SCALE

Scales

1. Basic Information

2. Types and important units

3. Plain Scales (3 Problems)

4. Diagonal Scales - information

5. Diagonal Scales (3 Problems)

6. Comparative Scales (3 Problems)

7. Vernier Scales - information

8. Vernier Scales (2 Problems)

9. Scales of Cords - construction

10. Scales of Cords (2 Problems)

 SCALES

DIMENSIONS OF LARGE OBJECTS MUST BE REDUCED TO ACCOMMODATE

ON STANDARD SIZE DRAWING SHEET. THIS REDUCTION CREATES A SCALE FOR FULL SIZE SCALE
OF THAT REDUCTION RATIO, WHICH IS GENERALLY A FRACTION.. R.F.=1 OR ( 1:1 )
SUCH A SCALE IS CALLED REDUCING SCALE MEANS DRAWING
AND & OBJECT ARE OF
SAME SIZE.
THAT RATIO IS CALLED REPRESENTATIVE FACTOR.
Other RFs are described
as
SIMILARLY IN CASE OF TINY OBJECTS DIMENSIONS MUST BE INCREASED 1:10, 1:100,
FOR ABOVE PURPOSE. HENCE THIS SCALE IS CALLED ENLARGING SCALE. 1:1000, 1:1,00,000
HERE THE RATIO CALLED REPRESENTATIVE FACTOR IS MORE THAN UNITY.
USE FOLLOWING FORMULAS FOR THE CALCULATIONS IN THIS TOPIC.

DIMENSION OF DRAWING
A REPRESENTATIVE FACTOR (R.F.) =
DIMENSION OF OBJECT
LENGTH OF DRAWING
=
ACTUAL LENGTH
AREA OF DRAWING
=
V ACTUAL AREA
VOLUME AS PER DRWG.
=3
V ACTUAL VOLUME

B LENGTH OF SCALE = R.F. X MAX. LENGTH TO BE MEASURED.

 BE FRIENDLY WITH THESE UNITS.

1 KILOMETRE = 10 HECTOMETRES
1 HECTOMETRE = 10 DECAMETRES
1 DECAMETRE = 10 METRES
1 METRE = 10 DECIMETRES
1 DECIMETRE = 10 CENTIMETRES
1 CENTIMETRE = 10 MILIMETRES

TYPES OF SCALES:
1. PLAIN SCALES ( FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO SINGLE DECIMAL)
2. DIAGONAL SCALES ( FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO TWO DECIMALS)
3. VERNIER SCALES ( FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO TWO DECIMALS)
4. COMPARATIVE SCALES ( FOR COMPARING TWO DIFFERENT UNITS)
5. SCALE OF CORDS ( FOR MEASURING/CONSTRUCTING ANGLES)
 PLAIN SCALE:- This type of scale represents two units or a unit and it’s sub-division.

PROBLEM NO.1:- Draw a scale 1 cm = 1m to read decimeters, to measure maximum distance of 6 m.

Show on it a distance of 4 m and 6 dm.

CONSTRUCTION:- DIMENSION OF DRAWING

a) Calculate R.F.=
DIMENSION OF OBJECT
PLAIN SCALE
R.F.= 1cm/ 1m = 1/100
Length of scale = R.F. X max. distance
= 1/100 X 600 cm
= 6 cms
b) Draw a line 6 cm long and divide it in 6 equal parts. Each part will represent larger division unit.
c) Sub divide the first part which will represent second unit or fraction of first unit.
d) Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and subdivisions
on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting a look of scale.
e) After construction of scale mention it’s RF and name of scale as shown.
f) Show the distance 4 m 6 dm on it as shown.

4 M 6 DM

10 0 1 2 3 4 5 METERS
DECIMETERS
R.F. = 1/100
PLANE SCALE SHOWING METERS AND DECIMETERS.
 PROBLEM NO.2:- In a map a 36 km distance is shown by a line 45 cms long. Calculate the R.F. and construct
a plain scale to read kilometers and hectometers, for max. 12 km. Show a distance of 8.3 km on it.

CONSTRUCTION:-
a) Calculate R.F.
R.F.= 45 cm/ 36 km = 45/ 36 . 1000 . 100 = 1/ 80,000 PLAIN SCALE
Length of scale = R.F. max. distance
= 1/ 80000 12 km
= 15 cm
b) Draw a line 15 cm long and divide it in 12 equal parts. Each part will represent larger division unit.
c) Sub divide the first part which will represent second unit or fraction of first unit.
d) Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and subdivisions
on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting a look of scale.
e) After construction of scale mention it’s RF and name of scale as shown.
f) Show the distance 8.3 km on it as shown.

8KM 3HM

10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
KILOMETERS
HECTOMETERS
R.F. = 1/80,000
PLANE SCALE SHOWING KILOMETERS AND HECTOMETERS
PROBLEM NO.3:- The distance between two stations is 210 km. A passenger train covers this distance
in 7 hours. Construct a plain scale to measure time up to a single minute. RF is 1/200,000 Indicate the distance
traveled by train in 29 minutes.

CONSTRUCTION:-
a) 210 km in 7 hours. Means speed of the train is 30 km per hour ( 60 minutes)
PLAIN SCALE
Length of scale = R.F. max. distance per hour
= 1/ 2,00,000 30km
= 15 cm
b) 15 cm length will represent 30 km and 1 hour i.e. 60 minutes.
Draw a line 15 cm long and divide it in 6 equal parts. Each part will represent 5 km and 10 minutes.
c) Sub divide the first part in 10 equal parts,which will represent second unit or fraction of first unit.
Each smaller part will represent distance traveled in one minute.
d) Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and subdivisions
on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting a proper look of scale.
e) Show km on upper side and time in minutes on lower side of the scale as shown.
After construction of scale mention it’s RF and name of scale as shown.
f) Show the distance traveled in 29 minutes, which is 14.5 km, on it as shown.
DISTANCE TRAVELED IN 29 MINUTES.
14.5 KM

KM 5 2.5 0 5 10 15 20 25 KM

MIN 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 MINUTES
R.F. = 1/100
PLANE SCALE SHOWING METERS AND DECIMETERS.
 We have seen that the plain scales give only two dimensions, such
as a unit and it’s subunit or it’s fraction.

The diagonal scales give us three successive dimensions

DIAGONAL
that is a unit, a subunit and a subdivision of a subunit. SCALE

The principle of construction of a diagonal scale is as follows.

Let the XY in figure be a subunit. X Y
From Y draw a perpendicular YZ to a suitable height. 10
Join XZ. Divide YZ in to 10 equal parts. 9
Draw parallel lines to XY from all these divisions 8
and number them as shown.
7
From geometry we know that similar triangles have
their like sides proportional. 6
5
Consider two similar triangles XYZ and 7’ 7Z, 4
we have 7Z / YZ = 7’7 / XY (each part being one unit)
3
Means 7’ 7 = 7 / 10. x X Y = 0.7 XY
:. 2
Similarly 1
1’ – 1 = 0.1 XY
2’ – 2 = 0.2 XY Z
Thus, it is very clear that, the sides of small triangles,
which are parallel to divided lines, become progressively
shorter in length by 0.1 XY.

The solved examples ON NEXT PAGES will

make the principles of diagonal scales clear.
 PROBLEM NO. 4 : The distance between Delhi and Agra is 200 km.
In a railway map it is represented by a line 5 cm long. Find it’s R.F.
Draw a diagonal scale to show single km. And maximum 600 km.
DIAGONAL
Indicate on it following distances. 1) 222 km 2) 336 km 3) 459 km 4) 569 km SCALE
SOLUTION STEPS: RF = 5 cm / 200 km = 1 / 40, 00, 000
Length of scale = 1 / 40, 00, 000 X 600 X 10 5 = 15 cm

Draw a line 15 cm long. It will represent 600 km.Divide it in six equal parts.( each will represent 100 km.)
Divide first division in ten equal parts. Each will represent 10 km.Draw a line upward from left end and
mark 10 parts on it of any distance. Name those parts 0 to 10 as shown.Join 9th sub-division of horizontal scale
with 10th division of the vertical divisions. Then draw parallel lines to this line from remaining sub divisions and
complete diagonal scale.
569 km
459 km
336 km
222 km
10
9
8
7
6
KM

5
4
3
2
1
0
KM
100 50 100
0 200 300 400 500KM
R.F. = 1 / 40,00,000

DIAGONAL SCALE SHOWING KILOMETERS.

 PROBLEM NO.5: A rectangular plot of land measuring 1.28 hectors is represented on a map by a similar rectangle
of 8 sq. cm. Calculate RF of the scale. Draw a diagonal scale to read single meter. Show a distance of 438 m on it.

SOLUTION : DIAGONAL
1 hector = 10, 000 sq. meters SCALE
1.28 hectors = 1.28 X 10, 000 sq. meters
Draw a line 15 cm long.
= 1.28 X 104 X 104 sq. cm
8 sq. cm area on map represents It will represent 600 m.Divide it in six equal parts.
= 1.28 X 104 X 104 sq. cm on land ( each will represent 100 m.)
1 cm sq. on map represents Divide first division in ten equal parts.Each will
= 1.28 X 10 4 X 104 / 8 sq cm on land represent 10 m.
1 cm on map represent Draw a line upward from left end and
mark 10 parts on it of any distance.
= 1.28 X 10 4 X 104 / 8 cm
Name those parts 0 to 10 as shown.Join 9th sub-division
= 4, 000 cm of horizontal scale with 10th division of the vertical divisions.
1 cm on drawing represent 4, 000 cm, Means RF = 1 / 4000 Then draw parallel lines to this line from remaining sub divisions
Assuming length of scale 15 cm, it will represent 600 m. and complete diagonal scale.
438 meters

10
9
8
7
6
5
M

4
3
2
1
0
100 50 100
M 0 200 300 400 500M
R.F. = 1 / 4000

DIAGONAL SCALE SHOWING METERS.

COMPARATIVE SCALES: EXAMPLE NO. 7 :
These are the Scales having same R.F. A distance of 40 miles is represented by a line
but graduated to read different units. 8 cm long. Construct a plain scale to read 80 miles.
These scales may be Plain scales or Diagonal scales Also construct a comparative scale to read kilometers
and may be constructed separately or one above the other. upto 120 km ( 1 m = 1.609 km )

SOLUTION STEPS:
CONSTRUCTION:
Scale of Miles:
Take a line 16 cm long and divide it into 8 parts. Each will represent 10 miles.
40 miles are represented = 8 cm
Subdivide the first part and each sub-division will measure single mile.
: 80 miles = 16 cm
R.F. = 8 / 40 X 1609 X 1000 X 100
= 1 / 8, 04, 500

Scale of Km: CONSTRUCTION:

Length of scale On the top line of the scale of miles cut off a distance of 14.90 cm and divide
= 1 / 8,04,500 X 120 X 1000 X 100 it into 12 equal parts. Each part will represent 10 km.
= 14. 90 cm Subdivide the first part into 10 equal parts. Each subdivision will show single km.

10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 KM
5

10 5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 MILES

R.F. = 1 / 804500
COMPARATIVE SCALE SHOWING MILES AND KILOMETERS
 SOLUTION STEPS:
Scale of km.
COMPARATIVE SCALE: length of scale = RF X 60 km
= 1 / 4,00,000 X 60 X 105
= 15 cm.
EXAMPLE NO. 8 : CONSTRUCTION:
A motor car is running at a speed of 60 kph. Draw a line 15 cm long and divide it in 6 equal parts.
On a scale of RF = 1 / 4,00,000 show the distance ( each part will represent 10 km.)
traveled by car in 47 minutes. Subdivide 1st part in `0 equal subdivisions.
( each will represent 1 km.)

Time Scale:
Same 15 cm line will represent 60 minutes.
Construct the scale similar to distance scale.
It will show minimum 1 minute & max. 60min.

47 MINUTES

10 5 0 10 20 30 40 50 MINUTES
MIN.

KM 5 40
10 0 10 20 30 50 KM

47 KM

R.F. = 1 / 4,00,000
COMPARATIVE SCALE SHOWING MINUTES AND KILOMETERS
EXAMPLE NO. 9 :
A car is traveling at a speed of 60 km per hour. A 4 cm long line represents the distance traveled by the car in two hours.
Construct a suitable comparative scale up to 10 hours. The scale should be able to read the distance traveled in one minute.
Show the time required to cover 476 km and also distance in 4 hours and 24 minutes.
SOLUTION: COMPARATIVE
4 cm line represents distance in two hours , means for 10 hours scale, 20 cm long line is required, as length
of scale.This length of scale will also represent 600 kms. ( as it is a distance traveled in 10 hours) SCALE:
CONSTRUCTION:
Distance Scale ( km)
Draw a line 20 cm long. Divide it in TEN equal parts.( Each will show 60 km)
Sub-divide 1st part in SIX subdivisions.( Each will represent 10 km)
At the left hand end of the line, draw a vertical line and on it step-off 10 equal divisions of any length.
And complete the diagonal scale to read minimum ONE km.
Time scale:
Draw a line 20 cm long. Divide it in TEN equal parts.( Each will show 1 hour) Sub-divide 1st part in SIX subdivisions.( Each will
represent 10 minutes) At the left hand end of the line, draw a vertical line and on it step-off 10 equal divisions of any length.
And complete the diagonal scale to read minimum ONE minute.
TIME SCALE TO MEASURE MIN 1 MINUTE.
10

MIN.0
60 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4 hrs 24 min. ( 264 kms ) HOURS
476 kms ( 7 hrs 56 min.)
10
kM

0
kM 60 0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540
DISTANCE SCALE TO MEASURE MIN 1 KM KILOMETERS
 Vernier Scales:
These scales, like diagonal scales , are used to read to a very small unit with great accuracy.
It consists of two parts – a primary scale and a vernier. The primary scale is a plain scale fully
divided into minor divisions.
As it would be difficult to sub-divide the minor divisions in ordinary way, it is done with the help of the vernier.
The graduations on vernier are derived from those on the primary scale.
Figure to the right shows a part of a plain scale in
which length A-O represents 10 cm. If we divide A-O
into ten equal parts, each will be of 1 cm. Now it would B 9.9 7.7 5.5 3.3 1.1 0
not be easy to divide each of these parts into ten
equal
divisions to get measurements in millimeters.
A 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Now if we take a length BO equal to 10 + 1 = 11 such

equal parts, thus representing 11 cm, and divide it into
ten equal divisions, each of these divisions will
represent 11 / 10 – 1.1 cm.

The difference between one part of AO and one

division of BO will be equal 1.1 – 1.0 = 0.1 cm or 1
mm.
This difference is called Least Count of the scale.
Minimum this distance can be measured by this scale.
The upper scale BO is the vernier.The combination of
plain scale and the vernier is vernier scale.
Example 10:
Draw a vernier scale of RF = 1 / 25 to read centimeters upto Vernier Scale
4 meters and on it, show lengths 2.39 m and 0.91 m

SOLUTION: CONSTRUCTION: ( vernier)

Length of scale = RF X max. Distance Take 11 parts of Dm length and divide it in 10 equal parts.
= 1 / 25 X 4 X 100 Each will show 0.11 m or 1.1 dm or 11 cm and construct a rectangle
= 16 cm Covering these parts of vernier.
CONSTRUCTION: ( Main scale)
Draw a line 16 cm long. TO MEASURE GIVEN LENGTHS:
Divide it in 4 equal parts. (1) For 2.39 m : Subtract 0.99 from 2.39 i.e. 2.39 - .99 = 1.4 m
( each will represent meter ) The distance between 0.99 ( left of Zero) and 1.4 (right of Zero) is 2.39 m
Sub-divide each part in 10 equal parts. (2) For 0.91 m : Subtract 0.11 from 0.91 i.e. 0.91 – 0.11 =0.80 m
( each will represent decimeter ) The distance between 0.11 and 0.80 (both left side of Zero) is 0.91 m
Name those properly.

2.39 m

0.91 m

1.1 .99 .77 .55 .33 .11 0

1.0 .9 .8 .7 .6 .5 .4 .3 .2 .1 0 1 1.4 2 3 METERS

METERS
Example 11: A map of size 500cm X 50cm wide represents an area of 6250 sq.Kms.
Construct a vernier scaleto measure kilometers, hectometers and decameters Vernier Scale
and long enough to measure upto 7 km. Indicate on it a) 5.33 km b) 59 decameters.
SOLUTION: CONSTRUCTION: ( Main scale) TO MEASURE GIVEN LENGTHS:
AREA OF DRAWING Draw a line 14 cm long. a) For 5.33 km :
RF = Divide it in 7 equal parts. Subtract 0.33 from 5.33
V ACTUAL AREA
i.e. 5.33 - 0.33 = 5.00
( each will represent km )
= 500 X 50 cm sq. Sub-divide each part in 10 equal parts. The distance between 33 dm
V 6250 km sq. ( left of Zero) and
( each will represent hectometer ) 5.00 (right of Zero) is 5.33 k m
= 2 / 105 Name those properly. (b) For 59 dm :
Subtract 0.99 from 0.59
Length of CONSTRUCTION: ( vernier) i.e. 0.59 – 0.99 = - 0.4 km
scale = RF X max. Distance ( - ve sign means left of Zero)
Take 11 parts of hectometer part length
= 2 / 105 X 7 kms The distance between 99 dm and
and divide it in 10 equal parts. - .4 km is 59 dm
= 14 cm Each will show 1.1 hm m or 11 dm and (both left side of Zero)
Covering in a rectangle complete scale.

59 dm 5.33 km
Decameters
99 77 55 33 11

90 70 50 30 10

10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
HECTOMETERS
KILOMETERS
 800 900
700
600 SCALE OF CORDS
500

400

300

200

100

00 A O
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

CONSTRUCTION:
1. DRAW SECTOR OF A CIRCLE OF 900 WITH ‘OA’ RADIUS.
( ‘OA’ ANY CONVINIENT DISTANCE )
2. DIVIDE THIS ANGLE IN NINE EQUAL PARTS OF 10 0 EACH.
3. NAME AS SHOWN FROM END ‘A’ UPWARDS.
4. FROM ‘A’ AS CENTER, WITH CORDS OF EACH ANGLE AS RADIUS
DRAW ARCS DOWNWARDS UP TO ‘AO’ LINE OR IT’S EXTENSION
AND FORM A SCALE WITH PROPER LABELING AS SHOWN.

AS CORD LENGTHS ARE USED TO MEASURE & CONSTRUCT

DIFERENT ANGLES IT IS CALLED SCALE OF CORDS.
PROBLEM 12: Construct any triangle and measure it’s angles by using scale of cords.
CONSTRUCTION:
First prepare Scale of Cords for the problem. 0
Then construct a triangle of given sides. ( You are supposed to measure angles x, y and z) 800 90
700
To measure angle at x: 600
Take O-A distance in compass from cords scale and mark it on lower side of triangle 500
as shown from corner x. Name O & A as shown. Then O as center, O-A radius 400
draw an arc upto upper adjacent side.Name the point B.
Take A-B cord in compass and place on scale of cords from Zero. 300
It will give value of angle at x
To measure angle at y: 200
Repeat same process from O1. Draw arc with radius O1A1. 100
Place Cord A1B1 on scale and get angle at y.
A O
To measure angle at z: 00
Subtract the SUM of these two angles from 1800 to get angle at z. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

B1
z
B
SCALE OF CORDS
550 300
y x
O1 A1 A O

Angle at z = 180 – ( 55 + 30 ) = 950

PROBLEM 12: Construct 250 and 1150 angles with a horizontal line , by using scale of cord
CONSTRUCTION:
First prepare Scale of Cords for the problem. 0
Then Draw a horizontal line. Mark point O on it. 800 90
700
To construct 250 angle at O. 600
Take O-A distance in compass from cords scale and mark it on on the line drawn, from O 500
Name O & A as shown. Then O as center, O-A radius draw an arc upward.. 400
Take cord length of 250 angle from scale of cords in compass and
from A cut the arc at point B.Join B with O. The angle AOB is thus 250 300
To construct 1150 angle at O.
200
This scale can measure or construct angles upto 900 only directly.
Hence Subtract 1150 from 1800.We get 750 angle , 100
which can be constructed with this scale. A O
Extend previous arc of OA radius and taking cord length of 750 in compass cut this arc 00
at B1 with A as center. Join B1 with O. Now angle AOB1 is 750 and angle COB1 is 1150. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

SCALE OF CORDS
B B1

250
A O
750
1150

C
A O

To construct 1150 angle at O.

To construct 250 angle at O.
 ENGINEERING CURVES
Part- I {Conic Sections}

ELLIPSE PARABOLA HYPERBOLA

1.Concentric Circle Method 1.Rectangle Method 1.Rectangular Hyperbola

(coordinates given)
2.Rectangle Method 2 Method of Tangents
( Triangle Method) 2 Rectangular Hyperbola
3.Oblong Method (P-V diagram - Equation given)
3.Basic Locus Method
4.Arcs of Circle Method (Directrix – focus) 3.Basic Locus Method
(Directrix – focus)
5.Rhombus Metho
Methods of Drawing
6.Basic Locus Method Tangents & Normals
(Directrix – focus) To These Curves.
 CONIC SECTIONS
ELLIPSE, PARABOLA AND HYPERBOLA ARE CALLED CONIC SECTIONS
BECAUSE
THESE CURVES APPEAR ON THE SURFACE OF A CONE
WHEN IT IS CUT BY SOME TYPICAL CUTTING PLANES.
OBSERVE
ILLUSTRATIONS
GIVEN BELOW..

Ellipse

Section Plane Section Plane

Through Generators Hyperbola
Parallel to Axis.

Section Plane Parallel

to end generator.
 COMMON DEFINATION OF ELLIPSE, PARABOLA & HYPERBOLA:
These are the loci of points moving in a plane such that the ratio of it’s distances
from a fixed point And a fixed line always remains constant.
The Ratio is called ECCENTRICITY. (E)
A) For Ellipse E<1
B) For Parabola E=1
C) For Hyperbola E>1

Refer Problem nos. 6. 9 & 12

SECOND DEFINATION OF AN ELLIPSE:-
It is a locus of a point moving in a plane
such that the SUM of it’s distances from TWO fixed points
always remains constant.
{And this sum equals to the length of major axis.}
These TWO fixed points are FOCUS 1 & FOCUS 2
Refer Problem no.4
Ellipse by Arcs of Circles Method.
 ELLIPSE
BY CONCENTRIC CIRCLE METHOD
Problem 1 :-
Draw ellipse by concentric circle method.
3
Take major axis 100 mm and minor axis 70 mm 2 4
Steps: long.
1. Draw both axes as perpendicular bisectors C
of each other & name their ends as shown.
2. Taking their intersecting point as a center, 1 5
3
2 4
draw two concentric circles considering both
as respective diameters.
1 5
3. Divide both circles in 12 equal parts &
name as shown.
A B
4. From all points of outer circle draw vertical
lines downwards and upwards respectively.
5.From all points of inner circle draw 10 6
horizontal lines to intersect those vertical
lines. 10 9 7 6
6. Mark all intersecting points properly as 8
those are the points on ellipse. D
7. Join all these points along with the ends of
both axes in smooth possible curve. It is 9 7
required ellipse.
8
Steps:
ELLIPSE
BY RECTANGLE METHOD
1 Draw a rectangle taking major
and minor axes as sides.
2. In this rectangle draw both
Problem 2
axes as perpendicular bisectors of
each other.. Draw ellipse by Rectangle method.
3. For construction, select upper Take major axis 100 mm and minor axis 70 mm
left part of rectangle. Divide long.
vertical small side and horizontal
long side into same number of D 4
4
equal parts.( here divided in four
parts) 3 3
4. Name those as shown..
5. Now join all vertical points 2 2
1,2,3,4, to the upper end of minor
1 1
axis. And all horizontal points
i.e.1,2,3,4 to the lower end of
minor axis. A B
6. Then extend C-1 line upto D-1
and mark that point. Similarly
extend C-2, C-3, C-4 lines up to
D-2, D-3, & D-4 lines.
7. Mark all these points properly
and join all along with ends A
and D in smooth possible curve.
Do similar construction in right C
side part.along with lower half of
the rectangle.Join all points in
smooth curve.
It is required ellipse.
 ELLIPSE
Problem 3:- BY OBLONG METHOD
Draw ellipse by Oblong method.
Draw a parallelogram of 100 mm and 70 mm
long sides with included angle of 750.Inscribe
STEPSEllipse in it. TO
ARE SIMILAR
THE PREVIOUS CASE
(RECTANGLE METHOD)
ONLY IN PLACE OF RECTANGLE,
HERE IS A PARALLELOGRAM.

4 4

3 3

2 2

1
1

A B
PROBLEM 4. ELLIPSE
MAJOR AXIS AB & MINOR AXIS CD ARE
BY ARCS OF CIRCLE METHOD
100 AMD 70MM LONG RESPECTIVELY
.DRAW ELLIPSE BY ARCS OF CIRLES
METHOD. As per the definition Ellipse is locus of point P moving in
a plane such that the SUM of it’s distances from two fixed
STEPS: points (F1 & F2) remains constant and equals to the length
1.Draw both axes as usual.Name the of major axis AB.(Note A .1+ B .1=A . 2 + B. 2 = AB)
ends & intersecting point
2.Taking AO distance I.e.half major
axis, from C, mark F1 & F2 On AB . p4 C
( focus 1 and 2.) p3
3.On line F1- O taking any distance, p2
mark points 1,2,3, & 4
p1
4.Taking F1 center, with distance A-1
draw an arc above AB and taking F2
center, with B-1 distance cut this arc.
Name the point p1
5.Repeat this step with same centers but A B
1 2 3 4 O
taking now A-2 & B-2 distances for F1 F2
drawing arcs. Name the point p2
6.Similarly get all other P points.
With same steps positions of P can be
located below AB.
7.Join all points by smooth curve to get
an ellipse/
D
PROBLEM 6:- POINT F IS 50 MM FROM A LINE AB.A POINT P IS MOVING IN A PLANE ELLIPSE
SUCH THAT THE RATIO OF IT’S DISTANCES FROM F AND LINE AB REMAINS CONSTANT
AND EQUALS TO 2/3 DRAW LOCUS OF POINT P. { ECCENTRICITY = 2/3 } DIRECTRIX-FOCUS METHOD

ELLIPSE
A
STEPS:
1 .Draw a vertical line AB and point F
50 mm from it.
2 .Divide 50 mm distance in 5 parts. 45mm
3 .Name 2nd part from F as V. It is 20mm
and 30mm from F and AB line resp.
It is first point giving ratio of it’s
distances from F and AB 2/3 i.e 20/30
4 Form more points giving same ratio such
as 30/45, 40/60, 50/75 etc. (vertex) V
5.Taking 45,60 and 75mm distances from F ( focus)
line AB, draw three vertical lines to the
right side of it.
6. Now with 30, 40 and 50mm distances in
compass cut these lines above and below,
with F as center.
7. Join these points through V in smooth
curve.
This is required locus of P.It is an ELLIPSE.

B
PROBLEM 7: A BALL THROWN IN AIR ATTAINS 100 M HIEGHT
PARABOLA
AND COVERS HORIZONTAL DISTANCE 150 M ON GROUND. RECTANGLE METHOD
Draw the path of the ball (projectile)-

STEPS: 6
6
1.Draw rectangle of above size and
divide it in two equal vertical parts
2.Consider left part for construction. 5 5
Divide height and length in equal
number of parts and name those
1,2,3,4,5& 6 4
3.Join vertical 1,2,3,4,5 & 6 to the
4
top center of rectangle
4.Similarly draw upward vertical
lines from horizontal1,2,3,4,5 3 3
And wherever these lines intersect
previously drawn inclined lines in
sequence Mark those points and 2 2
further join in smooth possible curve.
5.Repeat the construction on right side
rectangle also.Join all in sequence. 1 1
This locus is Parabola.
.

1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1
Problem no.8: Draw an isosceles triangle of 100 mm long base and PARABOLA
110 mm long altitude.Inscribe a parabola in it by method of tangents. METHOD OF TANGENTS

Solution Steps: C
1. Construct triangle as per the given
dimensions.
2. Divide it’s both sides in to same no.of
equal parts.
3. Name the parts in ascending and
descending manner, as shown.
4. Join 1-1, 2-2,3-3 and so on.
5. Draw the curve as shown i.e.tangent to
all these lines. The above all lines being
tangents to the curve, it is called method
of tangents.

A B
PROBLEM 9: Point F is 50 mm from a vertical straight line AB. PARABOLA
Draw locus of point P, moving in a plane such that DIRECTRIX-FOCUS METHOD
it always remains equidistant from point F and line AB.

PARABOLA
SOLUTION STEPS:
1.Locate center of line, perpendicular to A
AB from point F. This will be initial
point P and also the vertex.
2.Mark 5 mm distance to its right side,
name those points 1,2,3,4 and from P1
those
draw lines parallel to AB.
3.Mark 5 mm distance to its left of P and (VERTEX)V
name it 1. F
4.Take O-1 distance as radius and F as
O 1 2 3 4
center draw an arc ( focus)
cutting first parallel line to AB. Name
upper point P1 and lower point P2.
P2
(FP1=O1)

5.Similarly repeat this process by taking

again 5mm to right and left and locate
P3P4.
B
6.Join all these points in smooth curve.

It will be the locus of P equidistance

from line AB and fixed point F.
Problem No.10: Point P is 40 mm and 30 mm from horizontal HYPERBOLA
and vertical axes respectively.Draw Hyperbola through it. THROUGH A POINT
OF KNOWN CO-ORDINATES
Solution Steps:
1) Extend horizontal
line from P to right side. 2
2) Extend vertical line
from P upward.
3) On horizontal line
from P, mark some points
taking any distance and
name them after P-1,
2,3,4 etc.
4) Join 1-2-3-4 points
to pole O. Let them cut 1
part [P-B] also at 1,2,3,4
points.
5) From horizontal
1,2,3,4 draw vertical 2 1 P 1 2 3
lines downwards and
6) From vertical 1,2,3,4
points [from P-B] draw
1
horizontal lines.
7) Line from 1 40 mm 2
horizontal and line from
1 vertical will meet at 3
P1.Similarly mark P2, P3,
P4 points. O
8) Repeat the procedure
by marking four points 30 mm
on upward vertical line
from P and joining all
those to pole O. Name
this points P6, P7, P8 etc.
and join them by smooth
curve.
Problem no.11: A sample of gas is expanded in a cylinder HYPERBOLA
from 10 unit pressure to 1 unit pressure.Expansion follows
law PV=Constant.If initial volume being 1 unit, draw the
P-V DIAGRAM
curve of expansion. Also Name the curve.

Form a table giving few more values of P & V 10

P V = C 9
10 1 = 10
5 2 = 10 8
4 2.5 = 10
2.5 4 = 10 7
2 5 = 10
1 10 = 10 6

PRESSURE
Now draw a Graph of

( Kg/cm2)
Pressure against Volume.
5
It is a PV Diagram and it is Hyperbola.
Take pressure on vertical axis and 4
Volume on horizontal axis.
3
2
1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
VOLUME:( M3 )
PROBLEM 12:- POINT F IS 50 MM FROM A LINE AB.A POINT P IS MOVING IN A PLANE HYPERBOLA
SUCH THAT THE RATIO OF IT’S DISTANCES FROM F AND LINE AB REMAINS CONSTANT
AND EQUALS TO 2/3 DRAW LOCUS OF POINT P. { ECCENTRICITY = 2/3 }
DIRECTRIX
FOCUS METHOD

STEPS: A
1 .Draw a vertical line AB and point F
50 mm from it.
2 .Divide 50 mm distance in 5 parts. 30mm
3 .Name 2nd part from F as V. It is 20mm
and 30mm from F and AB line resp.
It is first point giving ratio of it’s
distances from F and AB 2/3 i.e 20/30
4 Form more points giving same ratio such
as 30/45, 40/60, 50/75 etc. (vertex)
V
F ( focus)
5.Taking 45,60 and 75mm distances from
line AB, draw three vertical lines to the
right side of it.
6. Now with 30, 40 and 50mm distances in
compass cut these lines above and below,
with F as center.
7. Join these points through V in smooth
curve.
This is required locus of P.It is an ELLIPSE.

B
 ELLIPSE
Problem 14:
TANGENT & NORMAL
TO DRAW TANGENT & NORMAL
TO THE CURVE
ELLIPSE
FROM A GIVEN POINT ( Q ) A

1.JOIN POINT Q TO F. T
2.CONSTRUCT 900 ANGLE WITH
THIS LINE AT POINT F
3.EXTEND THE LINE TO MEET DIRECTRIX
AT T
4. JOIN THIS POINT TO Q AND EXTEND. THIS IS
TANGENT TO ELLIPSE FROM Q (vertex) V
5.TO THIS TANGENT DRAW PERPENDICULAR
F ( focus)
LINE FROM Q. IT IS NORMAL TO CURVE. 900
N

Q
N

T
 PARABOLA
Problem 15: TANGENT & NORMAL
TO DRAW TANGENT & NORMAL
TO THE CURVE T PARABOLA
FROM A GIVEN POINT ( Q )
A

1.JOIN POINT Q TO F.
2.CONSTRUCT 900 ANGLE WITH
THIS LINE AT POINT F
3.EXTEND THE LINE TO MEET DIRECTRIX
AT T
4. JOIN THIS POINT TO Q AND EXTEND. THIS IS
VERTEXV F
TANGENT TO THE CURVE FROM Q 900
5.TO THIS TANGENT DRAW PERPENDICULAR ( focus)
LINE FROM Q. IT IS NORMAL TO CURVE.
N

Q
B N

T
 HYPERBOLA
Problem 16
TANGENT & NORMAL
TO DRAW TANGENT & NORMAL
TO THE CURVE
FROM A GIVEN POINT ( Q ) A

1.JOIN POINT Q TO F.
2.CONSTRUCT 900 ANGLE WITH THIS LINE AT
POINT F T
3.EXTEND THE LINE TO MEET DIRECTRIX AT T
4. JOIN THIS POINT TO Q AND EXTEND. THIS IS
TANGENT TO CURVE FROM Q
(vertex)
V
F ( focus)
5.TO THIS TANGENT DRAW PERPENDICULAR 900
LINE FROM Q. IT IS NORMAL TO CURVE.
N

N Q

T
 ENGINEERING CURVES
Part-II
(Point undergoing two types of displacements)

INVOLUTE CYCLOID SPIRAL HELIX

1. Involute of a circle 1. General Cycloid 1. Spiral of 1. On Cylinder
a)String Length = D One Convolution.
2. Trochoid 2. On a Cone
b)String Length > D ( superior) 2. Spiral of
3. Trochoid Two Convolutions.
c)String Length < D ( Inferior)
4. Epi-Cycloid
2. Pole having Composite
shape. 5. Hypo-Cycloid

3. Rod Rolling over AND Methods of Drawing

Tangents & Normals
a Semicircular Pole.
To These Curves.
 DEFINITIONS
CYCLOID:
IT IS A LOCUS OF A POINT ON THE SUPERIORTROCHOID:
PERIPHERY OF A CIRCLE WHICH IF THE POINT IN THE DEFINATION
ROLLS ON A STRAIGHT LINE PATH. OF CYCLOID IS OUTSIDE THE
CIRCLE

INVOLUTE: INFERIOR TROCHOID.:

IT IS A LOCUS OF A FREE END OF A STRINGIF IT IS INSIDE THE CIRCLE
WHEN IT IS WOUND ROUND A CIRCULAR POLE
EPI-CYCLOID
IF THE CIRCLE IS ROLLING ON
SPIRAL: ANOTHER CIRCLE FROM OUTSIDE
IT IS A CURVE GENERATED BY A POINT
WHICH REVOLVES AROUND A FIXED POINT HYPO-CYCLOID.
AND AT THE SAME MOVES TOWARDS IT. IF THE CIRCLE IS ROLLING FROM
INSIDE THE OTHER CIRCLE,

HELIX:
IT IS A CURVE GENERATED BY A POINT WHICH
MOVES AROUND THE SURFACE OF A RIGHT CIRCULAR
CYLINDER / CONE AND AT THE SAME TIME ADVANCES IN AXIAL DIRECTION
 Problem no 17: Draw Involute of a circle. INVOLUTE OF A CIRCLE
String length is equal to the circumference of circle.
Solution Steps:
1) Point or end P of string AP is
exactly D distance away from A.
Means if this string is wound round
the circle, it will completely cover P2
given circle. B will meet A after
winding.
2) Divide D (AP) distance into 8 P3
number of equal parts. P1
3) Divide circle also into 8 number
of equal parts.
4) Name after A, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. up
to 8 on D line AP as well as on
circle (in anticlockwise direction).
5) To radius C-1, C-2, C-3 up to C-8
draw tangents (from 1,2,3,4,etc to 4 to p
circle). P4
4
6) Take distance 1 to P in compass 3
and mark it on tangent from point 1 5
on circle (means one division less 2
than distance AP). 6
7) Name this point P1 1
8) Take 2-B distance in compass 7 A
and mark it on the tangent from
8
P5 P
point 2. Name it point P2. P8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9) Similarly take 3 to P, 4 to P, 5 to P7
P up to 7 to P distance in compass P6 
and mark on respective tangents
and locate P3, P4, P5 up to P8 (i.e. D
A) points and join them in smooth
curve it is an INVOLUTE of a given
circle.
 INVOLUTE OF A CIRCLE
Problem 18: Draw Involute of a circle.
String length MORE than D
String length is MORE than the circumference of circle.

Solution Steps: P2
In this case string length is more
than  D.
But remember!
Whatever may be the length of P3 P1
string, mark  D distance
horizontal i.e.along the string
and divide it in 8 number of
equal parts, and not any other
distance. Rest all steps are same
as previous INVOLUTE. Draw
the curve completely.

4 to p
P4 4
3
5
2
6
1
P5 7
8
p8 1 P
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
P7
165 mm
P6 (more than D)
D
Problem 19: Draw Involute of a circle. INVOLUTE OF A CIRCLE
String length is LESS than the circumference of circle. String length LESS than D

Solution Steps: P2
In this case string length is Less
than  D.
But remember!
Whatever may be the length of P3
P1
string, mark  D distance
horizontal i.e.along the string
and divide it in 8 number of
equal parts, and not any other
distance. Rest all steps are same
as previous INVOLUTE. Draw
the curve completely.
4 to p
P4 4
3
5
2
6
1
P5 7 P
8
P7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
P6
150 mm
(Less than D)

D
PROBLEM 22: DRAW LOCUS OF A POINT ON THE PERIPHERY OF A CIRCLE CYCLOID
WHICH ROLLS ON STRAIGHT LINE PATH. Take Circle diameter as 50 mm

p4
4
p3 p5
3 5

C p2 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 p6 C
8
2 6

p1
1 p7
7
P p8

D

Solution Steps:
1) From center C draw a horizontal line equal to D distance.
2) Divide D distance into 8 number of equal parts and name them C1, C2, C3__ etc.
3) Divide the circle also into 8 number of equal parts and in clock wise direction, after P name 1, 2, 3 up to 8.
4) From all these points on circle draw horizontal lines. (parallel to locus of C)
5) With a fixed distance C-P in compass, C1 as center, mark a point on horizontal line from 1. Name it P.
6) Repeat this procedure from C2, C3, C4 upto C8 as centers. Mark points P2, P3, P4, P5 up to P8 on the
horizontal lines drawn from 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 respectively.
7) Join all these points by curve. It is Cycloid.
 PROBLEM 23: DRAW LOCUS OF A POINT , 5 MM AWAY FROM THE PERIPHERY OF A SUPERIOR TROCHOID
CIRCLE WHICH ROLLS ON STRAIGHT LINE PATH. Take Circle diameter as 50 mm

4 p4

p3 p5
3 5

p2 C C1 C C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 p6
2 6 2

p7
1 p1 7
P D p8

Solution Steps:
1) Draw circle of given diameter and draw a horizontal line from it’s center C of length  D and divide it
in 8 number of equal parts and name them C1, C2, C3, up to C8.
2) Draw circle by CP radius, as in this case CP is larger than radius of circle.
3) Now repeat steps as per the previous problem of cycloid, by dividing this new circle into 8 number of
equal parts and drawing lines from all these points parallel to locus of C and taking CP radius wit
different positions of C as centers, cut these lines and get different positions of P and join
4) This curve is called Superior Trochoid.
 INFERIOR TROCHOID
PROBLEM 24: DRAW LOCUS OF A POINT , 5 MM INSIDE THE PERIPHERY OF A
CIRCLE WHICH ROLLS ON STRAIGHT LINE PATH. Take Circle diameter as 50 mm

p4
4
p p5
3 5
p2 3
C C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7p6 C8
2 6
p1 p7
1 7
P p8

D

Solution Steps:
1) Draw circle of given diameter and draw a horizontal line from it’s center C of length  D and divide it
in 8 number of equal parts and name them C1, C2, C3, up to C8.
2) Draw circle by CP radius, as in this case CP is SHORTER than radius of circle.
3) Now repeat steps as per the previous problem of cycloid, by dividing this new circle into 8 number
of equal parts and drawing lines from all these points parallel to locus of C and taking CP radius
with different positions of C as centers, cut these lines and get different positions of P and join
those in curvature.
4) This curve is called Inferior Trochoid.
PROBLEM 25: DRAW LOCUS OF A POINT ON THE PERIPHERY OF A CIRCLE
WHICH ROLLS ON A CURVED PATH. Take diameter of rolling Circle 50 mm
EPI CYCLOID :
And radius of directing circle i.e. curved path, 75 mm.

Solution Steps:
1) When smaller circle will roll on
larger circle for one revolution it will
cover  D distance on arc and it will be
decided by included arc angle .
2) Calculate  by formula  = (r/R) x
Generating/
3600. Rolling Circle
3) Construct angle  with radius OC 4 5
and draw an arc by taking O as center C2
OC as radius and form sector of angle 3 6
.
4) Divide this sector into 8 number of 7
equal angular parts. And from C 2
onward name them C1, C2, C3 up to
C8.
1 P
r = CP
5) Divide smaller circle (Generating
circle) also in 8 number of equal parts.
And next to P in clockwise direction Directing Circle
name those 1, 2, 3, up to 8.
6) With O as center, O-1 as radius
draw an arc in the sector. Take O-2, O- = r 3600
R
3, O-4, O-5 up to O-8 distances with
center O, draw all concentric arcs in O
sector. Take fixed distance C-P in
compass, C1 center, cut arc of 1 at P1.
Repeat procedure and locate P2, P3,
P4, P5 unto P8 (as in cycloid) and join
them by smooth curve. This is EPI –
CYCLOID.
PROBLEM 26: DRAW LOCUS OF A POINT ON THE PERIPHERY OF A CIRCLE
WHICH ROLLS FROM THE INSIDE OF A CURVED PATH. Take diameter of HYPO CYCLOID
rolling circle 50 mm and radius of directing circle (curved path) 75 mm.

Solution Steps:
1) Smaller circle is rolling
here, inside the larger
circle. It has to rotate
anticlockwise to move P 7
ahead.
2) Same steps should be P1
6
taken as in case of EPI –
CYCLOID. Only change is 1 P2
in numbering direction of 8
number of equal parts on
P3 5
the smaller circle.
3) From next to P in 2
anticlockwise direction,
4 P4
name 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8. 3
4) Further all steps are P8
P5
that of epi – cycloid. This P6 P7
is called
HYPO – CYCLOID.
r
= 3600
R
O

OC = R ( Radius of Directing Circle)

CP = r (Radius of Generating Circle)
 Problem 27: Draw a spiral of one convolution. Take distance PO 40 mm. SPIRAL
IMPORTANT APPROACH FOR CONSTRUCTION!
FIND TOTAL ANGULAR AND TOTAL LINEAR DISPLACEMENT
AND DIVIDE BOTH IN TO SAME NUMBER OF EQUAL PARTS.
2

P2
Solution Steps 3 1
P1
1. With PO radius draw a circle
and divide it in EIGHT parts. P3
Name those 1,2,3,4, etc. up to 8
2 .Similarly divided line PO also in
EIGHT parts and name those 4 P4 O P
1,2,3,-- as shown. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
P7
3. Take o-1 distance from op line
P5 P6
and draw an arc up to O1 radius
vector. Name the point P1
4. Similarly mark points P2, P3, P4
5 7
up to P8
And join those in a smooth curve.
It is a SPIRAL of one convolution. 6
Problem 28 SPIRAL
Point P is 80 mm from point O. It starts moving towards O and reaches it in two of
revolutions around.it Draw locus of point P (To draw a Spiral of TWO convolutions).
two convolutions
IMPORTANT APPROACH FOR CONSTRUCTION!
FIND TOTAL ANGULAR AND TOTAL LINEAR DISPLACEMENT
AND DIVIDE BOTH IN TO SAME NUMBER OF EQUAL PARTS.

2,10
P2

3,11 P1 1,9
SOLUTION STEPS: P3

Total angular displacement here P10

P9
is two revolutions And
Total Linear displacement here P11
16 13 10 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 P
is distance PO. P4 P8 8,16
Just divide both in same parts i.e. 4,12 P12
P15

Circle in EIGHT parts. P13 P14

( means total angular displacement
in SIXTEEN parts) P7
P5
Divide PO also in SIXTEEN parts.
Rest steps are similar to the previous P6
7,15
5,13
problem.

6,14
 HELIX
(UPON A CYLINDER)
PROBLEM: Draw a helix of one convolution, upon a cylinder. P8
Given 80 mm pitch and 50 mm diameter of a cylinder. 8
(The axial advance during one complete revolution is called P7
The pitch of the helix) 7
P6
6
P5
SOLUTION: 5
Draw projections of a cylinder.
Divide circle and axis in to same no. of equal parts. ( 8 ) 4 P4
Name those as shown.
Mark initial position of point ‘P’
3 P3
Mark various positions of P as shown in animation. 2 P2
Join all points by smooth possible curve.
Make upper half dotted, as it is going behind the solid 1 P1
and hence will not be seen from front side.
P
6

7 5

P 4

1 3

2
 HELIX
PROBLEM: Draw a helix of one convolution, upon a cone, P8
(UPON A CONE)
diameter of base 70 mm, axis 90 mm and 90 mm pitch.
(The axial advance during one complete revolution is called P7
The pitch of the helix)
P6

P5
SOLUTION:
Draw projections of a cone
Divide circle and axis in to same no. of equal parts. ( 8 ) P4
Name those as shown.
Mark initial position of point ‘P’ P3
Mark various positions of P as shown in animation.
Join all points by smooth possible curve. P2
Make upper half dotted, as it is going behind the solid
and hence will not be seen from front side. P1
X P Y

7 5

P6 P5
P7 P4
P 4
P8

P1 P3
1 3
P2
2
STEPS: Involute
DRAW INVOLUTE AS USUAL.
Method of Drawing
MARK POINT Q ON IT AS DIRECTED. Tangent & Normal
JOIN Q TO THE CENTER OF CIRCLE C.
CONSIDERING CQ DIAMETER, DRAW
A SEMICIRCLE AS SHOWN.
INVOLUTE OF A CIRCLE
MARK POINT OF INTERSECTION OF
THIS SEMICIRCLE AND POLE CIRCLE
AND JOIN IT TO Q. Q
THIS WILL BE NORMAL TO INVOLUTE.

DRAW A LINE AT RIGHT ANGLE TO

THIS LINE FROM Q.

IT WILL BE TANGENT TO INVOLUTE.

4
3
5
C 2
6
1
7
8
P
P8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8


D
STEPS:
DRAW CYCLOID AS USUAL. CYCLOID
MARK POINT Q ON IT AS DIRECTED.
Method of Drawing
WITH CP DISTANCE, FROM Q. CUT THE Tangent & Normal
POINT ON LOCUS OF C AND JOIN IT TO Q.

FROM THIS POINT DROP A PERPENDICULAR

ON GROUND LINE AND NAME IT N

JOIN N WITH Q.THIS WILL BE NORMAL TO

CYCLOID.

DRAW A LINE AT RIGHT ANGLE TO

THIS LINE FROM Q.

IT WILL BE TANGENT TO CYCLOID.

CYCLOID

C C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8

P N
D
 Spiral.
Method of Drawing
Tangent & Normal
SPIRAL (ONE CONVOLUSION.)
2

P2
3 1 Difference in length of any radius vectors
Q P1 Constant of the Curve =
Angle between the corresponding
radius vector in radian.
P3
OP – OP2 OP – OP2
= =
/2 1.57

4 P4 O P = 3.185 m.m.
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
P7 STEPS:
*DRAW SPIRAL AS USUAL.
P5 P6 DRAW A SMALL CIRCLE OF RADIUS EQUAL TO THE
CONSTANT OF CURVE CALCULATED ABOVE.

* LOCATE POINT Q AS DISCRIBED IN PROBLEM AND

5 7 THROUGH IT DRAW A TANGENTTO THIS SMALLER
CIRCLE.THIS IS A NORMAL TO THE SPIRAL.

*DRAW A LINE AT RIGHT ANGLE

6
*TO THIS LINE FROM Q.
IT WILL BE TANGENT TO CYCLOID.
 LOCUS
It is a path traced out by a point moving in a plane,
in a particular manner, for one cycle of operation.

The cases are classified in THREE categories for easy understanding.

A} Basic Locus Cases.
B} Oscillating Link……
C} Rotating Link………
Basic Locus Cases:
Here some geometrical objects like point, line, circle will be described with there relative
Positions. Then one point will be allowed to move in a plane maintaining specific relation
with above objects. And studying situation carefully you will be asked to draw it’s locus.
Oscillating & Rotating Link:
Here a link oscillating from one end or rotating around it’s center will be described.
Then a point will be allowed to slide along the link in specific manner. And now studying
the situation carefully you will be asked to draw it’s locus.

STUDY TEN CASES GIVEN ON NEXT PAGES

 Basic Locus Cases:
PROBLEM 1.: Point F is 50 mm from a vertical straight line AB.
Draw locus of point P, moving in a plane such that
it always remains equidistant from point F and line AB.

P7
A P5
SOLUTION STEPS:
1.Locate center of line, perpendicular to P3
AB from point F. This will be initial
point P.
P1
2.Mark 5 mm distance to its right side,
name those points 1,2,3,4 and from those
draw lines parallel to AB.
3.Mark 5 mm distance to its left of P and p
name it 1. 1 2 3 4
F
4 3 2 1
4.Take F-1 distance as radius and F as
center draw an arc
cutting first parallel line to AB. Name
upper point P1 and lower point P2. P2
5.Similarly repeat this process by taking
again 5mm to right and left and locate
P4
P3P4.
6.Join all these points in smooth curve. P6
B P8
It will be the locus of P equidistance
from line AB and fixed point F.