Cement and Concrete Research: Martin Schneider T
Cement and Concrete Research: Martin Schneider T
Cement and Concrete Research: Martin Schneider T
Short communication
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2019.105792
Received 9 February 2019; Received in revised form 14 June 2019; Accepted 14 June 2019
0008-8846/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Schneider Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
2
M. Schneider Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
3
M. Schneider Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
global CSI database which reports a specific emission of 0.842 t CO2/t Thus, the carbon footprint of the housing sector will require sig-
clinker in 2016 [22], covering data from 19% of all cement plants nificant changes in construction towards low energy buildings com-
worldwide. CO2 emissions from cement strongly depend on the clinker prising various measures like improvement in heating and cooling
factor, which according to the IEA and CSI was 0.65 as a global average technology including taking more advantage of thermal masses for
in 2014 [2]. The database of CSI “Getting the numbers right” (GNR) energy storage and room temperature stabilization. Finally, material
lists a higher value of 0.75 for 2016 [23], because it does not fully cover efficiency must improve, not only reducing the material intensity, but
cement production in China for which very low clinker factors are re- also reducing carbon emissions from the production of the building
ported [24]. Indirect CO2 emissions from electricity production strongly materials.
depend on the local energy mix. The reported total electric energy
consumption for cement production ranges as a global average between
103 kWh [25] and 110 kWh/t cement [26]. When assuming a CO2 3. Reduction of CO2 emissions from cement production
emission factor of 0.5 kg CO2/kWh [27], the corresponding emissions
vary between 51 and 55 kg CO2/t cement using data from [27]. 3.1. Improving thermal energy efficiency
CO2 emissions that can be attributed to concrete depend very much
on the concrete type, the local situation and here in particular the Although fuel use for clinker burning contributes only about one
building traditions and national building codes. Calculations of the third of the total CO2 emissions from cement making, the improvement
global warming potential of a C30/37 ready mix concrete with a typical of the thermal energy demand of clinker burning should be carefully
composition produced in Germany and a weighted average of the ce- considered in any single case. The endothermic reactions of the raw
ment types used for this strength have shown values of 250 kg CO2-eq./ material, most of all the calcination of limestone, the formation of
m3 for non-reinforced concrete and 312 kg CO2-eq./m3 for reinforced clinker phases in the kiln and the drying of the raw materials require a
concrete, with the numbers given in CO2-equivalents. The relevant minimum of 1850–2800 MJ/t clinker [27] which depends very much
contributions to the global warming potential are shown in Fig. 5. The on the moisture of the raw materials and the respective drying energy
assumed content of steel reinforcement (produced through the electric required. Since energy costs have a high impact on total cement pro-
arc furnace route) in concrete is assumed to be 100 kg/m3 in the cal- duction costs, cement producers always strive to lower the energy de-
culation. The results of the LCA have been published in EPDs (En- mand of their kilns. Therefore, the energy efficiency of the cement
vironmental Product Declarations) [28]. clinker burning process is high compared to other industrial processes
The total built environment accounts for 40% of the global CO2 and the overall reduction potential is limited [30]. Breakthrough
emissions [29]. The global building sector reached 226 bn m2 floor area technologies which could lead to a significantly higher thermal effi-
in 2015 and was expected to reach 235 bn m2 in 2016 (data according ciency are not in sight [27]. Improvements are incremental. Potential
to [29]). The total global building sector's energy consumption was measures can only be taken case by case and can comprise cooler re-
reported to be 122 EJ in 2015 [29]. The resulting CO2 emission peaked placement, the addition of an extra cyclone stage or the utilisation of
at 9.5 Gt CO2 in 2013 and decreased to approximately 9.2 Gt CO2 in mineralizers to improve raw material burnability. Today, precalciner
2015. By contrast, CO2 emissions from construction of buildings grew kilns are state of the art and most effective, and achieve the lowest
from 3.1 Gt CO2 in 2010 to 3.7 Gt CO2 in 2016 [29]. Considering the figures for thermal energy demand [31]. Although the energy efficiency
mentioned floor area in 2015, the specific CO2 emission can be calcu- is enhanced by increased kiln capacity, the replacement of smaller ex-
lated and given with 40.7 kg CO2/m2. The energy intensity continues to isting plants by one larger plant is linked with very high investment
improve significantly over time but at the same time faces an increase costs. Energy demand depends very much on the local situation and in
in global floor area. This underlines the difficulty of the building en- particular on the raw material moisture, which has an impact on the
vironment to efficiently contribute to achieving the 2DS target. energy for drying. Since the lifetime of kilns is approx. 50 years, most of
The global energy consumption for building accounts for 55% of the existing kilns have been modernized over the years, instead of being
global electricity demand produced with an average efficiency of only rebuilt. However, assuming that all kilns will continually apply newest
43%. The increasing use of renewables will improve CO2 efficiency state-of-the-art technology it is expected to be able to reduce the global
more and more. This positive effect is however offset by the growing average thermal energy demand by 10% by 2050 [2].
building sector with the respective growing electricity demand. The utilisation of waste heat from the preheater exit gas and cooler
Considering carbon intensities from power generation based on its fuel exhaust air for drying raw materials and e.g. slag can lower the overall
mix, the required CO2 intensities for the building sector for meeting the thermal energy demand of a cement plant. Waste heat recovery for
2DS target cannot be realised by the majority of countries [29]. electrical energy generation will not improve thermal efficiency of
clinker production and will consequently not reduce the - direct - CO2
emissions of clinker production. Most WHR systems are installed in
Japan and China, where they offer a cost-effective option as well as a
reliable source for power generation in regions with a lack of electricity
from the net [32]. Since waste heat in cement plants typically exhibits a
low temperature level, the efficiency of converting it into electrical
energy is only between 15 and 25%. The installation requires a heat
recovery boiler and turbine system. The Rankine and Kalina cycles are
the most promising variations for cement plants. Most systems world-
wide use the Steam Rankine Cycle. If waste heat on a lower temperature
level (200–400 °C) should be utilized, organic fluids or ammonia as
cycling media instead of water and steam can be applied (Organic
Rankine Cycle or Kalina Process). Investments would be required and
the electrical energy demand could be decreased by 10–22 kWh/t
clinker with an indirect CO2 -emission decrease of 5–11 kg CO2/t
clinker. Even if their efficiency for generating electrical energy is low,
the number of WHR systems in cement plants might increase because of
increasing electricity prices due to a higher energy demand [2].
Fig. 5. Impacts on the global warming potential of concrete.
4
M. Schneider Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
Fig. 6. Waste treatment in the EU, 2012 and share of co-processing in cement kilns [39].
3.2. Switching to alternative fuels waste is often disposed in unregulated dumps or openly burned [37,38].
The development of waste treatment and collection will significantly
Alternative fuels are in general less carbon-intensive compared to determine the availability of alternative fuels for replacing fossil fuels
conventional fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas [2]. This is due to in the cement industry. A study carried out by ECOFYS and CEMBUR-
the lower CO2 emission factor of many alternative fuels. More im- EAU in 2012 [39] mapped the share of co-processed waste in cement
portant however is that many alternative fuels are made from biomass kilns in EU countries (Fig. 6), which was about 1.17% of all waste. The
or contain a certain fraction of biomass. The global contribution of al- major part of incinerated waste was dedicated to energy recovery. The
ternative fuels to the overall thermal energy use in the cement industry share of 29% of landfilled waste is relatively low compared to the
was 10% according to GNR data from 2016 for the world (covering 19% global average of roughly 40% as published in the latest global solid
of all cement plants) [33]. The biomass fraction in these fuels was on waste report by the World Bank [38]. Another 33% of globally pro-
average 6%. In some regions the substitution of fossil fuels with alter- duced waste is openly dumped.
native fuels is substantially higher than the global average. The sub- Beyond thermal energy generation, alternative fuels contribute to
stitution rate in Europe is on average 41% [34], some plants in Austria resource recycling in the clinker burning process [40]. Typically the
and Germany operate at full substitution. Reducing the share of fossil ashes of the wastes become incorporated into the clinker as can be seen
fuels in the cement industry globally to 24% by 2050 would reduce the from the composition of sewage sludge and RDF (shredded plastics,
CO2 intensity of the global thermal energy demand from 0.088 t CO2/ papers and fibres) as an example (Fig. 7). This also underlines that in
GJ to 0.058 t CO2/GJ [2]. any case, the quality of any type of waste being used in a cement kiln
The limitations to increase substitution rates are in most cases the may not cause the clinker quality to deteriorate, nor may it have ne-
availability of suitable materials exhibiting the required calorific value, gative impacts on the emissions from the process.
especially for their use in the main firing zone. Other parameters of
importance are the chlorine content, the trace element content and the
physical properties of the fuels. The use of alternative fuels requires 3.3. Reducing the clinker to cement ratio
dedicated storage and feeding systems. Special care has to be given to
the quality control of the fuels, which typically have to be pretreated Clinker factor reduction is by far the most efficient measure to re-
before being fed to the kiln. Burners need to be adapted and in parti- duce CO2 emissions from cement production since it covers both the
cular at high substitution rates a bypass might be needed to lower the CO2 from the raw materials as well as from fuel combustion. The global
internal kiln cycles of chlorides. Typical alternative fuels are used tyres, average in the clinker factor was 0.65 in 2014 [2]. The clinker factor in
pretreated industrial or municipal wastes, used oils and solvents, plas- China was reported to be 0.65 in 2018 [24] based in particular on the
tics, textiles or paper wastes. Pure biomass fuels used in the cement use of fly ash and slag. The German average was 0.71 in 2017 [41] and
industry today are sewage sludges, waste wood or rice husks [27,35]. the European average clinker factor was 0.74 in 2016 [23], including
The Global Waste Management Outlook of the United Nations countries like Ireland and Denmark which have a clinker factor of about
Environment Programme of 2015 presents a global waste post-2015 0.90, and the Netherlands, which have approx. 0.46 [42]. While lower
development agenda in which dumping, burning and landfill is either clinker factors are desirable and technically possible, the regional
stopped or only the last of all options and waste is to be reduced or availability of suitable substituting materials can be the limiting factor.
recycled and reused by 2030 [36]. According to a report by the World In any case the performance of the cement in concrete must be assured,
Bank [37] annual waste generation is expected to increase by 70% from taking into account its intended use and the respective exposure to the
2016 levels to 3.40 Gt in 2050. In low-income countries over 90% of environment.
In any case, besides the clinker factor, the amount of concrete
Fig. 7. Integrated use of alternative fuels for clinker production (VDZ data).
5
M. Schneider Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
Fig. 8. Global Iron and Steel production 2000–2025 (2° Scenario) [43].
IEA Publishing Licence: www.iea.org/t&c
addition plays a role in the overall clinker content and correspondingly hydroxide to form C-A-S-H phases. Their pozzolanic reactivity varies
the CO2 efficiency of concrete. and is determined by the content of reactive silicon dioxide and alu-
Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) is a by-product of the mina. The necessary pre-treatment involves crushing, drying and
production of pig‑iron, the base material for steelmaking. Due to its grinding and their addition might slightly facilitate the grindability of
rapid cooling when leaving the blast furnace GGBFS is to > 90% the cement. Like fly ashes, natural pozzolans show a good impact on
amorphous and in combination with its basicity it shows latent hy- concrete workability as well as certain durability aspects. Natural
draulic reactivity. Cements containing GGBFS show very good proper- pozzolans are already today in some regions an important mineral
ties in concrete with a positive impact on certain durability character- constituent in cement and it is technically possible to increase the
istics. So-called slag cements have been used since almost the beginning content of pozzolans in certain cement types from 6 wt.-% up to 55 wt.-
of industrial cement production in the 19th century. A forecast for the % [27]. However, their regional availability will restrict their broader
global availability of GGBFS is difficult to find, however the IEA has use on a global scale even if larger transport distances are taken into
worked out a scenario [43] shown in Fig. 8. account [27].
The long-term availability of GGBFS has to be seen in the context of Natural calcined pozzolans are materials of volcanic origin, clays,
further improving the energy and resource efficiency on the steel pro- shales or sedimentary rocks activated by thermal treatment. However,
duction side, in particular the increased use of metal scrap in electric naturally calcined pozzolans used for cements are usually thermally
arc furnaces. Nevertheless, since the amount of metal scrap will be treated clays [27,45,46]. Thermal treatment releases the bound water
limited, there will still be substantial amounts of pig iron produced and decomposes the mineral structures while reactive silica and alu-
from iron ore - also from 2020 onwards – with corresponding amounts mina compounds are formed. The thermally treated clays react in the
of GGBFS being available on a global scale [43]. However, a limited presence of water at ambient temperatures with dissolved calcium hy-
regional availability can make it difficult for cement producers to droxide to C-A-S-H phases. The degree of thermochemical activation
source GGBFS for their cement production. needed strongly depends on the mineralogical composition, structure
Fly ash is obtained by the electrostatic or mechanical precipitation and lattice defects [47,48].
of dust-like particles from the flue gases from furnaces fired with pul- The global geological availability of clays is high, but at the moment
verised coal. Fly ash may be siliceous or calcareous in nature, de- only a few countries use calcined clays in cements. Compared to fly ash
pending on the coal type used on combustion. The main constituents of or GGBFS it is not a by-product and requires production facilities with
fly ashes are SiO2 and Al2O3 as well as CaO in the case of calcareous respective investments. Studies have shown so far that reasonably re-
ones. Mostly siliceous fly ashes, which show pozzolanic properties, are active material can be produced when thermally activating less pure
used as cement constituents leading to better workability and positive kaolinite clays [49,50]. Its share in cements is expected to grow in re-
long-term strength of concrete as well as good durability characteristics gions with no access to alternative SCMs and long-term globally when
due to a denser concrete structure. With a few possible exceptions, fly access to fly ash and slag becomes increasingly difficult. The ternary
ash content in technically used cements is limited to 25–35 wt.-% [27]. blend of clinker, clay and limestone allows for higher clinker sub-
Considering a reference clinker factor of 0.75, the increase of the share stitution than previously expected [45,51]. With a clinker factor of 50%
of fly ash in cement of up to 25–35% would lead to a decrease in direct such cements can reach OPC strength level [52]. The durability of ce-
CO2 emissions from cement production of up to 90 kg CO2/t cement ments containing calcined clays has proven to be very good - even
[27]. The long-term global availability of fly ash strongly depends on under severe frost attack the performance of the respective concretes
the number of coal-firing power plants, which is expected to decrease was good [53]. An indicator for the quality of the calcined clay is the
since more and more energy is being produced by renewable energy amount of reactive silica, the minimum content of which should be 25
sources. However, a study carried out by the Boston Consulting Group wt.-% according to the European cement standard EN 197-1.
(BCG) from 2018 [44] underlines that development in Asia will require The overall CO2 savings of cements containing calcined clays and
a growing amount of energy and consequently coal demand will remain limestone as SCMs as compared to other composite cements depend on
relatively stable in the following years. On the other hand, regulations the quality of the clays, therefore their remaining calcium carbonate
in Europe continually restrict coal firing and access to fly ash will be content, the thermal activation energy needed and to a lesser extent the
more and more difficult. amount of electrical energy for grinding. Calcined clays have the po-
Natural pozzolans are usually materials of volcanic impact or origin, tential to substitute increasing parts of clinker in parts of the world with
or sedimentary rocks with suitable chemical and mineralogical com- less SCM alternatives such as fly ash or GGBFS, provided that suitable
position. They are made up by nature of amorphous or poorly crystal- clays are locally available.
line siliceous compounds available in certain regions only and react in Limestone is available in practically unlimited amounts and can be
the presence of water at ambient temperatures with dissolved calcium ground simply. It is usually easily accessible to most cement plants and
6
M. Schneider Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
7
M. Schneider Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
CO2 emissions. may be as low as 50 wt.-%, while the limestone content is limited to 20
wt.-%. In addition, CEM VI cements combine clinker and slag with ei-
ther limestone or fly ash, the minimum clinker content being 35 wt.-%.
4. Measures to increase clinker efficiency
It is planned to even further enlarge the CEM II/C cements in the
standard by allowing a combination of clinker and any of the other
4.1. Clinker intensity and CO2 efficiency
main constituents as described in the standard, based on a technical
dossier which will be provided by VDZ [62].
Since Portland cement clinker will remain the most important
constituent of cement for the foreseeable future, it is of great im-
portance how the clinker can be used more efficiently i.e. how the 4.2. Application of new cements and potential CO2 savings
clinker intensity in cement and concrete can be further reduced.
The clinker intensity always has to be seen in the context of the Clinker efficiency in concrete has for many years been part of many
performance of mortar or concrete. In the simplest case this is the research activities (e.g. [63–68]). The focus was less on the strength
compressive strength. This might be the only requirement for many development of these concretes but on durability parameters and robust
interior components, whereas for exterior concretes additional dedi- fresh concrete properties (workability, sedimentation stability). Taking
cated durability aspects play a bigger role. Also of importance is the again Europe as an example, the applicability of cements in concrete is
required robustness or even the deformation properties of concrete regulated there at national level: each member state introduces its own
because the conditions where in situ concrete is to be placed at the rules of application for the non-harmonised concrete standard EN 206.
building site require a higher robustness compared to e.g. pre-fabri- In particular with regard to durability, different rules for the concrete
cated concretes. This of course has an important effect on the clinker composition, e.g. the minimum cement content and the water/cement
intensity of the concrete and the respective CO2 performance. ratio, depending on the environmental conditions (= exposure classes)
The differences in clinker factor in various countries are due to the are set out in these application standards throughout Europe. An ex-
regional building traditions but also the availability of suitable sub- ample of concrete under exposure class XC1, as is typically the case for
stituting materials. This is reflected by the specific CO2 emissions from interior application, is given in Fig. 10 [69].
cement production which exhibit a variation from 576 to 780 kg CO2/t The application rules for the cements and the minimum cement
cement for the 10% and 90% percentile of the distribution of ce- content however are not necessarily linked to the actual types of cement
mentitious production, while the CO2 emissions factor of clinker shows used, its actual quantities or the clinker content in the concrete. For
only small variations from approx. 792 to 890 kg CO2/t clinker in 2016 example, Finland and Denmark have a low (160 kg/m3) or no minimum
in the 10% and 90% percentile respectively of the distribution of clinker cement content for the exposure class XC1 (interior components).
production (values based on GNR world data for 2016 [60]). Denmark has a minimum cement content of 150 kg/m3 in all other
Cement standards around the world reflect the regional building exposure classes. However, the cement content used in ready-mixed
traditions but also adapt in many cases to the US ASTM system or to the concrete in practice acc. to ERMCO statistics in 2016 in Denmark was
European cement standard EN 197 [61]. Taking EN 197-1 as an ex- only 20 kg/m3 lower than the European average (~260 kg/m3 vs
ample it can be seen that from its first publication in 2000, in particular 282 kg/m3). In addition to the minimum cement content, in Denmark
GGBFS cements were the traditional “low clinker cements”. Their ap- under severe and very severe conditions (e.g. XF3/XF4) a minimum
plication however was based on their dedicated durability character- fines content ≥375 kg/m3 is required.
istics or low heat of hydration. Today an additional focus is on the CO2 By contrast, in the Netherlands, the mean quantities of cement used
performance of the cements, which has also led to new cement with in ready-mixed concrete are higher than in Denmark (~313 kg/m3 vs
lower clinker content being standardized. In Europe the next revision of 260 kg/m3) [70]. However, mainly blast furnace cements have been
EN 197-1 has been prepared and will in particular provide for the new used in the Netherlands for many years [42] and therefore the average
CEM II/C, which have besides clinker two of the following additional clinker content in concrete - and correspondingly its clinker content - is
main constituents: slag, fly ash/pozzolans or limestone. Clinker content significantly lower (~150 kg/m3) than in Finland (~280 kg/m3) or
Fig. 10. Cement application in the EU: Examples for XC1 [69].
8
M. Schneider Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
the construction phase when exposed to carbonation and frost. For the
usual exterior components in building construction this involves car-
bonation resistance as well as freeze-thaw resistance with moderate
water saturation (exposure classes XC3/XC4 and XF1).
CEM II/C-M and CEM VI cements offer the opportunity to further
reduce the clinker factor. Investigations by VDZ and others indicate that
at least sufficient carbonation resistance and freeze-thaw resistance
under moderate water saturation can be achieved when the water-ce-
ment ratio is sufficiently low or the compressive strength is sufficiently
high (Fig. 11 and Fig. 12). In Germany for example, approx. 65% of the
concretes are manufactured in strength classes that indicate their use in
interior components (XC1, dry) or “normal” exterior components (XC4,
XF1) [71].
To allow for more cements with lower clinker factors such as the
Fig. 11. Relation between compressive strength and carbonation resistance CEM II/C and CEM VI cements to be used in concrete it may be ne-
(“limit value” of 5 mm carbonation after 140 d main storage taken from [72] - cessary to accept a higher differentiation of the application depending
data from [68]). on the available raw materials: Cements and concretes to be used in
most of the usual building constructions on the one hand, and cements
Denmark (~215 kg/m3) [42]. It is clear that this is only possible be- and concretes used under special durability conditions on the other.
cause sufficient blast furnace slag is available locally in respective This approach would be “new territory” in so far as cements in many
quantities and qualities. For the final assessment of the efficiency of the countries for the time being may be applied in all exposure classes. It
use of clinker and thus the CO2 efficiency, however, consideration per requires the support of all those involved in the whole value chain.
ton of cement or cubic meter of concrete alone is not sufficient. The
achieved technical performance, for example, the compressive strength
or the durability, must be included. This is considered in Section 4.3. 4.3. KPI definition for cement benchmarking
The average CO2 intensity of concrete therefore depends to a lesser
extent on the nationally prescribed minimum cement content than on An indicator for the development of the CO2 intensity of the cement
the type of cement used and its clinker factor or the proportion of industry is the clinker factor. This parameter does not allow a direct
(Portland) Cement if a combination of (Portland) Cement and addition link between the ecological performance and the technical performance
is used. More important is that certain concrete technological principles of cement and concrete. Therefore, in various publications perfor-
cannot be overridden under practical conditions. For example, an ap- mance-related parameters are also found, such as the binder or clinker
propriate amount of fines (paste content) is needed (see also section intensity in kg/(m3 x MPa) [73,74] or the CO2 intensity in (CO2/m3 x
4.5). This raises the question, with which measures the clinker factor MPa) [74,75]. The latter describes how much CO2 is allocated to a cubic
can be further reduced or the efficient use of clinker in cement or meter of concrete of a defined strength. With increasing concrete
concrete can be increased without significantly adversely affecting the compressive strength, specifically less CO2 is required, as the clinker is
technical performance characteristics of concrete required depending used more efficiently. Particularly in the area of conventional concrete
on the application. For interior components, fresh concrete properties compressive strengths (e.g. C20/25 - C30/37), the range of CO2 in-
that are acceptable for building site conditions as well as the strength tensities which these concretes exhibit is considerable.
and deformation properties of the concrete are relevant. However, to Fig. 13 shows the mean CO2 intensity of concretes of different
restrict the use of cements only to concrete for interior components strength classes with the example of Germany against the background
requires the following aspects to be taken into account: today typical of a data collection by VDZ. If the scenario outlined in chapter 4.2 for
building sites take advantage of a one-size-fits-all concrete. The in- the use of CEM II/C-M cements were at least implemented for concretes
troduction of cements for interior components will lead to a higher of the exposure classes XC1-XC4 and XF1, the CO2 intensity of these
diversification and even complexity than today. Also, depending on the concretes would be reduced by approx. 25%.
exposure conditions at the site or the local climate conditions, even
interior components may temporarily be external components during
9
M. Schneider Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
Parameter Concrete
1 2 3
Cement CEM I CEM III/A CEM II/C
Clinker Intensity kg/(m³ MPa) 7.2 2.8 2.7
Cement content kg/m³ 280 320 320
w/c - 0.65 0.50 0.50
fc,cube MPa 38.9 62.1 59.9
GWP CO2 –eq/m³ 266 183 162
t to β = 0.5 a 53 133 57
(= “service life”)
CO2 efficiency acc. to [76]
GWP: Global warming potential
β: Reliability index – β = 0.5 corresponds with a probability of 30 % to reach a defined limit state; here “depas-
sivation of the reinforcement” by carbonation
4.4. CO2 intensity vs. service life and as a consequence the global warming potential (GWP) is low. The
strength and the calculated service life are sufficient for the intended
The challenge for the concrete sector in the future will be to achieve use, especially taking into account that within the calculation only the
the lowest possible CO2 intensity over the entire service life or duration time to depassivation of the reinforcement is considered and there is a
of use. Even if it is known from life cycle assessments for buildings that certain durability reserve within the propagation (= corrosion) phase.
the concrete may only have a manageable share compared to other
factors like energy demand over the complete life time, further poten- 4.5. The use and application of concrete on site
tial will be exploited. In order to evaluate concrete with regard to its
service life, compressive strength and service life could be related to Under defined laboratory conditions, it is possible to produce con-
CO2 intensity (see [76]). The result of a VDZ study based on [76] is cretes with very low cement content, even as low as 100 kg/m3 [74].
shown in Fig. 14 as an example for the exposure class XC3. The time to For this purpose, optimised grading curves, reduced water cement va-
reach the limit state “de-passivation of the reinforcement” was calcu- lues (for example, up to w/c = 0.30, [67,77,78]), significant amounts
lated according to the principles of the fib Model Code Service Life of concrete admixtures (for example, PCE contents of > 4 wt.-% of the
Design. It should be noted that these approaches are not completely cement, [74]) and a very precise control of all constituents and the
uncontroversial among experts with regard to the transferability re- mixing regime are required.
garding practical experience. At this point, it is more about the prin- However, the application of such concretes and the implementation
ciple of taking account of technical performance and CO2 performance of the associated technological measures bear significant quality risks
at the same time. under the current conditions of manufacture and processing of in-situ
Three concretes are highlighted in this illustration: Concrete 1 with concrete. Practical variations in temperature, moisture of the aggregate
Portland cement was produced with w/c = 0.65 and achieves a calcu- and control of the water dosage can have a considerable influence on
lated service life of approx. 50 years. Concrete 2 with CEM III/A fresh and hardened concrete properties. In addition, fluctuations in the
achieves a calculated service life of approx. 130 years with w/c = 0.50, properties of the concrete constituents due to normal large-scale pro-
which rarely has to be proven in building construction and where a duction are inevitable, so they must be taken into consideration in the
relatively large amount of GGBFS (50 wt.-%) is used for the intended concrete design to ensure predictable fresh concrete properties over
purpose. Concrete 3 with CEM II/C (30 wt.-% GGBFS, 20 wt.-% lime- long periods.
stone) in otherwise the same composition as concrete 2 reaches a cal- In [77], variations in water content ( ± 10 l/m3) in concretes using
culated service life of approx. 50 years. If a service life of 50 years is to cement with a clinker content of 20 wt.-%, a slag content of 30 wt.-%, a
be proven, concrete 3 is therefore the most sustainable solution con- limestone content of 50 wt.-% and low water cement value (w/
sidering the technical and ecological performance. The clinker intensity c = 0.35) caused a decrease of 28 days' compressive strength by approx.
10
M. Schneider Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
30% and an increase in the carbonation depth after 56 days under 2% implementation of such quality measures, the industrial production and
CO2 exposure by approx. 20%. For a concrete with a clinker content of a respective degree of prefabrication could assist in lowering the overall
approx. 50 wt.-% of the CEM III/A cement (w/c = 0.50), the same clinker content in today's concrete.
variation in composition resulted in a 5% decrease in compressive
strength and a 5% increase in carbonation depth. 4.6. Recycling and recarbonation of concrete
This influence can be reduced to a certain extent by sufficient
amounts of paste in the concrete. A joint research project between VDZ The recycling of concrete is not only an important contribution to
and the Chair of Building Materials Technology in the Institute for sustainable construction but can also play an important role in the
Structural Civil Engineering at Ruhr University Bochum, Germany, was overall CO2 balance of the construction chain. Carbonation of concrete
intended to identify the most important influencing parameters that are is well known and taken into account when designing concrete struc-
responsible for undesirable changes in the fresh concrete properties tures. In particular after crushing concrete, the fines, which consists
[79]. In the research project, the term “robust” was applied to those basically of calcium silicate hydrates, can significantly take up CO2
concrete compositions in which the fresh concrete properties did not from the atmosphere through recarbonation. Also, fines from recycled
change unexpectedly and significantly, either as a consequence of the concrete can under certain circumstances be used as a primary raw
usual influencing factors found in concrete production or as a con- material for clinker production. The fines consist of calcium and silica
sequence of fluctuations in the constituents that normally occur in compounds and can therefore substitute natural raw materials. The
practice due to the production process. The “paste content” included degree to which they can reduce energy consumption and CO2 emis-
cement, admixtures, the flour-fines content of the aggregate (particle sions of the clinker burning process depends on how much CO2 the fines
size 0 to 0.125 mm) and water. The following variation parameters has taken up before being used in the kiln feed.
were considered: The basic method of recycling concrete is crushing the debris to
produce a granular product of a given particle size [81]. The regional
• Fluctuations of the properties of the cements used standards define the permitted degree of recycled aggregates in con-
• Fluctuations of the properties of the superplasticizers used crete and structures as well as the minimum grain size of the utilized
• Fluctuations in the particle size composition of the aggregate (0 to aggregates. These parameters depend on the concrete's exposure and its
2 mm) strength class. In Europe 50% or more of material from demolition is
• Tolerances when adding the concrete constituents reused in new constructions; the major part is used for road construc-
tion. The environmental benefit of using recycled aggregates in con-
In [79] pastes were produced from laboratory cements with w/ crete lies in the improved material efficiency, but CO2 savings are low,
c = 0.35 and their shear resistances were assessed. It emerged that the as slightly more cement is necessary to produce concrete with recycled
properties of the pastes investigated changed only slightly when the aggregates of equal strength than for concrete from natural aggregates
fineness of the cement clinker or the sulfate content of the cement were [81].
altered. However, a change in the solubility of the sulfate agents re- From the point of concrete technology the re-use of crushed con-
sulted in more rapid stiffening. crete fines below 2 mm grain size is a challenge because of its high
In a “robust” concrete the dependencies observed for hardened ce- variations in water demand and sulphate content. Crushed concrete
ment paste should also be applicable to the fresh concrete properties fines are therefore usually exclusively used in road constructions or
and the concretes should therefore react “as expected”. This was even deposited [81]. However, crushed concrete fines can be used for
checked on concretes with different paste contents. When the above- Portland cement-clinker production [82]. The chemical composition of
mentioned properties were altered in the laboratory, a concrete with a crushed concrete fines is similar to clinker but slightly shifted towards
paste content of approx. 265 l/m3 sometimes exhibited unplanned re- the SiO2-richer side in the CaO-SiO2-Al2O3/Fe2O3 ternary system,
plasticizing and great differences in the quantity of water secreted in a however still containing significant amounts of Calcium. In order to
bucket test [79]. maintain the same raw meal quality for the clinker burning, up to 3% of
On the other hand, the flow table spread of a concrete with a paste the original material mix can be replaced by crushed concrete fines.
content of approx. 300 l/m3 always behaved in line with expectations Under these conditions and according to simulations and kiln trials, this
during changes in the cement properties: a lower flow table spread was substitution rate would lead to around 0.6% CO2 emission mitigation
only observed when using the cements with higher solubility of the through primary fuel savings, since less energy is needed to decompose
sulphate agent, while the flow table spreads of concretes containing the less limestone. The CO2 emission from crushed concrete fines are fur-
other cements exhibited very similar behaviour. The quantity of water ther approximately 1% lower than the process emission from the re-
secreted exhibited smaller fluctuations than with the concrete compo- spective amount of the standard raw material.
sition containing less paste. The concrete with the paste content of The CO2 penalty for transportation of the fines to the cement plant
300 l/m3 was therefore “more robust” than the concrete with a paste was factored in, the energy demand for preparation of the crushed
content of only 265 l/m3 [79]. concrete fines, however, was not taken into account [83]. The sub-
If the influence of temperature is additionally considered, the im- stitution did not negatively affect the kiln process routine and clinker
portance of the paste content becomes even clearer. In [80] concrete quality. Crushed fines can be used on the one hand as a component of
with a paste content of 300 l/m3 showed both normal stiffening and the raw meal, but also as a main component in cement. According to
significant secondary liquefaction as a function of the temperature. A recent studies, cements with up to 30% crushed fines can be used at
concrete with a paste content of approx. 330 l/m3 showed in all cases least in interior concrete concretes [84].
normal stiffening with the expected dependency on the temperature: The reliability of the quality of crushed concrete fines, the efforts for
stronger stiffening with increasing temperature. processing and the realistic distance scenarios and resulting transpor-
The laboratory concretes in [74] showed paste contents (taking into tation emissions are to be assessed and included in order to evaluate the
account quartz flours used in these investigations) of approx. 200 and overall CO2 –mitigation potential. However, the main challenge in in-
260 l/m3. Therefore, whether such concretes would prove themselves in creasing the utilisation of recycled concrete fines are twofold: first of
practice would still need to be checked. A key objective of further re- all, the cement plant must have access to raw materials with sufficiently
search is therefore to develop appropriate measures for quality assur- high CaO content to compensate for the low CaO concentration in the
ance which allow a significant reduction in the clinker content in crushed fines. Also, the logistics are often difficult since the fines come
concrete but ensure the appropriate technical performance in the case from changing sources and show strong variations in their chemical
of in-situ concrete. Since prefabrication might allow for better composition.
11
M. Schneider Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
Recarbonation of concrete involves the chemical reaction of har- models were developed, representing different tiers i.e. different ac-
dened cement paste or mortar with atmospheric CO2 leading to a CO2 curacies of their prediction. Although the different approaches have to
–uptake as a result of reversible calcination reactions [85]. In contact be adapted to the specific local context, the overall calculated CO2
with water the gaseous CO2 is dissolved in aqueous solutions to form uptake in this study is also similar to the ones mentioned. The ad-
HCO3 and thus the carbonate ion CO32– which reacts in the pore solu- vantage of yielding higher accuracy in the calculated CO2 uptake has to
tions with Ca2+-ions to CaCO3. The recarbonated CO2 is permanently be seen against the higher complexity of the models.
bound, CO2 is only released back into the atmosphere when the con- Active carbonation is known, whereby a complete carbonation of
crete is heated to temperatures higher than the calcination tempera- the concrete within a short time can be achieved at considerable
tures (> 850 °C) [85]. technical effort [86,88,89,90,91], for example with high CO2 pressure
In principal, concrete can take up as much CO2 as has been emitted or autoclave treatment. CO2 can also be used as an accelerating ad-
through the calcination of limestone which was used as the raw ma- mixture in concrete. The overall CO2 savings as compared to re-
terial for the cement in that respective concrete. The recarbonation of carbonation of concrete during and after service life are very small.
concrete and the quantification of the global CO2 uptake were sys-
tematically evaluated in 2004 based on existing regional studies and
experiences [86]. The focus was on carbonation during service life and 5. Carbon capture
after service life when concrete is demolished and the rate of CO2 up-
take increases due to the higher specific surfaces, in particular of the Carbon capture is seen as an innovative breakthrough technology
crushed concrete fines. The study took into account the national or which still has to find its way into industrial-scale application. Although
regional deconstruction as well as the recycling rates of the utilized very energy-intensive and still very expensive today, carbon capture is
concrete as exactly as possible. As a result, the overall global CO2 up- seen as the only possibility to significantly reduce CO2 emissions from
take of concrete during service life is equivalent to roughly 10% of the cement manufacture in order to reach the mitigation targets in 2050:
CO2 emitted from cement production. Another 10 to 15% can be taken depending on the scenario chosen, between 552 and 707 Mt CO2/a
up during after-service life, strongly depending on the demolition and need to be globally captured in the cement industry and permanently
recycling rates or the processing of the concrete debris. Overall, a good stored. Geological storage of CO2 has been a known technology for a
estimate is that 15 to 25% of the initial CO2 emission from cement long time, in particular in the oil and gas industry [92], and CO2 can
production will be taken up by concrete during its entire life cycle. also be utilized as carbon feedstock or for fuel production, for which in
A more recent study [87] took data from cement materials during both cases respective amounts of energy from renewable sources are
cement service life, demolition and the secondary use of concrete waste needed [93].
to estimate regional and global CO2 uptake between 1930 and 2013. Capturing CO2 aims to generate a concentrated stream of CO2 at an
The authors found that 43% of process emissions from cement manu- adequately high pressure that can be further transported to a storage or
facturing is taken up by concrete in its full life cycle. Taking the ratio processing site. Due to its process characteristics only post-combustion
between process and fuel-based emissions into account, this figure and oxyfuel technology can be applied to cement kilns to capture both
corresponds to 27% of the total emissions from cement manufacturing. the process and the fuel CO2 (Fig. 15, Fig. 16).
Further methods and calculation models for CO2 uptake were de- Post-combustion separates CO2 from the waste gas by which capture
veloped with the aim to better estimate net emissions of climate gases rates of 95% can be achieved, the CO2 purity can be as high as 99% to
and to improve calculation methods within the Intergovernmental allow immediate further compressing and transport. The implementa-
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and especially the “2006 IPCC tion in cement plants is feasible, provided sufficient space for the CO2
Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories” [85]. Different absorber, the stripper, heat exchanger and other process devices is
available next to the cement kiln. Also, sufficient heat must be available
12
M. Schneider Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
to operate the capture unit. Common solvents are amine-based. today, the European Cement Research Academy (ECRA) is preparing for
Advanced versions are being tested and more efficient solvents are the first industrial trials to test oxyfuel technology to initiate the de-
under development to reduce the energy demand for absorbing and monstration phase in the next years [101–104].
desorbing the CO2 in the absorber and stripper respectively [95]. The Further options for capturing CO2, for example via algae farms, are
solvents are regenerated and reused, and mainly O2, SO2 and NO2 affect being investigated. While at some sites this might be an option, it is in
the degree of solvent degradation. Their concentrations in the waste gas general difficult to implement, in particular with regard to the required
of the kiln also determine the energy demand needed for regeneration surface area needed to provide enough microorganism cultures to
[27]. Waste heat available at the cement plant can be used to operate capture a significant share of CO2 from cement production [27].
the whole capture unit, however since 3 MJ/t of CO2 avoided are The captured CO2 can be transported via pipelines or vessels. The
needed, a substantial amount of additional energy needs to be provided costs depend on the transport distance, and other factors such as
at the site for full-scale capturing [2,27,96]. loading and unloading costs, as well as the type of pipeline (offshore or
Post-combustion separation of CO2 can also be achieved using onshore) are further relevant cost-determining factors [105].
membranes which can reach up to 80% capture yield [27,97]. Mem- The storage of CO2 is accomplished by the injection into geological
branes do not require regeneration and do not generate waste streams. formations beneath the earth surface [105]. Porous rocks with tight cap
Membranes have only been tested on a very small research scale. In- rocks are adequate and suitable to hold the gas as well as rock forma-
dustrial trials need to be carried out to prove their stability in cement tions previously used for holding gas or oil. Costs, mineral feedstock
kiln flue gases, its gas selectivity under the conditions in a cement plant and energy demands involved are estimated to be high.
and its stability under high temperatures and in the presence of gas Cost figures for transport and storage can be found in [106]. Al-
constituents such as SO2. though being from 2011, the numbers are still valid. Typical figures
Calcium looping (CaL) is another way to capture CO2 and to re- range from 1 to 15 €/t of CO2 for transport and 1–20 €/t of CO2 for
generate the sorbent. The CO2 from the flue gas is brought into contact storage.
with reactive CaO to form calcium carbonate in a carbonator at The technical, economic and political framework necessary to fa-
600–700 °C in an exothermal reaction. The calcium carbonate is sepa- cilitate storage has been analysed for the biggest industrial areas in
rated further on into CaO and CO2 at temperatures exceeding 900 °C in Europe, the Ruhr valley, Rotterdam and the southern Netherland region
a calciner to regenerate CaO as the sorbent. The CaO can be used again [7]. The study emphasises the need for both industrial and climate
in the carbonator and cycles between the carbonator and calciner policies to be aligned and the importance of CO2 transport networks to
(looping). The CO2-rich stream can then be further processed for sub- enable industrial decarbonisation. CO2 networks could link industrial
sequent transport. CaL is still in an early stage of development, however areas with the CO2 storage sites, such as in the North Sea. The im-
current research projects show the potential of the technology and will plementation of a regional development organisation, the Market
deliver results from field tests in the cement industry including more Maker, is proposed which links CO2 sources and CO2 users and stores.
concrete cost figures [98]. The European Funding system is seen as a major source for supporting
In oxyfuel technology the nitrogen is separated from the combustion the development for CO2 storage, the deployment of strategic CO2 in-
air before it enters the kiln, thus operating the kiln with pure oxygen as frastructure and hubs, and partially for capturing. Thus, certain regions
the oxydizer. Exit gas from the kiln is therefore high in CO2 con- would be transformed into CO2 transport hubs and could access EU
centration, ideally consisting only of CO2 and water vapour. The pre- funds to support the development of basic infrastructure. A large-scale
treatment of the air to remove nitrogen takes place in an air separation European infrastructure has been suggested, underlining the role of the
plant [99]. In order to maintain the right flame temperature and to EU member states to take the lead in CCS infrastructure development
allow for a good radiation pattern of the combustion gases to effectively [107]. A concrete example for underground CO2 storage is the Sleipner
heat the kiln feed, a part of the CO2 enriched flue gas is recirculated natural gas field beneath the North Sea [108].
[99] whereas the recirculation rate determines the gas flow through the The key messages of the global CCS report from 2018 [92] are that
kiln system and the oxygen concentration in the oxidizer. A part of the CCS storage capacity is abundant and that CCS will become more cost-
CO2-enriched kiln gas is taken out of the recycling loop, purified, fur- efficient as more facilities commercialise. It is further underlined that
ther processed in a compression unit and prepared for transportation. CCS technology has already been working safely for over 45 years. As
Depending on the level of integration, as partial oxyfuel at the for now there are 18 large-scale facilities commercially capturing ap-
precalciner and preheater stage only or as full oxyfuel technology along proximately 40 Mt CO2/year and over 230 Mt CO2 have been injected
the whole clinker production, a capturing rate of 60–99% is estimated underground. CCS can be seen as complementary to renewable energy
to be possible [27,99]. The implementation requires the modification of towards a decarbonised future. Political engagement, a clear direction
the current design of a cement plant and - most importantly - that a and policy confidence are however indispensable for the removal of
sufficient oxygen supply to the site is ensured. A retrofitability study CCS barriers and developing storage resources is seen as a prerequisite
from 2018 [100] assessed the complexity and efforts that are necessary for a wide-scale CCS deployment [109].
to adjust an existing cement plant. The study estimates a 6-month As a second option, CO2 is used as feedstock for the production of
stoppage to carry out the adjustments but describes the impact on chemicals and fuels, usually through hydrogenation. In the case of
clinker production as manageable. New equipment like the air se- chemicals it is important to relate the potential to the market size of
paration unit, the oxyfuel clinker cooler, the exhaust gas recirculation these products which is in most cases far too small to utilise significant
system and the purification unit need to be installed, and measures to amounts of CO2 emitted by the cement sector. However, it is an option
minimize air ingress need to be taken. to save fossil resources and use CO2 as an alternative feedstock. The
Although oxyfuel technology requires a partial retrofit of the kiln overall feasibility of CCU needs to be proven by large-industrial-scale
system and also a more sophisticated kiln control, the overall energy implementations. A life cycle approach must also take into account the
efficiency of this technology is higher than for post-combustion tech- release of CO2 from many of the use cases, i.e. the combustion and
nologies. At the moment, the lack of experience of a large-scale in- decomposition of these chemicals need to be factored in when evalu-
tegration of capturing technologies in cement plants is making it diffi- ating the overall long term CO2 -mitigation potential. In addition, the
cult to estimate associated costs, but further market deployment can right reference scenario has to be chosen, in particular when huge
facilitate the technical optimisation and reduce costs and energy de- amounts of hydrogen are needed to convert the CO2 into chemicals or
mand. It is expected that avoidance costs of 40 €/t CO2 can be reached, fuels [110].
taking into account the technical and scientific progress that will be
made during the industrial trials. Based on the research results available
13
M. Schneider Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
6. Roadmaps: pathways to a low-carbon future contribution of the four emission levers to the 2DS compared to RTS for
the cumulative CO2 emission reductions from 2020 to 2050 [2].
6.1. The global roadmap Thermal energy efficiency accounts for approximately 3% of the
cumulative CO2 emissions savings by 2050, applying best practices in
The global challenge of CO2 mitigation as well as the need to define the kiln technology as mentioned in previous chapters. The calculations
targets and respectively follow-up on their degree of implementation take into account regional policies, such as the 1% annual reduction in
required the elaboration of a Low-Carbon-Technology Roadmap for the the specific thermal energy demand of clinker intended by the Chinese
cement industry, which was first presented in 2009 by the IEA and the government. The electrical energy intensity differs regionally due to
CSI. It is based on a comprehensive set of so-called Technology Papers fineness requirements, raw materials and the level of energy intensity.
for the cement industry, which were created by the European Cement Switching to alternative fuels accounts for 12% of the cumulative
Research Academy. The Technology Papers and subsequently the IEA/ CO2 emissions savings by 2050. This assumption is critically dependent
CSI Technology Roadmap were reworked and amended in 2017 and on waste management legislations and thus on waste availability. The
2018 [2,27]. The global roadmap has been adopted in the meantime in collection, pre-processing and use of alternative fuels should comply
national roadmaps for Europe, Egypt, India and partially in Latin with standards to ensure safety, emission control and a stable compo-
America. sition of suitable fuels.
The IEA roadmap outlines a detailed action plan until 2050 to Reducing the clinker to cement ratio accounts for 37% of the cu-
achieve CO2 emission mitigation related to the expected cement pro- mulative CO2 emission savings by using SCMs and reduces the global
duction growth using the four (already presented) levers: improving clinker to cement ratio to 0.6 by 2050 in the 2DS. This would be only
energy efficiency, switching to alternative fuels, reducing the clinker to feasible when significantly increasing the share of limestone and cal-
cement ratio and implementing emerging and innovative technologies cined clays as SCMs in cement. China remains the region which reports
[2,27]. the lowest clinker to cement ratio of 0.57. Since China will account for
The scenarios used in the roadmap are firstly the Reference 45% of global cement production by 2030, its efficiency in the use of
Technology Scenario RTS, which considers trends and nationally de- clinker strongly determines the global clinker factor. A global reduction
termined commitments under the Paris Agreement, and the 2DS, which of the clinker to cement ratio is intended, however challenges are
calculates with a reduction of annual CO2 emissions from the energy mainly due to the availability of suitable SCMs.
sector by 60% from current levels by 2050 [2]. This target requires a In the presented scenario, innovative technology will account for
decline in CO2 emissions from fuel combustion and industrial processes 48% of the cumulative CO2 emissions, most importantly to be achieved
after 2050 and carbon neutrality in the energy system by 2100. The by carbon capture, storage and utilisation and to a smaller extent by
pathway is set to reach a 50%-chance to limit the global temperature waste heat recovery (WHR) or renewable power generation. In the case
increase to 2 °C by 2100. The scenarios are based on a set of techno- of carbon capture the main barrier is seen as the lack of incentives
economic assumptions [27,2,111,112]. The scope is focused on energy through legal policies and the estimated high costs compared to the
savings and carbon mitigation strategies but the potential of the whole specific cost of cement production. The requirement for large-scale
construction value chain is also recognised. This includes measures for demonstrations has been already outlined previously. Challenges for
the optimisation of concrete used in constructions through lean designs the implementation and success of the technologies are in the case of
and reducing waste of construction materials, maximising the design WHR the economic viability and in the case of renewable energy the
life of buildings and infrastructure, reducing operational energy over a availability of local renewable sources.
building lifetime, reusing and recycling, and optimising recarbonation. Policy frameworks and co-operation between private and public
As a key assumption of the roadmap, global cement production is stakeholders are seen as essential and can be applied by multiple levels
growing from 4.17 Gt/year in the base year 2014 to 4.68 Gt/year (RTS, of action for each of the four levers of emission reduction. Initially,
2DS) by 2050. To meet CO2 mitigation targets, the global direct CO2 support is required by dedicated funding schemes and research pro-
emissions from the cement industry would need to decrease from cur- grams. Public-private partnerships can mitigate the significant invest-
rent levels (2.2 Gt CO2/year) by 24% by 2050. The even more ambi- ment risk. To avoid carbon leakage as the principle threat for the im-
tious B2DS intends to meet a 1.75 °C trajectory, requiring a 45% in- plementation of abatement technologies with high CO2 avoidance cost,
crease in the cumulative carbon emission reduction effort by 2050 it might be necessary to establish stable international carbon pricing
compared to the 2DS. The share of captured and permanently stored mechanisms coupled with measures to promote and to ensure local
CO2 in the overall direct CO2 emissions from cement production would lower-carbon cement production and stay competitive against higher-
need to rise from 25% in the 2DS to 63% in the BSD scenario. The carbon cement imports with higher CO2 emissions [2].
following graph (Fig. 17) shows the calculated and estimated Finally, it should be mentioned that the deployment of low-carbon
Fig. 17. Low-carbon roadmap cumulative CO2 emissions reductions in the 2DS compared to the RTS from 2020 to 2050, as modified by VDZ, data from OECD/IEA/
CSI [2].
14
M. Schneider Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
solutions in the construction sector must be enhanced equally by in- enterprises and benchmarking for existing plants.
cluding them in public procurement policies. Low carbon solutions will With regard to future technologies of carbon capturing and storage,
result in higher costs along the value chain and must be supported and the match of CO2 emission sources and geological storage sites is seen
incentivised accordingly. Early movers must be supported since they as a requirement for the feasibility of CCS projects [116].
run the risk of losing competitiveness due to the significantly higher A national Roadmap up to 2030 was released in 2018 [24]. Re-
production costs they have to bear. ductions prior to 2030 will mainly involve technological innovation,
the elimination of excess capacity and the reduction of the clinker to
6.2. Regional implementations cement ratio. From 2030 until 2050 further reductions will be achieved
by the use of alternative raw materials and fuels. In different scenarios
The global cement technology roadmaps of 2009 and 2018 were the achievable reduction of cement-related CO2 emission factors was
translated into several national roadmaps, such as a European cement calculated between 59 and 69% by 2030 compared to 2005 levels.
industry Low-Carbon Economy Roadmap and an Indian roadmap in Emission factors are calculated in kg CO2/t clinker for raw materials,
2013, as well as an Egyptian Roadmap in 2016. The Latin American energy demand and fuels. This roadmap envisions a natural CO2 de-
Federation for Cement announced its roadmap in 2018. crease from 2030 onwards due to a stabilization and decrease of cement
output.
Europe [113,114] China further plans to introduce a national GHG carbon trading
CEMBUREAU, the European Cement Association, underlines in its program (ETS) in several phases starting with a one-year trading si-
low-carbon economy roadmap resource efficiency, energy efficiency, mulation as from 2019. The system is scheduled to become fully op-
ССS/U, product efficiency and mitigation potential in product appli- erational for the electricity generation from 2020 and gradually rolled
cation and use. This is broken down into multiple paths to emission out to other sectors until 2025 [117]. Carbon trading is seen as an in-
reduction, mitigating the CO2 emission from 177 Mt CO2 year in 1990 novation promoter provoking resource efficiency and transformations
to 34 Mt CO2/year in 2050. The major part is provided by carbon [24].
capture as a breakthrough technology contributing 79 Mt of annual CO2
savings, i.e. almost 60% of the reduction outlined. India [118]
The fuel mix is scheduled to be 60% alternative fuels, 40% of which India is the second largest cement producer in the world and pro-
would be biomass. The clinker factor will be 0.70 in 2050, and new duced 303 Mt in 2018 [1]. The roadmap estimates a significant increase
binding material with CO2 emissions < 50% of the average of all ce- in production reaching 780–1360 Mt of cement in 2050. The relatively
ments will make up 5% of all cementitious product use. low specific energy consumption for cement production in Indian sta-
Not factored into the reduction of the direct emissions, but as im- tistics is related to dry raw material sources. Key levers to reduce CO2
portant in its contribution to global CO2 savings from the cement and emissions are increased rates of SCM materials to reduce the clinker to
concrete value chain, is the growing importance of low-carbon concrete cement ratio, the increased use of alternative fuels, the widespread
and further downstream measures like the recycling of concrete, and implementation of WHR and the development of new technologies. As a
the more efficient use of concrete in buildings and infrastructures. baseline scenario, the roadmap uses the 6 °C scenario (6DS), and in
The measures suggested in the CEMBUREAU roadmap from 2013 contrast, the 2DS. The following Fig. 18 illustrates the potential of the
were assessed again in 2018, underlining that the European cement four levers to mitigate CO2 emissions, assuming a low-demand-driven
industry is on track, that it is targeting carbon neutrality in the con- production volume.
struction sector in the long term and a dedicated focus has to be given The share of thermal energy sourced from alternative fuels only
to the upcoming new technologies, in particular carbon capture. accounts for 0.6% in India. In the 2DS the share would rise to 25% by
2050, improving the waste management system and the availability of
China [115] suitable sources (Fig. 18).
China is by far the largest producer of cement in the world. The The efficient use of clinker will rely on GGBFS, the volumes of
Chinese government implements policies for certain timeframes, such which are expected to increase, whereas the availability of fly ash will
as four-year plans (FYP) to reduce CO2 emissions. The FYP of be reduced. The clinker to cement ratio is expected to decrease from
2006–2010 included the shutdown of outdated facilities, the im- 0.74 to 0.58 in the 2DS. The roadmap outlines the necessity to facilitate
plementation of WHR, encouraging the production of blended cements the development of CCS and biofuels production, e.g. through pro-
and implementing other energy efficiency measures. The government moting pilot technology applications and commercializing algae growth
provides financial support to cement companies when certain targets at Indian cement plants and developing knowledge of potential geolo-
are achieved. gical CO2 storage sites in India.
According to a study from 2015 evaluating the CO2 emissions from
China's total 1574 cement enterprises in 2013, the average was well Latin America [119]
below the global average and reported to be 806 kg CO2/t clinker [116] The Interamerican Cement Federation FICEM represents 74 cement
(compared to the global weighted average of 841 kg CO2/t clinker in producing companies with 227 plants in 24 countries in South and
2013 according to [116] and GNR database). The performance values Central America and supports the development of a sustainable in-
are described to be a result of the industry transformations and the dustry. In 2011 FICEM joined the CSI-initiative and the GNR-project to
strategy of shutting down obsolete plants and their replacement by new support a more comprehensive regional inventory of the CO2 emissions
plants with preheater/precalciner kilns. This development was pushed from the cement industry. In 2012 FICEM communicated the plan to
through strict standards and regulations that were issued in order to promote good practices and generate an action plan for CO2 mitigation.
reduce emissions and energy consumption from the cement industry in A Roadmap was implemented in 2018 and is based on the IEA/CSI
China [116]. The Chinese cement industry landscape is further char- cement technology roadmap approach from 2009, but taking into ac-
acterised by large and medium facilities that account for 92.4% of total count regional characteristics in particular the lack of unified criteria
emissions and for the major part of total production. Thus, they might for CO2 abatement measures across Latin America.
operate more energy efficiently due to economy-of-scale effects [116].
The process emissions among facilities were relatively equal, and Egypt [120]
most improvement potential is seen in adjusting the varying energy Egypt and its cement production is facing a high installed clinker
emission intensities among the enterprises. As one way to equalize production capacity and operating at about only 70% of capacity.
emissions, the report proposes an entry threshold for future new According to the global cement report, Egypt produced around 63.7 Mt
15
M. Schneider Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
Fig. 18. CO2 emission reduction potential for Indian cement production up to 2050 [118].
IEA Publishing. Licence: www.iea.org/t&c
of cement in 2018 [1]. A characteristic for production is the high material for a wide range of buildings, infrastructure and transport
number of kilns with Best Available Techniques, but on the other hand systems. The cement sector will therefore have to lower its CO2 emis-
there is a high clinker factor of 0.89, high amounts of discarded by-pass sions while at the same time the global cement demand is expected to
and cement kiln dust, and a low share of alternative fuels which ac- continue to increase. Although the growth rates are smaller than in the
count for only 5% of thermal energy use. past, the additional cement to be produced will put an extra burden on
The lack of available good-quality clinker substitutes and also the the cement sector to lower its emissions. As a major global emitter of
construction codes limit the use of cement mainly to ordinary Portland CO2 the cement sector is expected to make a significant contribution to
cement. Except for limestone, the availability of SCMs is very limited lower global GHG emissions in order to limit the global temperature
even though the Roadmap assumes that SCMs will become available as increase to 2 °C by 2100 (2DS). The CO2 reduction that the cement
for all cement companies worldwide. To overcome the barrier of con- sector is expected to achieve is based on parallel paths. All of them
structions practices, it will be seen as a necessity for ministries and contribute to the overall mitigation, but each to a different degree and
research centres as well as contractors and the Technical Inspection with different timelines.
Agency to consult on measures to both improve the quality of con- The conventional measures can be implemented according to the
struction and reduce the content of clinker. Applications and require- various roadmaps, the main lever being the reduction of the clinker
ments can be further assured by certification schemes for ready-mix factor. The availability of adequate SCMs is essential and might limit
concretes. The average clinker content in cement should be reduced to clinker factor reduction in some regions. Calcined clays can play an
approximately 0.75. important role in the time to come. In combination with limestone, high
Energy efficiency is the second described lever and measures may quality cements with good performance and durability characteristics
include setting energy efficiency benchmarks as a reference, obliging in concrete can be produced. New binding materials can play a role in
companies with higher energy consumption to periodically execute the long term future, but the application will be mostly in niche mar-
audits, and issuing operating permits with requirements to implement kets. The recarbonation of concrete has an effect on the overall CO2
energy management systems. The implementation of WHR is evaluated balance of the cement sector but is currently not taken into account in
as a subsequent step to reduce electrical energy demands since it re- the respective reporting schemes. Some new binding materials are ac-
quires high investments and should not impede the implementation of tively recarbonated, they harden through the formation of carbonated
other measures of higher priority. calcium silicates and are low in CO2-intensity provided they have access
Waste management and regulations are described and seen as the to a sufficient amount of CO2. Carbon capture is still in its early stages
main path to increase the share of alternative fuels. Currently the waste but will be needed to substantially lower global CO2 emissions from the
generation and discarding is uncontrolled and mostly not recycled. cement sector. CO2 transport and storage infrastructure has to be built
With regard to discarded by-pass dust and other cement kiln dust, up. This requires huge investments, but the technology exists and has
the high chlorine content in Egyptian limestone impedes the recycling been proven. Industrial and climate policies need to be aligned in order
of the dusts to prevent clogging of the kiln. One option is seen in to make carbon capture possible, in particular to support the early
washing out unwanted salts and in recycling the slurry. This however is movers who definitely will otherwise not be able to be competitive due
highly water-intensive. Extensive R&D should improve the develop- to the high CO2 avoidance costs. Building up the CO2 infrastructure
ment of new treatment technologies. needs acceptance from the public and measures have to be taken by all
Further overarching measures comprise balancing the overcapacity, stakeholders to improve the societal acceptance of CO2 transport and
including waste heat recovery and introducing financial incentives. storage.
Following the roadmap path the cement industry in Egypt would Finally, a low-carbon economy and value chain must be supported.
reduce annual CO2 emissions by 10–11.5 MtCO2 per year by 2030. A lower clinker content in cement can only contribute to global CO2
savings once these cements find their way onto the market. Appropriate
indicators must be developed and implemented to support the appli-
7. Outlook cation of low-carbon concretes, always ensuring that a sufficient high
quality level is maintained for safe buildings.
Cement will be indispensable for a long time as a construction
16
M. Schneider Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
Although the challenges which the cement sector faces are high, the (2016) , Accessed date: 1 September 2019.
analysis clearly shows that the necessary measures are available to [24] Wei Junxiao, Cen Kuang, Geng Yuanbo, Evaluation and Mitigation of Cement CO2
Emissions: Projection of Emission Scenarios Toward 2030 in China and Proposal of
guide the cement industry on its way towards a low-carbon future. the Roadmap to a Low-carbon World by 2050, Beijing, China. Available at https://
Resources should be aligned and forces should be joined by all who are link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11027-018-9813-0, (2018) , Accessed
part of the cement and concrete value chain. date: 14 January 2019.
[25] CSI Global Cement Data base on CO2 and Energy Information,GNR, Getting the
Numbers Right Database: Cement Plant Power Consumption for Grey and White
References Cement World-weighted Average all Plants 2016 Coverage 19%, Available at
http://www.wbcsdcement.org/GNR-2016, (2016) , Accessed date: 12 October
2018.
[1] The Global Cement Report, Dorking, Tradeship Publ, UK, 2017.
[26] Johannes Ruppert, Kevin Treiber, Flexibilitätspotentiale und –perspektiven in der
[2] OECD/IEA, CSI, Low-carbon Transition in the Cement Industry: Technology
Roh- und Zementmahlung, Ausfelder, Florian; Roon, Serafin von; Seitz, Antje,
Roadmap, International Energy Agency, IEA, Paris, 2018 [Access on: 07.01.2019]
Hrsg. Flexibilitätsoptionen in der Grundstoffindustrie: Methodik, Potenziale,
Available at: https://webstore.iea.org/technology-roadmap-low-carbon-
Hemmnisse, Dechema, Frankfurt a.M., 2018[Access on: 20.01.2019] Available at:
transition-in-the-cement-industry.
https://www.vdz-online.de/forschung/abgeschlossene-projekte/synergie/.
[3] Johannes Ruppert, Lorea Claude, CEMBUREAU Cement CO2 Emission Share. Task
[27] Development of State of the Art-techniques in Cement Manufacturing: Trying to
Force Low Carbon Economy, Brussels (2017).
Look Ahead; CSI/ECRA-Technology Papers 2017, A-2016/2305, European Cement
[4] C. Le Quéré, et al., Global carbon budget 2018, Earth Syst. Sci. Data 10 (2018)
Research Academy, ECRA, Düsseldorf, 2017.
2141–2194, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-10-2141-2018 [Access on: 14.01.2019]
[28] 2019 [Access on: 04.06.2019] Available at: https://www.beton.org/wissen/
Available at.
nachhaltigkeit/umweltproduktdeklarationen/.
[5] M. Robbie Andrew, Research, CICERO Center for International Climate. Global
[29] UN Environment and International Energy Agency, Towards a zero-emission, ef-
CO2 emissions from cement production, Journal of Earth Syst. Sci. Data (2017)
ficient and resilient buildings and construction sector: Global Status Report, Global
[Access on 14.01.2019] Available at: https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-10-195-2018.
Status Report 2017 (2017) 2017.
[6] The Bellona Foundation, Manufacturing Our Future: Industries, European Regions
[30] V. Hoenig, K. Koring, P. Fleiger, C. Müller, S. Palm, Energy efficiency in cement
and Climate Action: CO2 Network for the Ruhr, Rotterdam, Antwerp and the
production part 1 and 2, Cement International (3) (2013) (2013(4), Volume 11).
Greater Oslo Fjord, Available at http://network.bellona.org/content/uploads/
[31] The European Commission, Industrial Emissions Directive 2010/75/EU Integrated
sites/3/2016/10/MANUFACTURING_OUR_FUTURE_-INDUSTRIES_EU_REGIONS_
Pollution Prevention and Control: Best Available Techniques (BAT) Reference
AND_CLIMATE_FINAL.pdf, (2016) , Accessed date: 22 January 2019.
Document for the Production of Cement, Lime and Magnesium Oxide, Available at
[7] Jan-Justus Andreas, Ana Serdoner, Keith Whiriskey, An Industry's Guide to
http://eippcb.jrc.ec.europa.eu/reference/BREF/CLM_Published_def.pdf, (2013) ,
Climate Action, The Bellona Foundation, 2018.
Accessed date: 24 January 2019.
[8] United Nations, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,
[32] J. Harder, Onestone-consulting. Developments in the Global Cement Market, Cement
[Access on: 08.01.2019] Available at: https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/
International 12 (1) (2014) S. 34–41.
conveng.pdf.
[33] CSI Global Cement Data base on CO2 and Energy Information,GNR, Getting the
[9] UNFCC, The Paris Agreement: Essential Elements, https://unfccc.int/process-and-
Numbers Right Database: alternative fossil fuels and mixed fuels consumption
meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement.
weighted average- world (coverage 19%) and EU28 (coverage 90%) in 2016,
[10] The Global Climate UN - COP 24 in Katowice, Available at https://cop24.gov.pl/
Available at http://www.wbcsdcement.org/GNR-2016, (2016) , Accessed date: 12
news/, (2018) , Accessed date: 1 August 2018.
October 2018.
[11] Melissa Low, Eric Bea, Sarah Lu, Katowice Climate Package: Operationalising the
[34] Cembureau, Ecofys Report Shows Potential for Further Uptake of Alternative Fuels
Climate Change Regime in the Paris Agreement, (2018).
in the Cement Industry, Available at https://cembureau.eu/news-views/blog/
[12] Chair's Summary G8 Summit 2009, L'Aquila. [Access on: 08.01.2019] Available at:
ecofys-report-shows-potential-for-further-uptake-of-alternative-fuels-in-the-
http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/publications/pages/publication15572_en.
cement-industry/, (2017) , Accessed date: 2 April 2019.
pdf.
[35] Associacao Brasileira de Cimento Portland, IFC International Finance Corporation,
[13] World Bank, Carbon Pricing Dashboard, Available at https://
SNIC Sindicato Nacional da indústria do cemento, Increasing the Use of
carbonpricingdashboard.worldbank.org/, (2019) , Accessed date: 30 January
Alternative Fuels at Cement Plants: International Best Practice, Available at
2019.
https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/cb361035-1872-4566-a7e7-
[14] The European Commission, Decisions - Commission Decision of 27 April 2011
d3d1441ad3ac/Alternative_Fuels_08+04.pdf?MOD=AJPERES, (2017) , Accessed
Determining Transitional Union-wide Rules for Harmonised Free Allocation of
date: 12 December 2018.
Emission Allowances Pursuant to Article 10a of Directive 2003/87/EC of the
[36] UNEP, Global Waste Management Outlook, (2015).
European Parliament and of the Council, Available at https://eur-lex.europa.eu/
[37] WorldBank. Solid waste management. [Access on: 10.12.2018] Available at:
LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2011:130:0001:0045:EN:PDF, (2011) ,
http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/urbandevelopment/brief/solid-waste-
Accessed date: 1 August 2019.
management (09/2018).
[15] Finanzen, CO2 European Emission Allowances, Available at https://www.
[38] K. Silpa, L. Yao, P. Bhada-Tata, F. Van Woerden, What a waste 2.0- a global
finanzen.net/rohstoffe/co2-emissionsrechte/historisch, (2019) , Accessed date: 2
snapshot of solid waste management to 2050, The World Bank, 2018 [Access
August 2019.
on:24.01.2019] Available at: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/
[16] The Eurpean Parliament and the Council of the European Union, Directive (EU)
302341468126264791/What-a-waste-a-global-review-of-solid-waste-
2018/410 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL, Available
management.
at https://www.wearefactor.com/docs/Directiva2018_410_en.pdf, (2018) ,
[39] Cembureau; ECOFYS, Market Opportunities for Use of Alternative Fuels in Cement
Accessed date: 24 January 2019.
Plants Across the EU, Available at https://cembureau.eu/media/1231/
[17] The European Commission, Communication From the Commission to the
ecofysreport_wastetoenergy_2016-07-08.pdf, (2016) , Accessed date: 12 October
European Parliament, the European Council, the Council, the European Economic
2018.
and Social Committee, the Committee of the Regions and the European Investment
[40] Fraunhofer Umsicht, Zur Rolle der thermischen Abfallbehandlung in der Circular
Bank, Brussels. Available at https://ec.europa.eu/clima/sites/clima/files/docs/
Economy: MVA und Circular Economy. im Auftrag der AGR
pages/com_2018_733_en.pdf, (2018) , Accessed date: 2 August 2019.
Abfallentsorgungsgesellschaft Ruhrgebiet MBH Oberhausen, Available at https://
[18] Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety,
www.umsicht.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/umsicht/de/dokumente/
Climate Action Plan 2050-Germanys Long-term Emission Development Strategy,
publikationen/2017/thermische-verwertung-circular-economy-studie.pdf, (2017)
[Access on:01.01.2019] Available at: https://www.bmu.de/en/topics/climate-
, Accessed date: 12 December 2018.
energy/climate/national-climate-policy/greenhouse-gas-neutral-germany-2050/.
[41] Zahlen und Daten, Stand: August 2018; Zementindustrie in Deutschland, 2018
[19] United Nations, Population Division, Demographic Profile Graphs 1950–2100,
Verein Deutscher Zementwerke, VDZ, Düsseldorf, 2018.
Data From 2017 for WORLD Low and Medium Variant, Available at https://
[42] CEMBUREAU, Domestic Deliveries of Cement Types and Strength: Cembureau
population.un.org/wpp/Graphs/DemographicProfiles/, (2017) , Accessed date: 12
Countries - Synthesis, (2016).
October 2018.
[43] Tracking Clean Energy Progress 2017: Energy Technology Perspectives 2017
[20] U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, 2014 Minerals Yearbook -
Excerpt Informing Energy Sector Transformations, International Energy Agency,
Cement Advance Release, (2014).
IEA, Paris, 2017 [Access on: 07.01.2019] Available at: https://www.iea.org/
[21] GlobalCement, David Perilli, Update on China in 2017, Available at http://www.
publications/freepublications/publication/TrackingCleanEnergyProgress2017.
globalcement.com/news/item/7300-update-on-china-in-2017, (2018) , Accessed
pdf.
date: 1 October 2019.
[44] Boston Consulting Group, Christophe Brognaux, Eric Boudier, Tycho Möncks,
[22] CSI Global Cement Database on CO2 and Energy Information, GNR, Getting the
Mate Gerecs, Why Coal Will Be Burning, Available at https://www.bcg.com/de-
Numbers Right Database: Gross CO2 Emissions, CO2 Emission per Tonne of
de/publications/2018/why-coal-will-keep-burning.aspx, (2018) , Accessed date: 1
Clinker- World (Coverage 19%) and EU28 (Coverage 90%) in 2016, Available at
January 2019.
https://www.wbcsdcement.org/GNR-2016/, (2016) , Accessed date: 24 January
[45] K.L. Scrivener, Eco-effcient Cements: Potential, Economically Viable Solutions for
2019.
a Low-CO2, Cement-based Materials Industry, Paris (2016).
[23] CSI Global Cement Data base on CO2 and Energy Information,GNR, Getting the
[46] S.E. Schulze, J. Rickert, Pozzolanic activity of calcined clays, American Concrete
Numbers Right Database, Clinker to Cementitious Ratios: Weighted Average: EU
Institute ACI, Twelfth International Conference on Recent Advances in Concrete
Countries 96% Coverage, World 19% Coverage in 2016, Available at https://
Technology and Sustainability Issues, 2012.
www.wbcsdcement.org/GNR-2016/world/GNR-Indicator_59cAWcm-world.html,
[47] Matthias Achternbosch, Robert Adams, Nancy Beuntner, Wolfgang Breit,
17
M. Schneider Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
Frank Dehn, Bianca Dornisch-Bund, Michael Haist, Detlef Heinz, Anne Heisig, Option? European Cement Research Academy, ECRA, Düsseldorf, 2015.
Franz-Josef Klager, Horst-Michael Ludwig, Christoph Müller, N. Pralle, J. Scheidt, [82] Bruno Hauer, Klein Henning, Recycling of concrete cursher sand, International
K.-C. Thienel, Bauwerkserhaltung, 14. Symposium Baustoffe und, Karlsruher Symposium on Sustainability in the Cement and Concrete Industry: Lillehammer,
Institut für Technologie (KIT), 2018 [Access on: 10.12.2018] Available at: https:// Norway, 16.-19. September 2007, 2007, pp. S. 106–120.
publikationen.bibliothek.kit.edu/1000080569. [83] Joachim Harder, Entwicklung der Klinkerersatzstoffe in der Zementindustrie,
[48] C. He, B. Osbaeck, E. Makovicky, Pozzolanic reactions of six principal clay mi- Zement-Kalk-Gips (2006) S. 58–64.
nerals: activation, reactivity assessments and technological effects, Cem. Concr. [84] Katrin Severins, Christoph Mueller, Crushed sand as main constituent in cement,
Res. 25 (8) (1995) S. 1691–1702. 20th International Conference on Building Materials (Ibausil) September
[49] K. Scrivener, A Breakthrough Technology to Reduce CO2-emissions From 12th–14th, 2018.
Cementitious Materials, International VDZ congress 2018, Duesseldorf, 2018. [85] S. Hakan, L. Christer, G. Tomas, A. Ronny, CO2 Uptake in Cement-containing
[50] S.E. Schulze, R. Pierkes, J. Rickert, Optimization of cements with calcined clays as Products: Background and Calculation Models for IPCC Implementation, IVL
supplementary cementitious materials, 14th International Congress on the Swedish Environmental Research Institute 2018, 2018.
Chemistry of Cement ICCC, 2015. [86] European Cement Research Academy, ECRA, TR-ECRA 0004/2008: Release and
[51] Herfort, D.; Damtoft, J.S. US Patent 9,212,092 B2: Portland Limestone Calcined Uptake of Carbon Dioxide in the Life Cycle of Cement, ECRA, 2008.
Clay Cement. 2015. [87] F. Xi, S.J. Davis, P. Ciais, D. Crawford-Brown, D. Guan, C. Pade, T. Shi, M. Syddall,
[52] A. Favier, C. De Wolf, K. Scrivener, G. Habert, A Sustainable Future for the J. Lv, L. Ji, L. Bing, J. Wang, W. Wei, K.-H. Yang, B. Lagerblad, I. Galan,
European Cement and Concrete Industry, ETH Zürich, EPA, Lausanne, 2018. C. Andrade, Y. Zhang, Substantial global carbon uptake by cement carbonation,
[53] R. Pierkes, S.E. Schulze, J. Rickert, Durability of composite cements with calcined Nat. Geosci. (2016).
clay, International Cement Review 12 (2018) S. 34–36. [88] H.J. Banks, J.B. McCabe, Uptake of carbon dioxide by concrete and implications of
[54] M. Antoni, J. Rossen, F. Martirena, K. Scrivener, Cement substitution by a com- this process for grain storage, J. Stored Prod. Res. 24 (3) (1988) S. 183 1988.
bination of metakaolin and limestone, Cem. Concr. Res. 42 (12) (2012) S. [89] C.A. García-González, N. El Grouh, A. Hidalgo, J. Fraile, New insights on the use of
1579–1589. supercritical carbon dioxide for the accelerated carbonation of cement pastes, J.
[55] T. Matschei, B. Lothenbach, F.P. Glasser, The role of calcium carbonate in cement Supercrit. Fluids 43 (2008) S. 500–509.
hydration, Cem. Concr. Res. 37 (4) (2007) S. 551–558. [90] M.F. Bertos, S.J.R. Simons, C.D. Hills, P.J. Carey, A review of accelerat-ed car-
[56] CSI Global Cement Data base on CO2 and Energy Information, GNR, Getting the bonation technology in the treatment of cement-based materials and seques-tra-
Numbers Right Database: Total Mineral Components to Produce Portland Cement tion of CO2, J. Hazard. Mater. B112 (2004) S. 193–205.
Grey and White World Data With 19% Coverage in 2016, Available at http:// [91] Y. Shao, M.S. Mirza, X. Wu, CO2 sequestration using calcium-silicate concrete,
www.wbcsdcement.org/GNR-2016, (2016) , Accessed date: 12 October 2018. Can. J. Civ. Eng. 33 (2006) 776–784 S..
[57] CSI Global Cement Data base on CO2 and Energy Information, GNR, Getting the [92] Global CCS Institute, The Global Status of CCS, Available at https://indd.adobe.
Numbers Right Database: Total Mineral Components Used as Cement Substitute com/view/2dab1be7-edd0-447d-b020-06242ea2cf3b, (2018) , Accessed date: 24
World Data 19% Coverage in 2016, Available at http://www.wbcsdcement.org/ January 2019.
GNR-2016, (2016) , Accessed date: 12 October 2018. [93] R. Chauvy, N. Meunier, D. Thomas, G. de Weireld, Selecting emerging CO2 utili-
[58] A. Wolter, Belite cements and low-energy clinker, Cement International 3 (6) zation products for short-to mid-term deployment, Appl. Energy 236 (2019) S.
(2005) S. 107–117. 662–680.
[59] E. Gartner, Industrially interesting approaches to “low-CO2” cements, Cem. Concr. [94] The European Cement Research Academy,ECRA, Ecra's Oxyfuel Project, European
Res. (2004) S. 1489–1498. Cement Research Academy ECRA, 2015.
[60] CSI Global Cement Data base on CO2 and Energy Information,GNR, Getting the [95] Jakob Knudsen Nygaard, Otto Morten Bade, Inga Askestad, Oddvar Gorset,
Numbers Right Database, Available at http://www.wbcsdcement.org/GNR-2016, Thor Mejdell, Pilot plant demonstration of CO2 capture from cement plant with
(2016) , Accessed date: 12 October 2018. advanced amine technology, Energy Procedia 63 (2014) 6464–6475 S..
[61] Cembureau - The European Cement Association, Cement Standards of the World, [96] C. Abanades, G. Cinti, D. Berstad, V. Hoenig, M. Hornberger, K. Jordal, D2.11
(2017). CEMCAP Strategic Conclusions - Progressing CO2 Capture From Cement towards
[62] VDZ. VDZ data and private communication Demonstration: WP2 WP Dissemination and Exploitation (CEMCAP 641185),
[63] ECOserve NETWORK, CLUSTER 2. Production and Application of Blended (2018).
Cements: Research Activities - CONTRACT N°: G1RD-CT-2002-00782 – Final [97] Karl Lindqvist, Simon Roussananly, Rahul Anantharaman, Multi-stage membrane
Report, 30.11 (2005). processes for CO2 capture from cement industry, Energy Procedia 63 (2014) S.
[64] C. Müller, K. Severins, Dauerhaftigkeit von Betonen mit flugaschehaltigen 6476–6483.
Zementen, Beton 57 (2007) S. 119–126. [98] E. de Lena, M. Spinelli, M.C. Romano, CO2 capture in cement plants by “Tail-End”
[65] C. Müller, K. Severins, B. Hauer, New findings concerning the performance of calcium looping process, Energy Procedia 148 (2018) S. 186–193.
cements containing limestone, granulated blastfurnace slag and fly ash as main [99] A. Jamali, K. Fleiger, J. Ruppert, V. Hoenig, R. Anantharaman, CO2 Capture From
constituents; part 1; part 2, 3 (4) (2010) S. 80–86 (82-93). Cement Production, Optimised Operation of an Oxyfuel Cement Plant, (2018).
[66] S. Palm, C. Müller, A. Wolter, T. Bohne, Concrete Technology Report: Hydration [100] H. Hoppe, V. Hoenig, J. Ruppert, D. Berstad, M. Romano, D. Sutter, M. Voldsund,
Degree Based Characteristic Values (Publication in Preparation), (2014), p. 5. Cemcap CO2 Capture From Cement Production. Retrofitability Study for CO2
[67] S. Palm, T. Proske, M. Rezvani, S. Hainer, C. Müller, C.-A. Graubner, Cements with Capture Technologies in Cement Plants, (2018).
a high limestone content – mechanical properties, durability and ecological [101] The European Cement Research Academy, ECRA, ECRA CCS Project - Report
characteristics of the concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. (2016) S. 308–318. About Phase II: TR 106/2009, ECRA, 2009 [Access on: 27.01.2019] Available at:
[68] T. Proske, M. Rezvani, S. Palm, C. Müller, C.-A. Graubner, Concretes made of ef- https://ecra-online.org/fileadmin/redaktion/files/pdf/ECRA__Technical_Report_
ficient multi-composite cements with slag and limestone, Cem. Concr. Compos. CCS_Phase_II.pdf.
(2018) S. 107–119. [102] ECRA CCS Project - Report About Phase III: TR 119/2012, ECRA, 2012 [Access on:
[69] CEN/TC 104/SC 1, Survey of National Provisions for EN 206-1, (2007). 28.01.2019] Available at: https://ecra-online.org/fileadmin/redaktion/files/pdf/
[70] ERMCO, Ready-mixed Concrete Industry Statistics, Brüssel (2018). ECRA_Technical_Report_CCS_Phase_III.pdf.
[71] BTB, Wirtschaftsdaten, https://www.transportbeton.org/branche/ [103] ECRA CCS Project - Report About Phase IV.A, ECRA, 2016 [Access on:
wirtschaftsdaten/. 27.01.2019] Available at: https://ecra-onli-ne.org/fileadmin/redaktion/files/pdf/
[72] CEN/TC 104, CEN/TR 16563:2013: Principles of the Equivalent Durability ECRA_Technical_Report_CCS_Phase_IV_A.pdf.
Procedure (Verfahrensgrundsätze zum Nachweis gleichwertiger Dauerhaftigkeit), [104] ECRA CCS Project, Cement industry launches an industrial-scale carbon capture
(2013). project, [Access on: 28.01.2019] Available at: ECRA, https://ecra-online.org/
[73] B. Damineli, M.F. Kerneid, S.P. Aguiar, M.J. Vanderley, Measuring the eco-effi- fileadmin/ecra/press_releases/Cement_Industry_Launches_Industrial-Scale_
ciency of cement use, Cem. Concr. Compos. 32 (2010) S. 555–562. Carbon_Capture_Project.pdf, (2018).
[74] Harald S. Müller, Michael Haist, Michael Vogel, Assessment of the sustainability [105] Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage: IPCC Special Report, Cambridge Univ. Pr,
potential of concrete and concrete structures considering their environmental New York, 2005.
impact, performance and lifetime, Construction & building materials - [106] Advisory Council of the European Technology Platform For Zero Emission Fossil
Construction & building materials (2014) S. 321–337. Fuel Power Plants, The Costs of CO2 Capture, Transport and Storage: Post-de-
[75] Martin Schneider, The cement industry on the way to a low carbon future: monstration CCS in the EU, (July 2011).
Innovation and Technical Trends in Cement Production, in: VDZ (Ed.), 8th [107] Neele Filip, Mikunda Tom, Seebregts Ad, Santen Stijn, van der Burgt Anton,
International VDZ Congress 2018; Proceedings (Duesseldorf 26–28 September Stiff Sarah, Hustard Carl, A roadmap towards a European CO2 transport infra-
2018) Duesseldorf, 2018, pp. S. 55–72. structure, Energy Procedia, 2013 [Access on: 24.01.2019] Available at: https://
[76] A. Haist, et al., Ansatz zur Quantifizierung der Nachhaltigkeit von Beton auf der www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1876610213009673.
Baustoffebene, Beton- Und Stahlbetonbau 111 (2016) 10. [108] A. Chadwick, Geological Storage of Carbon Dioxide (CO2): Geoscience,
[77] W. Neufert, Performance of clinker-efficient cements containing granulated blas- Technologies, Environmental Aspects and Legal Frameworks: Chapter 10: Offshore
tfurnace slag and limestone, Cement International (2018) S. 58–66. CO2 Storage: Sleipner Natural Gas Field Beneath the North Sea, Woodhead
[78] S. Palm, Concrete application of clinker-efficient cements, Adv. Cem. Res. S. 1 (10) Publishing, 2013 [Access on: 24.01.2019] Available at: http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/
(2019). eprint/508611/1/Sleipner_Chapter_V5_withFigs_singlespace.pdf.
[79] J. Reiners, C. Müller, J. Penttilä, R. Breitenbücher, Achieving the intended con- [109] Consoli Christopher, CCS Storage Indicator (CCS-SI), Global CCS Institute, 2018
crete properties in modern 5-material systems of varied concrete constituents, [Access on: 24.01.2019] Available at: http://decarboni.se/sites/default/files/
Cement International (2016) S. 64–69. publications/202110/ccs-storage-indicatorglobal-ccs-institute2018digital.pdf.
[80] HeidelbergCement AG, Newsletter Nr. 18: Entwicklung und Anwendung, (2013). [110] SAPEA, o.J, Novel carbon capture and utilisation technologies: research and cli-
[81] C. Müller, Closing the Loop: What Type of Concrete-Reuse is the Most Sustainable mate aspects, SAPEA, Berlin, https://www.sapea.info/wp-content/uploads/CCU-
18
M. Schneider Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
report-May2018-3.pdf, (2018). Cement Industry, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese
[111] Global Warming of 1,5 °C: An IPCC Special Report on the Impacts of Global Academy of Sciences, Wuppertal Institute for Climate Environment and Energy
Warming of 1.5 °C above Pre-Industrial Levels and Related Global Greenhouse Gas Berlin Office, 2012.
Emission Pathways, in the Context of Strengthening the Global Response to the [116] C. Bofeng, W. Jinnan, H. Jie, G. Yong, Evaluating CO2 emission performance in
Threat of Climate Change, Sustainable Development, and Efforts to Eradicate China’s cement industry: an enterprise perspective, Appl. Energy 166 (2015) S.
Poverty, IPCC, Geneva, 2018. 191–200.
[112] R.K. Pachauri, L.A. Meyer, Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report: Contribution [117] ICAP, China national ETS, Available at: https://icapcarbonaction.com/en/?
of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the, IPCC, Geneva, option=com_etsmap&task=export&format=pdf&layout=list&systems%5b
2014. %5d=55, (2019) , Accessed date: 21 May 2019.
[113] Cembureau, The Role of CEMENT in the 2050 Low Carbon Economy, Cembureau, [118] OECD/IEA,WBCSD, Low-carbon Technology for the Indian Cement Industry:
Brüssel, 2013 [Access on: 28.01.2019] Available at: https://cembureau.eu/media/ Technology Roadmap, International Energy Agency, IEA, Paris, 2013 [Access on:
1500/cembureau_2050roadmap_lowcarboneconomy_2013-09-01.pdf. 07.01.2019] Available at: https://webstore.iea.org/technology-roadmap-low-
[114] Cembureau, Building Carbon Neutrality in Europe: Engaging for Concrete carbon-transition-in-the-cement-industry.
Solutions;#madewithcement, Cembureau, Brüssel, 2018 [Access on: 31.10.2018] [119] FICEM, FICEM Roadmap, Available at http://www.hojaderutaficem.org/pdf/
Available at: https://lowcarboneconomy.cembureau.eu/wp-content/uploads/ infografia02_pasoapaso_2211a.pdf, (2017) , Accessed date: 28 January 2019.
2018/10/CEMBUREAU-BUILDING-CARBON-NEUTRALITY-IN-EUROPE_WEB_ [120] B. Vanderborght, Low-Carbon Roadmap for the Egyptian Cement Industry: Project
PBP.pdf. “Egypt: Technology and Policy Scoping for a Low-carbon Egyptian Cement
[115] S. Höller, Y. Wang, Z. Hao, Analysis of CO2 Mitigation Policies in the Chinese Industry”, (2016).
19