever up to the OPEN position.
The engine air induction system receives ram air While in cruise flight, cowl flaps should be closed
through an intake on the lower front portion of the unless hot day conditions require them to be adjusted
engine cowling. The intake is covered by an air filter to keep the CHT at approximately two-thirds of the
which removes dust and other foreign matter from the normal operating range (green band).
induction air. Airflow passing through the filter enters During extended descents, it may be necessary to
an air box. The air box has a spring-loaded alternate air completely close the cowl flaps by pushing the cowl
door. If the air induction filter should become blocked, flap control lever down to the CLOSED position.
suction created by the engine will open the door and
draw unfiltered air from inside the lower cowl area. An PROPELLER
open alternate air door will result in an approximate The airplane has an all metal, three-bladed, constant
10% power loss at full throttle. After passing through speed, governor regulated propeller. A setting intro-
the air box, induction air enters a fuel/air control unit duced into the governor with the propeller control
under the engine, and is then ducted to the engine establishes the propeller speed, and thus the engine
cylinders through intake manifold tubes. speed to be maintained. The governor then controls
flow of engine oil, boosted to high pressure by the
EXHAUST SYSTEM governing pump, to or from a piston in the propeller
Exhaust gas from each cylinder passes through riser hub. Oil pressure acting on the piston twists the blades
assemblies to a muffler and tailpipes. Outside air toward high pitch (low RPM). When oil pressure to the
is pulled in around shrouds which are constructed piston in the propeller hub is relieved, centrifugal force,
around the outside of the muffler to form heating assisted by an internal spring, twists the blades toward
chambers which supply heat to the cabin. low pitch (high RPM).
A propeller control knob, located on the lower center
COOLING SYSTEM instrument panel, is used to set the propeller and con-
Ram air for engine cooling enters through two intake trol engine RPM as desired for various flight conditions.
openings in the front of the engine cowling. The cool- The control knob is labeled PROPELLER, PUSH INCR
ing air is directed from above the engine, around the RPM. When the control knob is pushed in, blade pitch
cylinders and other areas of the engine by baffling, and will decrease, giving a higher RPM. When the control
then exits through cowl flaps on the lower aft edge of knob is pulled out, the blade pitch increases, thereby
the cowling. The cowl flaps are mechanically operated decreasing RPM.

77
FUEL SYSTEM FUEL INDICATING

The airplane fuel system consists of two vented integral Fuel quantity is measured by two float type fuel
fuel tanks (one tank in each wing), a three-position quantity transmitters (one in each tank) and indicated
selector valve, auxiliary fuel pump, fuel shutoff valve, by an electrically operated fuel quantity indicator on
fuel strainer, engine driven fuel pump, fuel/air control the left side of the instrument panel. The gauges are
unit, fuel distribution valve and fuel injection nozzles. marked in gallons of fuel. An empty tank is indicated by
The fuel system also incorporates a fuel return a red line and the number 0. When an indicator shows
system that returns fuel from the top of the fuel servo an empty tank, approximately 2.5 gallons remain in
back to each integral wing tank. The system includes a each tank as unusable fuel. The indicators should not
flexible fuel hose assembly between the servo and the be relied upon for accurate readings during skids, slips,
firewall. Aluminum fuel lines return the fuel to the top or unusual attitudes.
portion of the selector valve and then to the airplane’s Each fuel tank also incorporates warning circuits
integral tanks. One drain is added to properly drain the which can detect low fuel conditions and erroneous
fuel return system. transmitter messages. Anytime fuel in the tank drops
below approximately 8 gallons (and remains below
FUEL DISTRIBUTION this level for more than 60 seconds), the amber LOW
Fuel flows by gravity from the two wing tanks through FUEL message will flash on the annunciator panel for
the fuel manifold (aft pickup only), and to a four approximately 10 seconds and then remain steady
position selector valve. From the selector valve, fuel amber. The annunciator cannot be turned off by the
flows through the auxiliary fuel pump, the fuel strainer, pilot. If the left tank is low, the message will read L LOW
and to the engine driven fuel pump. A portion of the FUEL. If the right tank is low, the message will read LOW
fuel (approximately 7 GPH) is returned to the wing FUEL R. If both tanks are low, the message will read L
tank currently selected through the use of the fuel LOW FUEL R.
return system. From the engine driven fuel pump, fuel In addition to low fuel annunciation, the warn-
is delivered to the fuel/air control unit on the bottom ing circuitry is designed to report failures with each
of the engine. The fuel/air control unit (fuel servo) transmitter caused by shorts, opens or transmitter
meters fuel flow in proportion to induction air flow. resistance which increases over time. If the circuitry
After passing through the control unit, metered fuel detects any one of these conditions, the fuel level
goes to a fuel distribution valve (flow divider) located indicator needle will go to the OFF position (below the
on the bottom of the engine. From the fuel distribution 0 mark on the fuel indicator), and the amber annuncia-
valve, individual fuel lines are routed to air bleed type tor will illuminate. If the left tank transmitter has failed,
injector nozzles located in the intake chamber of each the message will read L LOW FUEL. If the right tank
cylinder. transmitter has failed, the message will read LOW FUEL
R. If both tanks transmitters have failed, the message
will read L LOW FUEL R.
Fuel flow is measured by use of a fuel transducer
(flowmeter). Normal operating (green arc) range is 0 to
18 gallons-per-hour with a step at 16 gallons-per-hour.
AUXILIARY FUEL PUMP OPERATION

The auxiliary fuel pump is used primarily for priming
the engine before starting. Priming is accomplished
through the fuel injection system. The engine may
be flooded if the auxiliary FUEL PUMP switch is
accidentally placed in the ON position for prolonged
periods, with MASTER Switch ON and mixture rich, with
the engine stopped. The auxiliary fuel pump is also
used for vapor suppression in hot weather. Normally,
momentary use will be sufficient for vapor suppres-
sion; however, continuous operation is permissible if
required. Turning on the auxiliary fuel pump with a
normally operating engine driven fuel pump will result
in only a very minor enrichment of the mixture.
It is not necessary to operate the auxiliary fuel pump
during normal takeoff and landing, since gravity and
the engine driven fuel pump will supply adequate
fuel flow. In the event of failure of the engine driven

overboard vents protrude from the bottom surface of
the wings behind the wing struts, slightly below the
upper attach points of the struts. The fuel filler caps are
vacuum vented; the fuel filler cap vents will open and
allow air to enter the fuel tanks in case the overboard
vents become blocked.
REDUCED TANK CAPACITY

The airplane may be serviced to a reduced capacity to
permit heavier cabin loadings. This is accomplished
by filling each tank to the bottom edge of the fuel
filler indicator tab, thus giving a reduced fuel load of
32.0 gallons usable in each tank or to the line of holes
located inside the filler indicator tab, thus giving a
reduced fuel load of 37.0 gallons usable in each tank.
FUEL DRAIN VALVES

The fuel system is equipped with drain valves to pro-
vide a means for the examination of fuel in the system
for contamination and grade. The system should be
examined before each flight and after each refueling,
fuel pump, use of the auxiliary fuel pump will provide by using the sampler cup provided to drain fuel from
sufficient fuel to maintain flight at maximum continu- each wing tank sump and the fuel strainer sump. If any
ous power. Under hot day, high altitude conditions, or evidence of fuel contamination is found, it must be
conditions during a climb that are conducive to fuel eliminated in accordance with the Preflight Inspection
vapor formation, it may be necessary to utilize the checklist. If takeoff weight limitations for the next
auxiliary fuel pump to attain or stabilize the fuel flow flight permit, the fuel tanks should be filled after each
required for the type of climb being performed. In this flight to prevent condensation.
case, turn the auxiliary fuel pump on, and adjust the
mixture to the desired fuel flow. If fluctuating fuel flow Engine Priming
(greater than 1 GPH) is observed during climb or cruise The C182 Skylane isn’t fitted with a dedicated priming
at high altitudes on hot days, place the auxiliary fuel pump. Instead, to prime the engine, you use the fuel
pump switch in the ON position to clear the fuel system pump and the mixture control to add sufficient fuel
of vapor. The auxiliary fuel pump may be operated into the combustion chamber prior to engine start.
continuously in cruise. This is done by completing the following actions.
FUEL RETURN SYSTEM ▶▶ Auxilliary Fuel Pump – ON.

A fuel return system was incorporated to improve ▶▶ Mixture -- SET to FULL RICH (full forward) until
engine operation during extended idle operation in stable fuel flow is indicated (usually 3 to 5 sec-
hot weather environments. The major components of onds), then set to IDLE CUTOFF (full aft) position.
the system include an orifice fitting located in the top ▶▶ Auxiliary Fuel Pump – OFF.
of the fuel servo, a dual stack fuel selector and a drain ▶▶ If after these steps have been carried out, the
valve assembly. The system is designed to return fuel/ engine continues to fail to start, the Auxilliary
vapor back to the main fuel tanks at approximately Fuel Pump can be used to assist startup.
7 GPH. The dual stack fuel selector ensures that fuel/
vapor returns only to the fuel tank that is selected as BRAKE SYSTEM
the feed tank. For example, if the fuel selector is posi- The airplane has a single-disc, hydraulically actuated
tioned to use fuel from the left fuel tank, the fuel return brake on each main landing gear wheel. Each brake
system is returning fuel/vapor to the left fuel tank only. is connected, by a hydraulic line, to a master cylinder
attached to each of the pilot’s rudder pedals. The
FUEL VENTING brakes are operated by applying pressure to the top
Fuel system venting is essential to system operation. of either the left (pilot’s) or right (copilot’s) set of
Complete blockage of the fuel venting system will rudder pedals, which are interconnected. When the
result in decreasing fuel flow and eventual engine stop- airplane is parked, both main wheel brakes may be
page. The fuel venting system consists of an intercon- set by utilizing the parking brake which is operated
necting vent line between the fuel tanks and check by a handle under the left side of the instrument
valve equipped overboard vents in each fuel tank. The panel. To apply the parking brake, set the brakes with

79
the rudder pedals, pull the handle aft, and rotate it pressure down a large pipe, but each putting out the
90° down. same amount of water (watts).
For maximum brake life, keep the brake system If you take a huge draw, for example running an
properly maintained, and minimize brake usage during electric engine starter, voltage will plummet as the bat-
taxi operations and landings. tery struggles to supply this current. Your Ammeter will
With Accu-Sim, we increase the likelihood of hearing show the current draw. However, play with your lights,
brake noise and squeals as the breaks age. Hearing pitot heat, etc. and watch how these little changes
the occasional squeal is normal, but if your breaks affect these systems. Remember, your electrical system
start making noise regularly, bring the plane into the has a battery and an engine driven electrical generator.
maintenance hangar for a check. The battery puts out about 24 volts, while the genera-
tor puts out a little more (about 28 volts). This allows
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM AND BATTERY your generator to not only drive all of the systems,
Accu-Sim installs an authentic period battery into a but charge the battery at the same time. Remember,
feature-rich electrical system, thanks to close consulta- your generator is powered by the engine speed, and
tion with our own on-staff electrical engineer and high it does not reach it’s full capacity until about 1,500
time pilots. Batteries suffer from reduced capacity as they RPM. Watch your meters, and you will see and enjoy a
age, have a limited output (34 amp hours), can overheat genuine electrical system in action.
if you demand too much from them, and can even load In addition, weather affects a battery’s performance.
up your entire system if you have a brand new, but dead Fortunately, you can always visit your maintenance
battery on-line. (ever try to jump start a car with a dead hangar for a quick charge or replacement. If you use
battery and nothing happens? You have to disconnect your battery wisely and correctly, it will last a long time.
the dead battery and try again, since the dead battery is
stealing all the electricity). The physical laws governing ELECTRICAL SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
electricity are inexorable as those which govern running The airplane is equipped with a 28-volt direct current
water. Our latest and most sophisticated version of (DC) electrical system. A belt-driven 60 ampere or
Accu-Sim accurately replicates those physical laws and optional 95 ampere alternator powers the system. A
permits you to see the electrical system at work, via the 24-volt main storage battery is located in the tailcone
ammeter on your electrical panel and through sounds of the airplane. The alternator and main battery are
and behaviour of the various electrically driven systems. controlled through the MASTER switch found near the
top of the pilot’s switch panel.
Volts, amps, watts, what does this all mean? Power is supplied to most electrical circuits through
Without getting too technical, the pilot in command two primary buses (ELECTRICAL BUS 1 and ELECTRICAL
must understand the basics of what is happening in BUS 2), with an essential bus and a crossfeed bus
the aircraft’s electrical system and components. Volts connected between the two primary buses to support
X Amps = watts. If we use a water hose as an anal- essential equipment.
ogy, volts would be the water pressure, amps would The system is equipped with a secondary or standby
be the hose width, and watts would be the amount battery located
/ rate of water coming out the end. You could have, between the firewall and the instrument panel. The
for example, a 120 volt, 1 amp light bulb would be STBY BATT switch controls power to or from the standby
the same brightness as a 12 volt, 10 amp bulb. The battery. The standby battery is available to supply
high voltage system is sending high pressure down a power to the essential bus in the event that alternator
small pipe, and the low voltage system is sending low and main battery power sources have both failed.

The primary buses are supplied with power CAUTION: PRIOR TO TURNING THE MASTER SWITCH ON
whenever the MASTER switch is turned on, and are OR OFF, STARTING THE ENGINE OR APPLYING AN EXTERNAL
not affected by starter or external power usage. Each POWER SOURCE, THE AVIONICS POWER SWITCH, LABELED
primary bus is also connected to an avionics bus AVIONICS POWER, SHOULD BE TURNED OFF TO PREVENT
through a circuit breaker and the AVIONICS BUS 1 and ANY HARMFUL TRANSIENT VOLTAGE FROM DAMAGING THE
BUS 2 switches. Each avionics bus is powered when the AVIONICS EQUIPMENT.
MASTER switch and the corresponding AVIONICS switch
are in the ON position. Normally, both sides of the master switch should
be used simultaneously; however, the BAT side of the
CAUTION: BOTH BUS 1 AND BUS 2 AVIONICS SWITCHES switch could be turned on separately to check equip-
SHOULD BE TURNED OFF TO PREVENT ANY HARMFUL ment while on the ground. To check or use avionics
TRANSIENT VOLTAGE FROM DAMAGING THE AVIONICS equipment or radios while on the ground, the avionics
EQUIPMENT PRIOR TO TURNING THE MASTER SWITCH ON power switch must also be turned on. The ALT side of
OR OFF, STARTING THE ENGINE OR APPLYING AN EXTERNAL the switch, when placed in the off position, removes
POWER SOURCE. the alternator from the electrical system. With this
switch in the off position, the entire electrical load is
The airplane includes a power distribution module, placed on the battery. Continued operation with the
located on the left forward side of the firewall, to house alternator switch in the off position will reduce battery
all the relays used in the airplane electrical system. power low enough to open the battery contactor,
The Alternator Control Unit (ACU), main battery current remove power from the alternator field, and prevent
sensor, and the external power connector are also alternator restart.
housed within the module.
AVIONICS MASTER SWITCH
ANNUNCIATOR PANEL Electrical power for Avionics Bus 1 and Avionics Bus 2
An annunciator panel (with integral toggle switch) is is supplied through Primary Bus 2 and Primary Bus 1,
located above the avionics stack and provides caution respectively. A rocker switch, located between the
(amber) and warning (red) messages for selected primary and avionics buses, controls current flow to
portions of the airplane systems. The annunciator is the avionics buses. Placing the rocker switch in the up
designed to flash messages for approximately 10 sec- (ON) position supplies power to both buses simultane-
onds to gain the attention of the pilot before changing ously. Placing the switch in the down (OFF) position
to steady on. The annunciator panel cannot be turned removes power from both buses. The switch is located
off by the pilot. on the lower left side of the instrument panel.
Inputs to the annunciator come from each fuel
transmitter, the low oil pressure switch, the vacuum NOTE: On some aircraft certified outside the United States,
transducers and the alternator control unit (ACU). the avionics master switch may be split. They are aligned
Individual LED bulbs illuminate each message and for independent operation of the buses.
may be replaced through the rear of the annunciator.
Illumination intensity can be controlled by placing the
toggle switch to either the DIM or DAY position.
The annunciator panel can be tested by turning the
Master Switch On and holding the annunciator panel
switch in the TST position. All amber and red messages
will flash until the switch is released.
NOTE: When the Master Switch is turned ON, some

annunciators will flash for approximately 10 seconds before
illuminating steadily. When the annunciator panel switch is
toggled up and held in the TST position, all remaining lights
will flash until the switch is released.
MASTER SWITCH
The master switch is a split rocker type switch labeled
MASTER, and is ON in the up position and off in the
down position. The right half of the switch, labeled BAT,
controls all electrical power to the airplane. The left
half, labeled ALT, controls the alternator.

81
With the switch in the off position, no electrical INTERIOR LIGHTING

power will be applied to the avionics equipment, Interior lighting is controlled by a combination of flood
regardless of the position of the master switch or the lighting, glareshield lighting, pedestal lighting, panel
individual equipment switches. The avionics power lighting, and radio lighting. Flood lighting is accom-
switch should be placed in the OFF position prior to plished using two lights in the front and a single dome
turning the master switch on or off, starting the engine, light in the rear. All flood lights are contained in the
or applying an external power source. overhead console, and are turned on and off with push
Each avionics bus also incorporates a separate type switches located near each light.
circuit breaker installed between the primary bus and Glareshield lighting is accomplished using an LED
the avionics master switch. In the event of an electrical light recessed into the glareshield. Pedestal lighting
malfunction, this breaker will trip and take the effected consists of hooded lights located above the fuel selec-
avionics bus off-line. tor. Panel lighting is accomplished using individual
lights mounted in each instrument and gauge.
AMMETER
The ammeter/vacuum gauge is located on the lower CABIN HEATING, VENTILATING
left side of the instrument panel. It indicates the AND DEFROSTING SYSTEM
amount of current, in amperes, from the alternator The temperature and volume of airflow into the cabin
to the battery or from the battery to the airplane can be regulated by manipulation of the push-pull
electrical system. When the engine is operating and CABIN HT and CABIN AIR controls. Both controls are
the master switch is turned on, the ammeter indicates the double-button locking type and permit intermedi-
the charging rate applied to the battery. In the event ate settings. For cabin ventilation, pull the CABIN AIR
the alternator is not functioning or the electrical load knob out.
exceeds the output of the alternator, the ammeter To raise the air temperature, pull the CABIN HT knob
indicates the battery discharge rate. out approximately 1/4 to 1/2 inch for a small amount of
cabin heat. Additional heat is available by pulling the
LOW VOLTAGE ANNUNCIATION knob out farther; maximum heat is available with the
The low voltage warning annunciator is incorporated CABIN HT knob pulled out and the CABIN AIR knob
in the annunciator panel and activates when voltage pushed full in. When no heat is desired in the cabin, the
falls below 24.5 volts. If low voltage is detected, the CABIN HT knob is pushed full in.
red annunciation VOLTS will flash for approximately 10 Front cabin heat and ventilating air is supplied
seconds before illuminating steadily. The pilot cannot by outlet holes spaced across a cabin manifold just
turn off the annunciator. forward of the pilot’s and copilot’s feet. Rear cabin heat
and air is supplied by two ducts from the manifold, one
NOTE: Illumination of the low voltage annunciator and extending down each side of the cabin to an outlet just
ammeter discharge indications may occur during low RPM aft of the rudder pedals at floor level.
conditions with an electrical load on the system, such as Windshield defrost air is also supplied by two ducts
during a low RPM taxi. Under these conditions, the light will leading from the cabin manifold to defroster outlets
go out at higher RPM. near the lower edge of the windshield. Two knobs con-
trol sliding valves in either defroster outlet to permit
LIGHTING SYSTEMS regulation of defroster airflow. Separate adjustable
EXTERIOR LIGHTING ventilators supply additional air; one near each upper
Exterior lighting consists of navigation lights on the corner of the windshield supplies air for the pilot and
wing tips and top of the rudder, a dual landing/taxi copilot, and two ventilators are available for the rear
light configuration located in the left wing leading cabin area to supply air to the rear seat passengers.
edge, a flashing beacon mounted on top of the Additionally, there are ventilators located on the
vertical fin, and a strobe light on each wing tip. In forward cabin sidewall area just below the windshield
addition, two courtesy lights are recessed into the sill area.
lower surface of each wing and provide illumination
for each cabin door area. PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM
The exterior courtesy lights (and the rear cabin AND INSTRUMENTS
dome light) are turned on by pressing the rear cabin The pitot-static system supplies ram air pressure to the
light switch. Pressing the rear cabin light switch again airspeed indicator and static pressure to the airspeed
will extinguish the three lights. The remaining exterior indicator, vertical speed indicator and altimeter. The
lights are operated by breaker/switches located on the system is composed of a heated pitot tube mounted
lower left instrument panel. To activate these lights, on the lower surface of the left wing, an external static
place switch in the UP position. To deactivate light, port on the lower left side of the forward fuselage,
place in the DOWN position. and the associated plumbing necessary to connect

the instruments to the sources. The heated pitot Limitation and range markings (in KIAS) include the
system consists of a heating element in the pitot tube, white arc (41 to 100 KIAS), green arc (51 to 140 KIAS),
a 10-amp switch/breaker labeled PITOT HEAT, and yellow arc (140 to 175 KIAS), and a red line (175 KIAS).
associated wiring. The switch/breaker is located on the To find true airspeed, first determine pressure altitude
lower left side of the instrument panel. When the pitot and outside air temperature. Using this data, rotate
heat switch is turned on, the element in the pitot tube the lower left knob until pressure altitude aligns with
is heated electrically to maintain proper operation in outside air temperature in the twelve o’clock window.
possible icing conditions. A static pressure alternate True airspeed (corrected for pressure and temperature)
source valve is “located adjacent to the throttle, and can now be read in the lower window.
can be used if the external static source is malfunction-
ing. This valve supplies static pressure from inside the VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR
cabin instead of the external static port. If erroneous The vertical speed indicator depicts airplane rate of
instrument readings are suspected due to water or climb or descent in feet per minute. The pointer is actu-
ice in the pressure line going to the standard external ated by atmospheric pressure changes resulting from
static pressure source, the alternate static source valve changes of altitude as supplied by the static source.
should be pulled on. Pressures within the cabin will
vary with open heater/vents and windows. ALTIMETER
Airplane altitude is depicted by a barometric type
AIRSPEED INDICATOR altimeter. A knob near the lower left portion of the
The airspeed indicator is calibrated in KIAS. It incor- indicator provides adjustment of the instrument’s
porates a true airspeed window which allows true air- barometric scale to the current altimeter setting.
speed (ktas) to be read off the face of the dial. In addi-
tion, the indicator incorporates a window at the twelve VACUUM SYSTEM AND INSTRUMENTS
o’clock position. The window displays true airspeed, The vacuum system provides suction necessary to
and the window at the twelve o’clock position displays operate the attitude indicator and the directional
pressure altitude overlayed with a temperature scale. indicator. The system consists of two engine-driven

83
vacuum pumps, two pressure switches for measuring instrument panel. It is calibrated in inches of mercury
vacuum available through each pump, a vacuum relief and indicates vacuum air available for operation of
valve, a vacuum system air filter, vacuum operated the attitude and directional indicators. The desired
instruments, a suction gauge, low vacuum warning on vacuum range is 4.5 to 5.5 inches of mercury. Normally,
the annunciator, and a manifold with check valves to a vacuum reading out of this range may indicate a
allow for normal vacuum system operation if one of the system malfunction or improper adjustment, and in
vacuum pumps should fail. this case, the indicators should not be considered
reliable. However, due to lower atmospheric pressures
ATTITUDE INDICATOR at higher altitudes, the vacuum indicator may indicate
The attitude indicator is a vacuum air-driven gyro that as low as 4.5 in. Hg. at 15,000 feet and still be adequate
gives a visual indication of flight attitude. Bank attitude for normal system operation.
is presented by a pointer at the top of the indicator
relative to the bank scale which has index marks at 10°, LOW VACUUM ANNUNCIATION
20°, 30°, 60°, and 90° either side of the center mark. Each engine-driven vacuum pump is plumbed to a
Pitch and roll attitudes are presented by a miniature common manifold, located forward of the firewall.
airplane superimposed over a symbolic horizon area From the tee, a single line runs into the cabin to
divided into two sections by a white horizon bar. The operate the various vacuum system instruments. This
upper “blue sky” area and the lower “ground” area tee contains check valves to prevent back flow into a
have pitch reference lines useful for pitch attitude pump if it fails. Transducers are located just upstream
control. A knob at the bottom of the instrument is of the tee and measure vacuum output of each pump.
provided for in-flight adjustment of the symbolic If output of the left pump falls below 3.0 in. Hg., the
airplane to the horizon bar for a more accurate flight amber L VAC message will flash on the annunciator
attitude indication. panel for approximately 10 seconds before turning
steady on. If output of the right pump falls below 3.0
DIRECTIONAL INDICATOR in. Hg., the amber VAC R message will flash on the
The directional indicator is a vacuum air-driven gyro annunciator panel for approximately 10 seconds before
that displays airplane heading on a compass card in turning steady on. If output of both pumps falls below
relation to a fixed simulated airplane image and index. 3.0 in. Hg., the amber L VAC R message will flash on the
The indicator will precess slightly over a period of time. annunciator panel for approximately 10 seconds before
Therefore, the compass card should be set with the turning steady on.
magnetic compass just prior to takeoff, and readjusted
as required throughout the flight. A knob on the CLOCK / O.A.T. INDICATOR
lower left edge of the instrument is used to adjust the An integrated clock / O.A.T. / voltmeter is installed in
compass card to correct for precession. A knob on the the upper left side of the instrument panel as standard
lower right edge of the instrument is used to move the equipment.
heading bug.
STALL WARNING SYSTEM
VACUUM INDICATOR The airplane is equipped with a vane-type stall warning
The vacuum indicator is part of the vacuum/amp system consisting of an inlet in the leading edge of
indicator, located on the lower left corner of the the left wing, which is electrically connected to a stall
warning horn located in the headliner above the left
cabin door. A 5-amp push-to-reset circuit breaker
labeled WARN, on the left side of the circuit breaker
panel, protects the stall warning system. The vane in
the wing senses the change in airflow over the wing,
and operates the warning horn at airspeeds between 5
and 10 knots above the stall in all configurations.
The airplane has a heated stall warning system,
the vane and sensor unit in the wing leading edge is
equipped with a heating element. The heated part of
the system is operated by the PITOT HEAT switch, and
is protected by the PITOT HEAT circuit breaker.
The stall warning system should be checked during
the preflight inspection by momentarily turning on the
MASTER switch and actuating the vane in the wing. The
system is operational if the warning horn sounds as the
vane is pushed upward.

85
AIRPLANE HANDLING,
SERVICE & MAINTENANCE

T
HIS SECTION CONTAINS FACTORY
recommended procedures for proper ground
handling and routine care and servicing of
your airplane. It also identifies certain inspection
and maintenance requirements which must be
followed if your airplane is to retain that new
plane performance and dependability. It is wise
to follow a planned schedule of lubrication and
preventive maintenance based on climatic and
flying conditions encountered in your locality.
Keep in touch with your local Cessna Service
Station and take advantage of their knowledge
and experience. Your Cessna Service Station
knows your airplane and how to maintain
it, and will remind you when lubrications and
oil changes are necessary, as well as other
seasonal and periodic services. The airplane
should be regularly inspected and maintained
in accordance with information found in the
airplane maintenance manual and in company
issued service bulletins and service newsletters.
All service bulletins pertaining to the aircraft
by serial number should be accomplished
and the airplane should receive repetitive and
required inspections. Cessna does not condone
modifications, whether by Supplemental Type
Certificate or otherwise, unless these certificates
are held and/or approved by Cessna. Other
modifications may void warranties on the
airplane since Cessna has no way of knowing
the full effect on the overall airplane. Operation
of an airplane that has been modified may be a
risk to the occupants, and operating procedures
and performance data set forth in the operating
handbook may no longer be considered accurate
for the modified airplane.

87
AIRPLANE HANDLING, SERVICE & MAINTENANCE
FUEL CONTAMINATION
Fuel contamination is usually the result of foreign
material present in the fuel system, and may consist
of water, rust, sand, dirt, microbes or bacterial growth.
In addition, additives that are not compatible with
fuel or fuel system components can cause the fuel to
become contaminated. Before each flight and after
each refueling, use a clear sampler cup and drain at
least a cupful of fuel from each fuel tank drain location
and from the fuel strainer quick drain valve to deter-
mine if contaminants are present, and to ensure the
airplane has been fueled with the proper grade of fuel. The Newton Theory
If contamination is detected, drain all fuel drain points As the air travels across the airfoil’s upper and lower
including the fuel reservoir and fuel selector quick drain surfaces, lift is created by shoving the air down with
valves and then gently rock the wings and lower the tail great force at its trailing edge, and to some degree, the
to the ground to move any additional contaminants to Newtonian force of opposite and equal reaction apply.
the sampling points. Take repeated samples from all fuel
drain points until all contamination has been removed. What we do know (and what the
If, after repeated sampling, evidence of contamination pilot needs to know)
still exists, the airplane should not be flown. Tanks The airfoil is essentially an air diverter and the lift is the
should be drained and system purged by qualified reaction to the diverted air. Regardless of what role
maintenance personnel. All evidence of contamination each theory plays, an airfoil’s lift is dependent upon its
must be removed before further flight. If the airplane shape, the speed at which it is traveling through the air,
has been serviced with the improper fuel grade, defuel and its angle to the oncoming air (angle of attack).
completely and refuel with the correct grade. Do not fly Look at the cross section of a propeller blade.
the airplane with contaminated or unapproved fuel. In Essentially, the same process creates lift.
addition, Owners/Operators who are not acquainted
with a particular fixed base operator should be assured
that the fuel supply has been checked for contamination
and is properly filtered before allowing the airplane
to be serviced. Fuel tanks should be kept full between
flights, provided weight and balance considerations will
permit, to reduce the possibility of water condensing on
the walls of partially filled tanks. To further reduce the
possibility of contaminated fuel, routine maintenance of
the fuel system should be performed in accordance with Below are some graphical representations of an
the airplane Maintenance Manual. Only the proper fuel, airfoil travelling though the air in various conditions:
as recommended in this handbook, should be used, and
fuel additives should not be used unless approved by LEVEL FLIGHT
Cessna and the Federal Aviation Administration. A wing creating moderate lift. Air vortices (lines) stay
close to the wing.
THE AIRFOIL: HOW A WING CREATES LIFT
Before you learn about how different propellers work,
first you must understand the basics of the common
airfoil, which is the reason why a wing creates lift, and
in this case, why a propeller creates thrust.
The Bernoulli Theory

This has been the traditional theory of why an airfold
creates lift:
Look at the image to the right which shows you how
the shape of an airfoil splits the oncoming air. The
air above is forced to travel further than the air at the
bottom, essentially stretching the air and creating
a lower pressure, or vacuum. The wing is basically
sucked up, into this lower pressure. The faster the
speed, the greater the lift.

CLIMB
Wing creating significant lift force. Air vortices still
close to the wing.
WHAT IS A STALL?
In order for a wing to produce efficient lift, the air must
flow completely around the leading (front) edge of the
wing, following the contours of the wing. At too large
an angle of attack, the air cannot contour the wing.
When this happens, the wing is in a “stall.”
Typically, stalls in aircraft occur when an airplane
loses too much airspeed to create a sufficient amount
of lift. A typical stall exercise would be to put your LIFT VS ANGLE OF ATTACK
aircraft into a climb, cut the throttle, and try and Every airfoil has an optimum angle at which it attacks
maintain the climb as long as possible. You will have the air (called angle of attack, or AoA), where lift is
to gradually pull back harder on the stick to maintain at it’s peak. The lift typically starts when the wing is
your climb pitch and as speed decreases, the angle of level, and increases until the wing reaches its optimum
attack increases. At some point, the angle of attack angle, lets say 15-25 degrees, then as it passes this
will become so great, that the wing will stall (the nose point, the lift drops off. Some wings have a gentle
will drop). drop, others can actually be so harsh, as your angle of
attack increases past this critical point, the lift drops off
like a cliff. Once you are past this point of lift and the
angle is so high, the air is just being plowed around in
circles, creating almost no lift but plenty of drag. This
is what you experience when you stall an aircraft. The
buffeting or shaking of the aircraft at this stall position
is actually the turbulent air, created by your stalling
wing, passing over your rear stabilizer, thus shaking
the aircraft. This shaking can sometimes become so
violent, you can pop rivets and damage your airframe.
You quickly learn to back off your stick (or yoke) when
you feel those shudders approaching.
Notice in the diagram to the right, how the airfoil
creates more lift as the angle of attack increases.
Ideally, your wing (or propeller) will spend most of it’s
STALL time moving along the left hand side of this curve, and
The angle of attack has become too large. The avoid passing over the edge. A general aviation plane
boundary layer vortices have separated from the top that comes to mind is the Piper Cherokee. An older
surface of the wing and the incoming flow no longer version has what we call a “Hershy bar wing” because
bends completely around the leading edge. The wing is it is uniform from the root to the tip, just like an Hershy
stalled, not only creating little lift, but significant drag. chocolate bar. Later, Piper introduced the tapered
wing, which stalled more gradually, across the wing.
Can a propeller stall? The Hershy bar wing has an abrupt stall, whereas the
What do you think? More on this below. tapered wing has a gentle stall.

89
FROM STALL TO FULL POWER

With brakes on and idling, the angle at which the prop
attacks the still air, especially closer to the propeller
hub, is almost always too great for the prop to be creat-
ing much lift. The prop is mostly behaving like a brake
as it slams it’s side into the air. In reality, the prop is
creating very little lift while the plane is not moving.
This effect is known as prop stall, and is part of the
Accu-Sim prop physics suite.
Once done with your power check, prepare for take-
off. Once you begin your takeoff run, you may notice
the aircraft starts to pull harder after you start rolling
forward. This is the propeller starting to get its proper
“bite” into the air, as the propeller blades come out of
their stalled, turbulent state and enter their comfort-
able high lift angles of attack it was designed for. There
are also other good physics going on during all of these
phases of flight, that we will just let you experience for
the first time yourself.
A propeller is basically a wing except that instead of PROP OVERSPEED

relying on incoming air for lift, it is spinning around to With a constant-speed propeller, a power descent can
create lift, it is perpendicular to the ground, creating be made without overspeeding the engine. The system
a backwards push of air, or thrust. Just remember, compensates for the increased airspeed of the descent
whether a propeller is a fixed pitch, variable pitch, by increasing the propeller blade angles. If the descent
or constant speed, it is always attacking a variable, is too rapid, or is being made from a high altitude, the
incoming air, and lives within this lift curve. maximum blade angle limit of the blades is not suf-
ficient to hold the rpm constant. When this occurs, the
rpm is responsive to any change in throttle setting.
Any overspeed will require a prop inspection. Any
overspeed greater than 15% of redline (2760 rpm) will
require that contact be made with the manufacturer
(McCauley Propeller Systems) to determine the prop’s
airworthiness.

2D PANELS
The 2D panels are there to provide the extra functional-
ity needed when there is so much additional informa-
tion available to you, the pilot.
Each 2D panel is accessed by the key-press combina-
tion in parentheses after the 2D panel title.
Pilot’s Notes (Shift 2)

▶▶ Outside Temp: is the ambient tem-
perature outside the aircraft.
▶▶ Watch Engine Temps: this warning will display
if your engine temperature is nearing danger
limits. Corrective action should be carried
out immediately if this warning appears.
▶▶ Cabin Temperature: displays how comfort-
able the temperature of the cabin feels.
▶▶ Ground Speed: this is your speed in relation
to the ground in miles/hour and knots.
▶▶ Endurance: this figure tells you approximately
how long you could remain in powered flight
before running out of fuel. This figure will
update throughout your flight, and as such you
should take into account that during a climb
phase, the endurance will be less than once the
aircraft is settled in a cruise configuration.
▶▶ Range: given in statute (sm) and nautical miles
(nm), this figure will give you an approximation of
your maximum range under current fuel consump-
tion and airspeed conditions. Again, this figure
will change depending on your flight phase.
▶▶ Fuel Economy: is the current fuel burn rate
given in gallons/hour (gph), miles/gallon
(mpg) and nautical miles/gallon (nmpg).
▶▶ Power Settings: this represents your clip-
board, showing you important informa-
tion for the correct settings for take off,
climb and cruise configurations.
▶▶ Notes: these are a set of pages (accessed
by the small arrow to the right of the page
number) that include information such as
actions to be carried out when first enter-
ing the cabin, to landing checks.

91
Controls (Shift 3)
Initially designed to provide a means to perform vari-
ous in cockpit actions whilst viewing the aircraft from
an external viewpoint, this control panel now provides
quick access to a number of different commands.
From this panel, you can:

▶▶ Remove the pilot figure from the external
view (only available whilst the engine is not
running). Note the visual change in the air-
craft balance when you remove the pilot.
▶▶ Control electrical systems such as
the generator or magnetos.
▶▶ Toggle aircraft lighting, both internal and external.
▶▶ Change the GPS system installed in your aircraft,
from a bracket mounted handheld unit, to panel
mounted units, or no GPS installed at all.
▶▶ Set whether you want the aircraft to already be
in a Cold and Dark state when you first enter it.
▶▶ Have your aircraft switch to a “Used” state,
where some aircraft components will imme-
diately show signs of wear. Check your
maintenance hangar before you go flying, so
that you’re aware of the systems and compo-
nents that you’ll need to keep an eye on.
▶▶ Turn Accusim damage on and off.
▶▶ Toggle between conventional DG and KI 525A HSI.
Payload and Fuel Manager (Shift 4)

The payload and fuel manager not only gives you an
overview of your current payload, fuel and oil quanti-
ties, it is also an interactive loading screen, where you
can:
▶▶ Add and remove passengers and baggage.

▶ ▶ Increase or decrease pilot, pas-
senger and baggage weights.
▶▶ Add or remove oil in the reservoir, and change the
oil viscosity depending on seasonal changes.
▶▶ Add or remove fuel from the wing tanks.
▶▶ Change between viewing weights and
measures in imperial or metric format.
▶▶ View, at a glance, total aircraft weight, pay-
load weight, and total fuel quantities.

Pilot’s Map (Shift 5)
The pilot’s map gives full and easy access to informa-
tion that may be found on real maps, and allows
this information to be accessed from the cockpit, as
opposed to using the default map via the drop-down
menus.
The accompanying panel to the map allows you to
select what information you want to have displayed on
the map, from a compass rose to low altitude airways.
Also note that some of the button selections have an
increasing amount of information presented with each
subsequent button press.
For example, the APT (Airport) button will show the
following information:
◆◆ APT 1: Airport ID.

◆◆ APT 2: Airport name.
◆◆ APT 3: Airport elevation.
◆◆ APT 4: Airport radio frequencies.
Quick RAdios (Shift 6)

This small popup panel provides input for your virtual
cockpit radios but in a simplified and easy to use
manner. This popup features all the amenities of the
actual radios but in a singular unit which allows you
to control your communication, navigation, ADF and
transponder radios from a single source.

93
Maintenance Hangar (Shift 7) those systems/components.

The maintenance hangar is where you can review the cur- Any component with a yellow highlight is worn, but not
rent state of your aircraft and its major systems. It is one of unserviceable, so do not have to be replaced.
the core elements to visualizing Accusim at work.
With the invaluable assistance of your local aircraft main- Compression Test
tenance engineer/technician, a.k.a “grease monkey”, you will At the lower right hand corner is a “COMPRESSION TEST”
be able to see a full and in-depth report stating the following: button, which will tell your mechanic to run a high pressure
differential compression test on the engine cylinders.
▶▶ A summary of your airframe, engine This is done by compressed air being applied through
and propeller installed. a regulator gauge to the tester in the cylinder. The gauge
▶▶ Total airframe hours, and engine hours would show the total pressure being applied to the
since the last major overhaul. cylinder.
▶▶ General condition of the engine. The compressed air would then pass through a calibrated
▶▶ Important notes provided by the ground crew. restrictor and to the cylinder pressure gauge. This gauge
would show the actual air pressure within the cylinder.
From the maintenance hangar, you can also carry out a Any difference in pressure between the two gauges
complete overhaul, by clicking the COMPLETE OVERHAUL would indicate a leak of air past the engine components,
button in the bottom right corner. This will overhaul the whether that is the valves, piston rings, or even a crack in
engine and replace any parts that are showing signs of wear the cylinder wall itself.
or damage, with new or re-conditioned parts. The readings that your mechanic presents to you in the
In order to fix any issues the mechanic has flagged up, we “Compression Test Results” in the notes section, will be
need to inspect the engine in greater detail. By left clicking annotated with the actual amount of pressure read in the
the “CHECK ENGINE” text on the engine cover, it will open cylinder over the actual pressure that was applied to the
the following window. cylinder through the regulator.
Low compression on a cylinder isn’t necessarily a
COLOUR CODES: terrible thing, because as the engine picks up in speed, the
◆◆ GREEN: OK worn cylinder becomes productive. It is mostly noticed at
◆◆ YELLOW: WATCH lower R.P.M.’s where the cylinder may have trouble firing,
◆◆ RED: MUST FIX OR REPLACE and also a marked increase in oil consumption may also
occur (sometimes with an accompanying blue smoke out
Heavy wear or a component failure will be shown in red, of that cylinder during flight).
and these components must be replaced. However, note that this is a reading of the general
We can choose to continue flying with the worn compo- condition of the cylinders, and lower condition does bring
nents, but extra care should be used and a close eye kept on additional risks of failure, or even engine fires.

Pre-Flight Inspection (Shift 8) The check list starts with actions to be carried out in
The Pre-Flight Inspection is another advancement the cockpit, prior to your walkaround.
in bringing real life standard operating procedures Ensure that the checklist is carried out correctly,
into P3D. as checks and actions missed here, will prevent you
The inspection system is done in such a way as to from carrying out the proper checks during your
emulate making your walkaround inspection prior to walkaround.
flight. The first of the external checks covers the tail area.
There are 19 separate check sheets which are The checklist now has an additional bottom section in
accessed by clicking the arrows in the bottom right which specific actions can be carried out, or additional
corner of the aircraft top-down view window. views can be accessed as a reference to what to look
As you select the next check sheet, you will auto- out for.
matically be moved to the relevant view around the By left clicking on an action button, it will either
aircraft. perform an action, i.e. remove the tail tie down, or it
It’s not just a case of clicking the next check sheet will bring up a reference picture. In the example below,
over and over again however, as there are actions we’re looking at the elevator hinges.
to be carried out and visual checks to be made in As part of the walkaround, checking the fuel tank
order to complete the pre-flight correctly. If you miss sump quick drain valves is an extremely important
something, maybe the landing light lens cover on check. If water enters the engine, expect a brief
the leading edge is smashed, expect to be notified interlude of coughing and spluttering, quickly followed
by your mechanic in the Maintenance Hangar, as his by the sound of silence.
sharp eye will pick up anything you miss. The oil dipstick is not only essential in gauging the
The checklist itself shows an overview of the total oil quantity, but also the condition of the oil.
aircraft, with your walkaround route in black, and As you put hours on your engine, expect the oil to
dots to highlight the areas where subsequent checks become darker due to suspended particulates that
will be carried out. are too fine to be trapped by the filter. The oil also
goes through chemical changes, which over time
means that the oil isn’t as capable of protecting your
engine as it was when new.
Pause Control (shift 9)

The pause controls are made available for
those times when you need to be away from the
simulation.
By left clicking the various boxes, you will turn that
pause command on, and for the Altitude, Time and
Distance boxes, a plus and minus arrow allow you to
change the values for when the pause command will
be issued.
If more than one box is switched on, the first trigger
to be reached will pause the simulation.

95
INPUT CONFIGURATOR
The Input Configurator allows users to assign
keyboard or joystick mappings to many custom
functions that can’t be found in P3D controls
assignments
menu. It can be found in the A2A/C182/ Tools
folder inside your P3D installation directory.
The upper table is the axis assignment
menu. From the drop down list, select joystick
and axis you want to assign to each func-
tion and verify its operation in the ‘preview’
column. Mark the ‘invert’ check box if needed.
The lower table is the shortcuts menu. Hover
over a function name to bring up a tooltip with
additional information.
To make a new shortcut, double click on
a selected row to bring up the assignment
window. Then press keyboard key or joystick
button you want to assign to this function. For
keyboard it’s also possible to use modifier keys
(Ctrl, Shift, Alt).
When done with the assignments, press
“Save and update P3D” button. This will
instantly update shortcuts for the aircraft.
There is no need to restart P3D or even reset
your flight for the changes to take effect, you
can adjust shortcuts on the fly.
AIRCRAFT CONFIGURATOR
The Aircraft Configurator for Accu-Sim C182 Skylane
enables the user to choose from:
1. Various 3rd party GPS systems (RXP,

Flight 1, Mindstar, or Stock)
2. Runway illuminating lights or default lights.
Technically, this utility manages the panel.cfg and

model.cfg files, so the user doesn’t need to manually
edit these files.
While the GPS can be changed with or without a run-
ning simulation (FSX or Prepar3D), the Landing Lights
change takes effect in a next flight of the C182.

97
ACCU-SIM AND
THE C182 SKYLANE

A
CCU-SIM IS A2A SIMULATIONS’ GROWING FLIGHT SIMULATION
engine, which is now connectable to other host simulations.
In this case, we have attached our Accu-Sim C182 Skylane to
Lockheed Martin Prepar3D to provide the maximum amount of realism
and immersion possible.
WHAT IS THE PHILOSOPHY ACTIONS LEAD TO CONSEQUENCES

BEHIND ACCU-SIM? Your A2A Simulations Accu-Sim aircraft is quite
Pilots will tell you that no two aircraft are the same. Even complete with full system modeling and flying an
taking the same aircraft up from the same airport to the aircraft such as this requires constant attention to
same location will result in a different experience. For the systems. The infinite changing conditions around
example, you may notice one day your engine is running you and your aircraft have impact on these systems.
a bit hotter than usual and you might just open your As systems operate both inside and outside their
cowl flaps a bit more and be on your way, or maybe this limitations, they behave differently. For example, the
is a sign of something more serious developing under temperature of the air that enters your carburetor
the hood. Regardless, you expect these things to occur has a direct impact on the power your engine can
in a simulation just as they do in life. This is Accu-Sim, produce. Pushing an engine too hard may produce
where no two flights are ever the same. just slight damage that you, as a pilot, may see as it
Realism does not mean having a difficult time with just not running quite as good as it was on a previous
your flying. While Accu-Sim is created by pilots, it is flight. You may run an engine so hot, that it catches
built for everyone. This means everything from having fire. However, it may not catch fire; it may just quit, or
a professional crew there to help you manage the may not run smoothly. This is Accu-Sim – it’s both the
systems, to an intuitive layout, or just the ability to realism of all of these systems working in harmony,
turn the system on or off with a single switch. However, and all the subtle, and sometimes not so subtle,
if Accu-Sim is enabled and the needles are in the red, unpredictability of it all. The end result is when flying
there will be consequences. It is no longer just an in an Accu-Sim powered aircraft, it just feels real
aircraft, it’s a simulation. enough that you can almost smell the avgas.

99
ACCU-SIM AND THE C182 SKYLANE
YOUR AIRCRAFT TALKS Key Things to Keep Engine Temperatures in Check

We have gone to great lengths to bring the internal
physics of the airframe, engine, and systems to life. ▶▶ Get off the ground as soon as possible. Prolonged
Now, when the engine coughs, you can hear it and see idling and taxiing can overheat your engine.
a puff of smoke. If you push the engine too hard, you ▶▶ Reduce power immediately after
can also hear signs that this is happening. Just like an takeoff to climb power
actual pilot, you will get to know the sounds of your
aircraft, from the tires scrubbing on landing to the PERSISTENT AIRCRAFT
stresses of the airframe to the canopy that is cracked Every time you load up your Accu-Sim C182 Skylane,
opened. you will be flying the continuation of the last aircraft
which includes fuel, oil, coolant levels along with all of
BE PREPARED – STAY OUT OF TROUBLE your system conditions. So be aware, no longer will your
The key to successfully operating almost any aircraft aircraft load with full fuel every time, it will load with the
is to stay ahead of the curve and on top of things. same amount of fuel you left off when you quit your last
Aircraft are not like automobiles, in the sense that flight. You will learn the easy or the hard way to make, at
weight plays a key role in the creation of every the very least, some basic checks on your systems before
component. So, almost every system on your aircraft jumping in and taking off, just like a real aircraft owner.
is created to be just strong enough to give you, the Additionally, in each flight things will sometimes be
pilot, enough margin of error to operate safely, different. The gauges and systems will never be exactly
but these margins are smaller than those you find the same. There are just too many moving parts,
in an automobile. So, piloting an aircraft requires variables, changes, etc., that continuously alter the
both precision and respect of the machine you are condition of the airplane, its engine and its systems.
managing.
It is important that you always keep an eye on your NOTE: Signs of a damaged engine may be lower RPM
oil pressure and engine temperature gauges. On cold (due to increased friction), or possibly hotter engine
engine starts, the oil is thick and until it reaches a temperatures.
proper operating temperature, this thick oil results in
much higher than normal oil temperatures. In extreme SOUNDS GENERATED BY PHYSICS
cold, once the engine is started, watch that oil pressure Lockheed Martin Prepar3D, like any piece of software,
gauge and idle the engine as low as possible, keeping has its limitations. Accu-Sim breaks this open by
the oil pressure under 120psi. augmenting the sound system with our own, adding

sounds to provide the most believable and immersive take that huge piece of lightweight metal and slam it
flying experience possible. The sound system is on the pavement. It’s a lot to ask of your landing gear.
massive in this Accu-Sim C182 Skylane and includes Aircraft engineer’s don’t design the landing gear any
engine sputter / spits, bumps and jolts, body creaks, more rugged than they have too. So treat it with kid
engine detonation, runway thumps, gear doors and gloves on your final approach. Kiss the pavement.
flaps, dynamic touchdowns, authentic simulation of Anything more is just asking too much from your
air including buffeting, shaking, canopy, broken flaps, aircraft.
jammed gear, oxygen sounds, primer, and almost Accu-Sim watches your landings, and the moment
every single switch or lever in the cockpit is modelled. your wheels hit the pavement, you will hear the
Most of these sounds were recorded from the actual appropriate sounds (thanks to the new sound engine
aircraft and this sound environment just breaks open capabilities). Slam it on the ground and you may hear
an entirely new world. However, as you can see, this is metal crunching, or just kiss the pavement perfectly
not just for entertainment purposes; proper sound is and hear just a nice chirp or scrub of the wheels. This
critical to creating an authentic and believable flying landing system part of Accu-Sim makes every landing
experience. Know that when you hear something, it is challenging and fun.
being driven by actual system physics and not being
triggered when a certain condition is met. There is a YOUR TURN TO FLY SO ENJOY
big difference, and to the simulation pilot, you can just Accu-Sim is about maximizing the joy of flight. We at
feel it. A2A Simulations are passionate about aviation, and are
proud to be the makers of both the A2A Simulations
GAUGE PHYSICS Accu-Sim C182 Skylane, and its accompanying Accu-
Each gauge has mechanics that allow it to work. Some Sim expansion pack. Please feel free to email us, post
gauges run off of engine suction, gyros, air pressure, on our forums, or let us know what you think. Sharing
or mechanical means. The RPM gauge may wander this passion with you is what makes us happy.
because of the slack in the mechanics, or the gyro
gauge may fluctuate when starting the motor, or the
gauge needles may vibrate with the motor or jolt on a
hard landing or turbulent buffet.
The gauges are the windows into your aircraft’s
systems and therefore Accu-Sim requires these to
behave authentically.
LANDINGS
Bumps, squeaks, rattles, and stress all happens in an
aircraft, just when it is taxiing around the ground. Now

101
CREDITS
MICROSOFT AND LOCKHEED MARTIN
Creators of Prepar3D
LEAD ARTIST (3D MODELING,

TEXTURING, GAUGES, PAINTING)
Michal Puto
2D GAUGE SYSTEMS INCLUDING THE REAL

TIME LOAD MANAGER AND WALK AROUND
Robert Rogalski
PROGRAMMING
Scott Gentile, Robert Rogalski, Michal Krawczyk, and
Krzysztof Sobczak
PUBLIC RELATIONS, SUPPORT, AND WEB DESIGN

Lewis Bloomfield
MANUAL
Mitchell Glicksman and Scott Gentile
MANUAL GRAPHIC DESIGN

Mark Kee
QUALITY CONTROL BETA TEAM

The world’s most effective and knowledge-
able flight simulation beta team, including
Cody Bergland, Forest “FAC257” Crooke, Glenn
“GlennC” Cummings, Chris “Sundowner” Oleksy,
Ryan “Hog Driver” Gann, Mitchell Glicksman,
Captain Jakey, Rob “The Great Ozzie” Osborne,
Ralf “Erlk0enig” Schawer, Erwin “dutch506” Schultze,
Guenter “Guenseli” Steiner, Paul “Gypsy Baron” Strogen,
Gunter “Snorre” Schneider, Dudley Henriques and
Oskar “lonewulf47” Wagner
SPECIAL THANKS TO:

Dudley Henriques for his extensive flying experience
and support. Oskar Wagner for leading our beta team
and quality control process.
VERY SPECIAL THANKS TO:

Our friends and families who stuck by us and worked
hard to support our efforts.

To own a Skylane is to make a statement to the world that you
are both successful and practical, because this airplane can do
everything you ask of it and more.
It can carry a large amount, comfortably over a long

distance. She is fast, rugged, and beautiful...
From all of us at A2A Simulations, thank you.

103

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What ergonomic advice is provided for reducing strain while using the simulator?

What ergonomic advice is provided for reducing strain while using the simulator?

What warning is provided regarding potential health issues?

What warning is provided regarding potential health issues?

A2ASIMULATIONS

ACCU-SIM C182 SKYLANE

RISKS & SIDE EFFECTS

www.a2asimulations.com C182 MANUAL ::: A2ASIMULATIONS

6 A2ASIMULATIONS ::: C182 MANUAL www.a2asimulations.com

www.a2asimulations.com C182 MANUAL ::: A2ASIMULATIONS

8 A2ASIMULATIONS ::: C182 MANUAL www.a2asimulations.com

www.a2asimulations.com C182 MANUAL ::: A2ASIMULATIONS

THE CESSNA “AIRMASTER” - WHERE THE END OF THE WAR AND A

10 A2ASIMULATIONS ::: C182 MANUAL www.a2asimulations.com

www.a2asimulations.com C182 MANUAL ::: A2ASIMULATIONS

Even though the Cessna 180 has the same wing as

12 A2ASIMULATIONS ::: C182 MANUAL www.a2asimulations.com

www.a2asimulations.com C182 MANUAL ::: A2ASIMULATIONS

The very first Cessna 182 (N4966E)

14 A2ASIMULATIONS ::: C182 MANUAL www.a2asimulations.com

PERFORMANCE COMPARISON LIKE AN OLD, COMFORTABLE

www.a2asimulations.com C182 MANUAL ::: A2ASIMULATIONS

16 A2ASIMULATIONS ::: C182 MANUAL www.a2asimulations.com

T HE 182 TO ME, MEANS BUSINESS.

www.a2asimulations.com C182 MANUAL ::: A2ASIMULATIONS

18 A2ASIMULATIONS ::: C182 MANUAL www.a2asimulations.com

 Complete maintenance hangar internal  Pure3D Instrumentation.

 Visual Real-Time Load Manager.  Authentic fuel delivery includes priming

 Electric starter with accurate cranking

 Dynamic ground physics including both

www.a2asimulations.com C182 MANUAL ::: A2ASIMULATIONS

20 A2ASIMULATIONS ::: C182 MANUAL www.a2asimulations.com

www.a2asimulations.com C182 MANUAL ::: A2ASIMULATIONS

IMPORTANT: If you have Microsoft

INSTRUMENTS AND LIGHTS

ENGINES “Auto-rudder” turned off if you

22 A2ASIMULATIONS ::: C182 MANUAL www.a2asimulations.com

 To Change Views Press A or SHIFT + A.

 Keep the engine at or above 800 RPM. Failure to do

 Reduce power after takeoff. This is standard procedure

 On landing, raise your flaps once you touch down to

 Be careful with high-speed dives, as you can lose

 For landings, take the time to line up and plan your

 Using in-sim accelerated time may cause

 Keep throttle above 1/3 when flying at high RPM to avoid

 A quick way to warm your engines is to use auto start

www.a2asimulations.com C182 MANUAL ::: A2ASIMULATIONS

The piston pulls

The spark plug

24 A2ASIMULATIONS ::: C182 MANUAL www.a2asimulations.com

www.a2asimulations.com C182 MANUAL ::: A2ASIMULATIONS

AIR TEMPERATURE Why not just use the most economical

THE MIXTURE LEVER

How do you know when you have the right mixture?

Just before the

26 A2ASIMULATIONS ::: C182 MANUAL www.a2asimulations.com

www.a2asimulations.com C182 MANUAL ::: A2ASIMULATIONS

28 A2ASIMULATIONS ::: C182 MANUAL www.a2asimulations.com

THE PRATT & WHITNEY R4360

Complete maintenance hangar internal Pure3D Instrumentation.

Visual Real-Time Load Manager. Authentic fuel delivery includes priming

Electric starter with accurate cranking

Dynamic ground physics including both

To Change Views Press A or SHIFT + A.

Keep the engine at or above 800 RPM. Failure to do

Reduce power after takeoff. This is standard procedure

On landing, raise your flaps once you touch down to

Be careful with high-speed dives, as you can lose

For landings, take the time to line up and plan your

Using in-sim accelerated time may cause

Keep throttle above 1/3 when flying at high RPM to avoid

A quick way to warm your engines is to use auto start