PRACTICAL RESEARCH Based on where:

Research – scientific, experimental, or inductive ➢ Field

manner of thinking; searching for knowledge ➢ Laboratory

Quantitative research - researcher gathers Methods:

quantitative or numerical data and subjects
them to statistical methods. ➢ Treatment evaluation – ex post facto,
evaluation after treatment
Data Analysis Methods: ➢ Pre-test and post-test – varied or
multiple treatment
• Pearson’s r - Which measures the
relationship between two variables Quasi-experimental:
• T-test – Presence or statistical
➢ Matched comparison – choosing a
differences between two means
treatment group and another group
• Anova – means of two or more groups
with similarities
• Multiple Regression – several
➢ Times-series quasi-experimental –
independent and one dependent
series of pre-test and post-test
Types: ➢ Single subject quasi-experimental –
controls treatment and condition
• Ex post facto – infer causes of applied to one individual or group
phenomenon occurred
• Quasi-experimental – establish cause Non Experimental
and effect
- Way of finding out truths about a
• Experimental – establish cause and
subject by describing data
effect
• Descriptive – observe and report Characteristics:
• Correlational – nature of relationship
➢ Incapable of cause-and-effect
between 2 variables
relationships
• Causal Comparative – find similarities
➢ Data analysis methods:
and differences between two or more
o Primary – researcher himself
groups
o Secondary – collected by other
Experimental Research people
o Meta-analysis – expressed
➢ Experimental group – treatment is numerically
applied ➢ Both quantitative and qualitative
➢ Control – no treatment applied
Survey Research – knowing what a big number
Classification: of people think and feel about sociologic issues
➢ True experimental – random selection Variables
➢ Quasi-experimental – comparative
technique
 - Changing qualities or characteristics ➢ Not in the form of yes-or-no questions
that are involved in your research
Elements of Experiments:
Types of Operational:
➢ Subjects or objects
➢ Independent – cause ➢ Subject’s condition before experiment
➢ Dependent – effect ➢ Treatment applied
➢ Intervening – used to explain causal ➢ Subject’s condition after experiment
links
➢ Antecedent – happens before Types:
independent and dependent ➢ Descriptive – about kind, qualifications,
Types of measuring: categories of subjects
➢ Relation – about nature and manner of
➢ Categorical – ranks or orders connection
o Nominal - based on common ➢ Causal – about the reasons behind
property (gender, religion), effects of independent and dependent
descriptive and cannot be
ranked Approaches:
o Ordinal – ranked in certain ➢ Deductive – questions from theory,
order (social class, educational operational definition
experience) ➢ Inductive – data is collected to form a
➢ Numerical – have numerical values and theory
measures
o Interval – intervals are equally Hypotheses
spaced between adjacent
- Tentative explanation or an answer
attributes (IQ scores, age)
o Ratio – have the characteristics Categories:
of nominal, ordinal and interval
(height, weight), starts in 0 ➢ Null – absence of relationship between
independent and dependent (Ho)
Uses of variable: ➢ Alternative – the first affects the second
one (Hi)
➢ Classifying
➢ Explaining Types:
➢ Assessing relationships
➢ Measuring ➢ Theory-driven vs Data-driven – based
on existing theory vs based on previous
Quantitative Research Problem researches
➢ Directional (one-tailed) vs Non-
- Empirical or researchable
directional (two-tailed) – state the
Interrogative – in sentence form relationship vs relationship without
direction
Declarative – in statement form
 ➢ Descriptive vs Causal – relationship due Theoretical Framework
to influence of something vs cause-and-
effect; experimental vs non- - Gives and explains the theories,
experimental principles, generalizations and research
findings which have some connection to
Review of Related Literature your research study

Methods The Language of Research

➢ Traditional – qualitative Jargons – terms considered as technical

➢ Systematic – quantitative because these are commonly used only by
people belonging to the same field of
Systematic – begin by asking questions, the specialization
main problem of the research and a set of sub-
questions; a scientific way of conducting a re- Research Language Formation: factors (Trochim
examination of reading materials that have 2006)
close connection with your research
1. Multisyllable words
Meta-analysis – re-examine and combine 2. Types and forms of questions
results of two or more statistical studies a. Qualitative – elicit views,
emotions or opinions
➢ Homogeneous – similar in many ways b. Quantitative – exact number,
➢ Heterogeneous – a number of percentages or frequency
differences 3. Span of time
Referencing a. Cross-sectional – one-time
collection of data
➢ Citations or In-text Citation b. Longitudinal – repeated
➢ Bibliography or References collection of data
o MLA (Modern Language 4. Variable relationships
Association) a. Independent – cause
o APA (American Psychological b. Dependent – effect
Association) c. Extraneous – extra or
unexpected variable cropping
Conceptual Framework
outside the research design,
- Graphical representation of concepts or controlled by researcher
ideas i. Situational
ii. Participant
Concept Map – made up of varied figures iii. Experimenter
d. Confounding – unstable
Systematic Functional Grammar (SFG) – modern
variable, not controlled by
language theory which states that man’s critical
researcher
thinking increases whenever he uses language
i. Extra variables
for three reasons: ideational function, textual
5. Formulation of hypotheses
function, interpersonal function
 a. Null – negative
b. Alternative – positive
6. Data
a. Qualitative – verbally and
subjectively
b. Quantitative – numerically and
objectively
7. Unit of analysis – subject or object
makes up one major entity and may be
either:
a. Individual, group, artefact
(painting, book, travelogue)
b. Geographical unit (province,
country)
c. Social interaction (husband-
wife, teacher-learner)

Operational Definition – specifying the way your

research should measure such concept

Qualitative vs Quantitative – (Mujis 2011; Sharp

2012) see page 9-10 table