SCALES

DIMENSIONS OF LARGE OBJECTS MUST BE REDUCED TO ACCOMMODATE

ON STANDARD SIZE DRAWING SHEET.THIS REDUCTION CREATES A SCALE
OF THAT REDUCTION RATIO, WHICH IS GENERALLY A FRACTION..
SUCH A SCALE IS CALLED REDUCING SCALE
AND
THAT RATIO IS CALLED REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION
SIMILARLY IN CASE OF TINY OBJECTS DIMENSIONS MUST BE INCREASED
FOR ABOVE PURPOSE. HENCE THIS SCALE IS CALLED ENLARGING SCALE.
HERE THE RATIO CALLED REPRESENTATIVE FACTOR IS MORE THAN UNITY.

FOR FULL SIZE SCALE

R.F.=1 OR ( 1:1 )
MEANS DRAWING
& OBJECT ARE OF
SAME SIZE.
Other RFs are described
as
1:10,
1:100,
1:1000, 1:1,00,000

USE FOLLOWING FORMULAS FOR THE CALCULATIONS IN THIS TOPIC.

REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION (R.F.)

=
B

LENGTH OF DRAWING in cm
ACTUAL LENGTH in cm
AREA OF DRAWING in cm
V ACTUAL AREA in cm
VOLUME AS PER DRWG in cm.
3

V ACTUAL VOLUME in cm

LENGTH OF SCALE (in cm) = R.F. X MAX. LENGTH TO BE MEASURED in cm.

BE FRIENDLY WITH THESE UNITS.

Area
1HECTARE = 10000 m

1 KILOMETRE
1 HECTOMETRE
1 DECAMETRE
1 METRE
1 DECIMETRE
1 CENTIMETRE

= 10 HECTOMETRES =105cm
= 10 DECAMETRES = 104cm
= 10 METRES = 103 cm
= 10 DECIMETRES = 102 cm
= 10 CENTIMETRES = 10 cm
= 10 MILIMETRES

1m2= 104 cm2

Volume
TYPES OF SCALES:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

1m3= 106 cm3

PLAIN SCALES
( FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO SINGLE DECIMAL)
DIAGONAL SCALES
( FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO TWO DECIMALS)
VERNIER SCALES
( FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO TWO DECIMALS)
COMPARATIVE SCALES ( FOR COMPARING TWO DIFFERENT UNITS)
SCALE OF CHORDS
( FOR MEASURING/CONSTRUCTING ANGLES)

Problem 6: A 3.2 cm long line represents a length of 4 metres. Extend this line to
measure lengths up to 25 metres and show on it units of metre and 5 metres. Show the
length of 17 metre on this line.
R.F=

Length on drawing in cm

Actual length of object in cm

L.O.S.= R.F.x Max. Length in cm =

1
125

3.2 cm
4m

3.2 cm
4 x100cm

8
1000

1
125

X 25X100 cm = 20 cm

Hint: As we have to show units of 5 metre, so a 25 m long line

should be divided in to 5 equal parts
As the first division represents 5 metre, so it should be divided
in to 5 equal parts to represent
17 m a single metre

5 4 3 2 1 0

10

15

20

METRE

PLAIN SCALE:-This type of scale represents two units or a unit and its sub-division.
PROBLEM NO.1:- Draw a scale 1 cm = 1m to read decimeters, to measure maximum distance of 6 m.
Show on it a distance of 4 m and 6 dm.
CONSTRUCTION:- DIMENSION OF DRAWING
a) Calculate R.F.=

PLAIN SCALE

DIMENSION OF OBJECT

R.F.= 1cm/ 1m = 1/100

Length of scale = R.F. X max. distance
= 1/100 X 600 cm
= 6 cms
b) Draw a line 6 cm long and divide it in 6 equal parts. Each part will represent larger division unit.
c) Sub divide the first part which will represent second unit or fraction of first unit.
d) Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and subdivisions
on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting a look of scale.
e) After construction of scale mention its RF and name of scale as shown.
f) Show the distance 4 m 6 dm on it as shown.

4 M 6 DM

10
DECIMETERS

R.F. = 1/100
PLANE SCALE SHOWING METERS AND DECIMETERS.

5 METERS

PROBLEM NO.2:- In a map a 36 km distance is shown by a line 45 cms long. Calculate the R.F. and construct
a plain scale to read kilometers and hectometers, for max. 12 km. Show a distance of 8.3 km on it.
CONSTRUCTION:a) Calculate R.F.

PLAIN SCALE
R.F.= 45 cm/ 36 km = 45/ 36 . 1000 . 100 = 1/ 80,000
Length of scale = R.F.
max. distance
= 1/ 80000
12 km
= 15 cm
b) Draw a line 15 cm long and divide it in 12 equal parts. Each part will represent larger division unit.
c) Sub divide the first part which will represent second unit or fraction of first unit.
d) Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and subdivisions
on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting a look of scale.
e) After construction of scale mention its RF and name of scale as shown.
f) Show the distance 8.3 km on it as shown.

8KM 3HM

10

HECTOMETERS

R.F. = 1/80,000
PLANE SCALE SHOWING KILOMETERS AND HECTOMETERS

10

11
KILOMETERS

We have seen that the plain scales give only two dimensions,
such as a unit and its subunit or its fraction.

DIAGONAL
SCALE

The diagonal scales give us three successive dimensions

that is a unit, a subunit and a subdivision of a subunit.
The principle of construction of a diagonal scale is as follows.
Let the XY in figure be a subunit.
From Y draw a perpendicular YZ to a suitable height.
Join XZ. Divide YZ in to 10 equal parts.
Draw parallel lines to XY from all these divisions
and number them as shown.
From geometry we know that similar triangles have
their like sides proportional.
Consider two similar triangles XYZ and 7 7Z,
we have 7Z / YZ = 77 / XY (each part being one unit)
Means 7 7 = 7 / 10. x X Y = 0.7 XY
:.
Similarly
1 1 = 0.1 XY
2 2 = 0.2 XY
Thus, it is very clear that, the sides of small triangles,
which are parallel to divided lines, become progressively
shorter in length by 0.1 XY.

Y
10

X
10

The solved examples ON NEXT PAGES will

make the principles of diagonal scales clear.

Problem 7: Construct a diagonal scale of R.F. = 1/6250 to read up to 1 kilometre and to

read metres on it. Show a length of 653 metre on it.
1
, Max. Length = 1 km
R.F =
6250
1
L.O.S.= R.F.x Max. Length in cm =
X 1X 105 cm = 16 cm
6250
Hint: As the maximum length is 1 km, the line should be divided
in to 10 equal parts, so as to represent a division of 100 m
10
8
6
4

653

2
100 50 0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

METRE

Problem 8: On a map, the distance between two points is 14 cm. The real distance
between them is 20 km. draw the diagonal scale of this map to read kilometre and
hectametres, and to measure up to 25 kilometre. Show a distance of 17.6 kilometre on
this scale.
Length on drawing in cm

R.F=

Actual length of object in cm

L.O.S.= R.F.x Max. Length in cm =

14 cm
20 km

7
106

14 cm
20X105 cm

7
106

X 25X105 cm = 17.5 cm

HECTOMETRE

Hint: As the maximum length is 25 km, the line should be either

be10divided in to 25 equal parts to represent 1 km or first, in 5
equal parts so as to represent a division of 5 km, then the first
8
division
in further 5 equal parts to represent 1 km.
6

17.6 km

4
2

5 4 3 2 1 0

10

15

20

KILOMETRE

Problem 8: A rectangular plot of land measuring 1.28 hectors is represented on a map by

a similar rectangle of 8 sq.cm. Calculate RF of the scale. Draw a diagonal scale to read
single meter. Show a distance of 438 m on it. 1 hector = 104 m2
R.F=

Area on drawing in cm
Actual area of object in cm

8 cm2
1.28X10 x10 cm
4

4
64X106

1
L.O.S.= R.F.x Max. Length in cm =
X 500 X 100 cm = 12.5 cm
4000
Here maximum length is not given. But we have to show a
distance of 438 m on the scale. That will be possible only when
maximum length is taken as 500 m
10
438 m

8
6
4
2

100

50

100

200

300

400

METRE

1
4000

PROBLEM NO.3:- The distance between two stations is 210 km. A passenger train covers this distance
in 7 hours. Construct a plain scale to measure time up to a single minute. RF is 1/200,000 Indicate the distance
traveled by train in 29 minutes.
CONSTRUCTION:a) 210 km in 7 hours. Means speed of the train is 30 km per hour ( 60 minutes)

PLAIN SCALE

Length of scale = R.F.

max. distance per hour

= 1/ 2,00,000
30km
= 15 cm
b) 15 cm length will represent 30 km and 1 hour i.e. 60 minutes.
Draw a line 15 cm long and divide it in 6 equal parts. Each part will represent 5 km and 10 minutes.
c) Sub divide the first part in 10 equal parts,which will represent second unit or fraction of first unit.
Each smaller part will represent distance traveled in one minute.
d) Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and subdivisions
on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting a proper look of scale.
e) Show km on upper side and time in minutes on lower side of the scale as shown.
After construction of scale mention its RF and name of scale as shown.
f) Show the distance traveled in 29 minutes, which is 14.5 km, on it as shown.
DISTANCE TRAVELED IN 29 MINUTES.
14.5 KM

KM 5

MIN 10

2.5

10

15

20

25

10

20

30

40

50 MINUTES

R.F. = 1/100
PLANE SCALE SHOWING METERS AND DECIMETERS.

KM

PROBLEM NO. 4 : The distance between Delhi and Agra is 200 km.
In a railway map it is represented by a line 5 cm long. Find its R.F.
Draw a diagonal scale to show single km. And maximum 600 km.
Indicate on it following distances. 1) 222 km 2) 336 km 3) 459 km 4) 569 km
SOLUTION STEPS:

DIAGONAL
SCALE

RF = 5 cm / 200 km = 1 / 40, 00, 000

Length of scale = 1 / 40, 00, 000 X 600 X 105 = 15 cm

Draw a line 15 cm long. It will represent 600 km.Divide it in six equal parts.( each will represent 100 km.)
Divide first division in ten equal parts.Each will represent 10 km.Draw a line upward from left end and
mark 10 parts on it of any distance. Name those parts 0 to 10 as shown.Join 9th sub-division of horizontal scale
with 10th division of the vertical divisions. Then draw parallel lines to this line from remaining sub divisions and
complete diagonal scale.
569 km
459 km
336 km

KM

222 km

KM

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

100

50

100

200

300

R.F. = 1 / 40,00,000
DIAGONAL SCALE SHOWING KILOMETERS.

400

500 KM

PROBLEM NO.5: A rectangular plot of land measuring 1.28 hectors is represented on a map by a similar rectangle
of 8 sq. cm. Calculate RF of the scale. Draw a diagonal scale to read single meter. Show a distance of 438 m on it.

SOLUTION :
1 hector = 10, 000 sq. meters
1.28 hectors = 1.28 X 10, 000 sq. meters
= 1.28 X 104 X 104 sq. cm
8 sq. cm area on map represents
= 1.28 X 104 X 104 sq. cm on land
1 cm sq. on map represents
= 1.28 X 10 4 X 104 / 8 sq cm on land
1 cm on map represent
= 1.28 X 10 4 X 104 / 8

cm

= 4, 000 cm

1 cm on drawing represent 4, 000 cm, Means RF = 1 / 4000

Assuming length of scale 15 cm, it will represent 600 m.

DIAGONAL
SCALE
Draw a line 15 cm long.
It will represent 600 m.Divide it in six equal parts.
( each will represent 100 m.)
Divide first division in ten equal parts.Each will
represent 10 m.
Draw a line upward from left end and
mark 10 parts on it of any distance.
Name those parts 0 to 10 as shown.Join 9th sub-division
of horizontal scale with 10th division of the vertical divisions.
Then draw parallel lines to this line from remaining sub divisions
and complete diagonal scale.

438 meters
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

M 100

50

100

200

300

R.F. = 1 / 4000
DIAGONAL SCALE SHOWING METERS.

400

500 M

PROBLEM NO.6:. Draw a diagonal scale of R.F. 1: 2.5, showing centimeters

and millimeters and long enough to measure up to 20 centimeters.

DIAGONAL
SCALE

SOLUTION STEPS:
R.F. = 1 / 2.5
Length of scale = 1 / 2.5 X 20 cm.
= 8 cm.
1.Draw a line 8 cm long and divide it in to 4 equal parts.
(Each part will represent a length of 5 cm.)
2.Divide the first part into 5 equal divisions.
(Each will show 1 cm.)
3.At the left hand end of the line, draw a vertical line and
on it step-off 10 equal divisions of any length.
4.Complete the scale as explained in previous problems.
Show the distance 13.4 cm on it.

MM

13 .4 CM

CM

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

5 4 3 2 1 0

10

R.F. = 1 / 2.5
DIAGONAL SCALE SHOWING CENTIMETERS.

15

CENTIMETRES

COMPARATIVE SCALES:

EXAMPLE NO. 7 :
A distance of 40 miles is represented by a line
These are the Scales having same R.F.
8 cm long. Construct a plain scale to read 80 miles.
but graduated to read different units.
Also construct a comparative scale to read kilometers
These scales may be Plain scales or Diagonal scales
and may be constructed separately or one above the other. upto 120 km ( 1 m = 1.609 km )
SOLUTION STEPS:
Scale of Miles:
40 miles are represented = 8 cm
: 80 miles = 16 cm
R.F. = 8 / 40 X 1609 X 1000 X 100
= 1 / 8, 04, 500

CONSTRUCTION:
Take a line 16 cm long and divide it into 8 parts. Each will represent 10 miles.
Subdivide the first part and each sub-division will measure single mile.

Scale of Km:
Length of scale
= 1 / 8,04,500 X 120 X 1000 X 100
= 14. 90 cm

10

10

20

CONSTRUCTION:
On the top line of the scale of miles cut off a distance of 14.90 cm and divide
it into 12 equal parts. Each part will represent 10 km.
Subdivide the first part into 10 equal parts. Each subdivision will show single km.

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110 KM

10

10

20

30

40

50

R.F. = 1 / 804500
COMPARATIVE SCALE SHOWING MILES AND KILOMETERS

60

70 MILES

SOLUTION STEPS:
Scale of km.
length of scale = RF X 60 km
= 1 / 4,00,000 X 60 X 105
= 15 cm.
CONSTRUCTION:
Draw a line 15 cm long and divide it in 6 equal parts.
( each part will represent 10 km.)
Subdivide 1st part in `0 equal subdivisions.
( each will represent 1 km.)

COMPARATIVE SCALE:
EXAMPLE NO. 8 :
A motor car is running at a speed of 60 kph.
On a scale of RF = 1 / 4,00,000 show the distance
traveled by car in 47 minutes.

Time Scale:
Same 15 cm line will represent 60 minutes.
Construct the scale similar to distance scale.
It will show minimum 1 minute & max. 60min.

47 MINUTES

10
MIN.

KM

10

20

10

20

10

30

30

40

40

47 KM

R.F. = 1 / 4,00,000
COMPARATIVE SCALE SHOWING MINUTES AND KILOMETERS

50 MINUTES

50 KM

EXAMPLE NO. 9 :
A car is traveling at a speed of 60 km per hour. A 4 cm long line represents the distance traveled by the car in two hours.
Construct a suitable comparative scale up to 10 hours. The scale should be able to read the distance traveled in one minute.
Show the time required to cover 476 km and also distance in 4 hours and 24 minutes.

COMPARATIVE
SOLUTION:
4 cm line represents distance in two hours , means for 10 hours scale, 20 cm long line is required, as length
SCALE:
of scale.This length of scale will also represent 600 kms. ( as it is a distance traveled in 10 hours)
CONSTRUCTION:
Distance Scale ( km)
Draw a line 20 cm long. Divide it in TEN equal parts.( Each will show 60 km)
Sub-divide 1st part in SIX subdivisions.( Each will represent 10 km)
At the left hand end of the line, draw a vertical line and on it step-off 10 equal divisions of any length.
And complete the diagonal scale to read minimum ONE km.
Time scale:
Draw a line 20 cm long. Divide it in TEN equal parts.( Each will show 1 hour) Sub-divide 1 st part in SIX subdivisions.( Each will
represent 10 minutes) At the left hand end of the line, draw a vertical line and on it step-off 10 equal divisions of any length.
And complete the diagonal scale to read minimum ONE minute.
TIME SCALE TO MEASURE MIN 1 MINUTE.

10

MIN.

60

9
HOURS

300

360

420

480

540

4 hrs 24 min. ( 264 kms )

476 kms ( 7 hrs 56 min.)

kM

10

0
kM 60

60

120

180

240

DISTANCE SCALE TO MEASURE MIN 1 KM

KILOMETERS

Scale of Chords
The scale of chords is drawn to measure angle or draw an angle of given
measurement without using a protractor,
Draw a straight line PQ of any length and mark a point O on its centre.
Draw a semicircle on the line PQ, with O as centre and OA as radius to intersect
PQ at AB.
With A as centre and OA as radius, cut an arc on the semicircle.
Similarly with B as centre and OA as radius, cut an arc on the semicircle.
Now with these new points of intersections as centers, draw two arcs to intersect
each other above O.
Join this point with O to get perpendicular at O

Scale of Chords
The scale of chords is drawn to measure angle or draw an angle of given measurement
without using a protractor,

60

70

80

90

50
40
30
20
10
P

Q
30
50
90
40
80
60
70
B
A
O
Join
Draw
Now
with
aas
straight
semicircle
point
these
with
new
on
Ocentre
PQ
points
to
theget
ofas
line
any
of
perpendicular
PQ,
intersections
length
and
Oanas
mark
at
as
centre
Ocut
centers,
aan
point
and
draw
O
OA
as
two
itsradius
centre.
arcs to
to intersect
intersect PQ
each
at
Withthis
Similarly
A
with
centre
Bline
as
and
OA
and
radius,
OAwith
as
cut
radius,
arc
on
the
arc
semicircle.
ononthe
semicircle.
AB. above O.
other
10

20

700

800

900

SCALE OF CORDS

600
500
400
300
200
100
00

A
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80 90

CONSTRUCTION:
1. DRAW SECTOR OF A CIRCLE OF 900 WITH OA RADIUS.
( OA ANY CONVINIENT DISTANCE )
2. DIVIDE THIS ANGLE IN NINE EQUAL PARTS OF 10 0 EACH.
3. NAME AS SHOWN FROM END A UPWARDS.
4. FROM A AS CENTER, WITH CORDS OF EACH ANGLE AS RADIUS
DRAW ARCS DOWNWARDS UP TO AO LINE OR ITS EXTENSION
AND FORM A SCALE WITH PROPER LABELING AS SHOWN.
AS CORD LENGTHS ARE USED TO MEASURE & CONSTRUCT
DIFERENT ANGLES IT IS CALLED SCALE OF CORDS.

PROBLEM 12: Construct any triangle and measure its angles by using scale of cords.

60

70
80 9
0

CONSTRUCTION:
First prepare Scale of Cords for the problem.
Then construct a triangle of given sides. ( You are supposed to measure angles x, y and z)
To measure angle at x:
Take O-A distance in compass from cords scale and mark it on lower side of triangle
as shown from corner x. Name O & A as shown. Then O as center, O-A radius
draw an arc upto upper adjacent side.Name the point B.
Take A-B cord in compass and place on scale of cords from Zero.
It will give value of angle at x
To measure angle at y:
Repeat same process from O1. Draw arc with radius O1A1.
Place Cord A1B1 on scale and get angle at y.
To measure angle at z:
Subtract the SUM of these two angles from 1800 to get angle at z.

B1

50

40

10

30

20

50

A1

60

300

10

40

O1

550

20

30

70
80
90

Angle at z = 180 ( 55 + 30 ) = 950

x
O

SCALE OF CORDS
600

700

800

900

500
400
300
200
100
00

A
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70 80 90

PROBLEM 12: Construct 250 and 1150 angles with a horizontal line , by using scale of cords.
CONSTRUCTION:
SCALE OF CORDS
First prepare Scale of Cords for the problem.
0
800 90
0
Then Draw a horizontal line. Mark point O on it.
70
600
To construct 250 angle at O.
Take O-A distance in compass from cords scale and mark it on on the line drawn, from O
500
Name O & A as shown. Then O as center, O-A radius draw an arc upward..
400
Take cord length of 250 angle from scale of cords in compass and
300
from A cut the arc at point B.Join B with O. The angle AOB is thus 250
To construct 1150 angle at O.
200
This scale can measure or construct angles upto 900 only directly.
Hence Subtract 1150 from 1800.We get 750 angle ,
100
which can be constructed with this scale.
O
A
Extend previous arc of OA radius and taking cord length of 750 in compass cut this arc
0
0
at B1 with A as center. Join B1 with O. Now angle AOB1 is 750 and angle COB1 is 1150.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

B1

10

20

10

30
40

20

50

30

250

60

40

750

1050

70
80

50

90

60
70
80 9
0

To construct 250 angle at O.

O
To construct 1150 angle at O.