Rangamati Science & Technology University

Assignment on
Project Management
Course Code: 406
[Executive Stocker]

Submitted to Submitted by
Name: Dipankar Mondal
Mohona Biswas
Reg:2015-22-12
Assistant Professor Name: Tumpa Rani Dey
Dept. of management Reg:2015-22-20
Rangamati Science & Technology Name: Abuzafar Abdullah
University Reg: 2015-22-23
Name: Rahanuma Tasmin
Reg: 2015-22-34
Name: Tricha Chakma
Reg: 2015-22-47
Name: Opu Dey
Reg: 2014-21-0125

Date of Submission: 05 -11-2020

 Scheduling
What is Scheduling? : A schedule is the conversion of a project action plan into an
operating timetable. As such, it serves as the basis for monitoring and controlling project
activity and, taken together with the plan and budget, is probably the major tool for the
management of projects. In a project environment, the scheduling function is more important
than it would be in an ongoing operation because projects lack the continuity of day-to-day
operations and often present much more complex problems of coordination. Indeed, project
scheduling is so important that a detailed schedule is sometimes a customer-specified
requirement. Not all project activities need to be scheduled at the same level of detail. In fact,
there may be several schedules (e.g., the master schedule, the development and testing
schedule, the assembly schedule). These schedules are typically based on the previously
determined action plan and/or work breakdown structure (WBS).
Definition: Scheduling in project management is the listing of activities, deliverables, and
milestones within a project. A schedule also usually includes the planned start and finish date,
duration, and resources assigned to each activity. Effective project scheduling is a critical
component of successful time management.
Benefits: The basic approach of all scheduling techniques is to form a network of activity
and event relationships that graphically portrays the sequential relations between the tasks in
a project. Tasks that must precede or follow other tasks are then clearly identified, in time as
well as function. Such a network is a powerful tool for planning and controlling a project, and
has the following benefits are:
• It is a consistent framework for planning, scheduling, monitoring, and controlling the
project.
• It illustrates the interdependence of all tasks, work packages, and work elements.
• It denotes the times when specific individuals and resources must be available for work on a
given task.
• It aids in ensuring that the proper communications take place between departments and
functions.
• It determines an expected project completion date.
• It identifies so-called critical activities that, if delayed, will delay the project completion
time.
• It also identifies activities with slack that can be delayed for specified periods without
penalty, or from which resources may be temporarily borrowed without harm.
• It determines the dates on which tasks may be started—or must be started if the project is to
stay on schedule.
• It illustrates which tasks must be coordinated to avoid resource or timing conflicts.
• It also illustrates which tasks may be run, or must be run, in parallel to achieve the
predetermined project completion date.
• It relieves some interpersonal conflict by clearly showing task dependencies.
• It may, depending on the information used, allow an estimate of the probability of project
completion by various dates, or the date corresponding to a particular a priori probability.

Network Techniques: PERT and CPM

The most common approach to project scheduling is the use of network techniques such as
PERT and CPM. These two techniques are discussed in the below:

PERT (The Program Evaluation and Review Technique):

In project management, the Project Evaluation Review Technique, or PERT, is used to identify
the time it takes to finish a particular task or activity. It is a system that helps in
proper scheduling and coordination of all tasks throughout a project. , PERT has primarily been
used for R&D projects, the type of projects for which it was developed, though its use is more
common on the “development” side of R&D than it is on the “research” side. It also helps in
keeping track of the progress, or lack thereof, of the overall project. In the 1950s, the Project
Evaluation Review Technique was developed by the US Navy to manage the Polaris submarine
missile program of their Special Projects Office. Knowing the time it should take to execute a
project is crucial, as it helps project managers decide on other factors such as the budget
and task delegation. No matter how big or small a project is, estimates can be too optimistic or
pessimistic, but using a PERT chart will help determine realistic estimates.

Creating a PERT Chart: A flowchart is used to depict the Project Evaluation Review
Technique. Nodes represent the events, indicating the start or end of activities or tasks. The
directorial lines indicate the tasks that need to be completed, and the arrows show the sequence
of the activities. There are four definitions of time used to estimate project time requirements:
• Optimistic time – The least amount of time it can take to complete a task
• Pessimistic time – The maximum amount of time it should take to complete a task
• Most likely time – Assuming there are no problems, the best, or most reasonable,
estimate of how long it should take to complete a task.
• Expected time – Assuming there are problems, the best estimate of how much time
will be required to complete a task.
Here are several terms used in a PERT chart:
Float/Slack – Refers to the amount of time a task can be delayed without resulting in an
overall delay in completion of other tasks or the project
Critical Path – Indicates the longest possible continuous path from the start to the end of a
task or event
Critical Path Activity – Refers to an activity without any slack
Lead Time – Refers to the amount of time needed to finish a task without affecting
subsequent tasks
Lag Time – The earliest time by which a successor event/task can follow a prior event/task
Fast Tracking – Refers to handling tasks or activities in parallel
Crashing Critical Path – Shortening the amount of time to do a critical task
Advantages of PERT:
1. It helps maximize the use of resources.
2. It makes project planning more manageable.
3. It’s useful even if there is little or no previous schedule data.
4. It enables project managers to better estimate or determine a more definite completion
date.
Disadvantages of PERT:
1. In complex projects, many find PERT hard to interpret, so they may also use
a Gantt Chart, another popular method for project management.
2. It can be tedious to update, modify, and maintain the PERT diagram.
3. It entails a subjective time analysis of activities and, for those who are less
experienced or are biased, this may affect the project’s schedule.

CPM (Critical Path Method):

CPM was designed for construction projects and has been generally embraced by the
construction industry. Critical path method is based on mathematical calculations and it is used
for scheduling project activities. This method was first introduced in 1950s as a joint venture
between Remington Rand Corporation and DuPont Corporation. The initial critical path
method was used for managing plant maintenance projects. Although the original method was
developed for construction work, this method can be used for any project where there are
interdependent activities. CPM used deterministic activity time estimates and was designed to
control both the time and cost aspects of a project, in particular, time/cost trade-offs. In CPM,
activities can be “crashed” (expedited) at extra cost to speed up the completion time.

Key Steps in Critical Path Method: The process of using critical path method in project
planning phase has six steps

Step 1: Activity specification

The Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) can be used to identify the activities involved in the
project. This is the main input for the critical path method. In activity specification, only the
higher-level activities are selected for critical path method. When detailed activities are used,
the critical path method may become too complex to manage and maintain.

Step 2: Activity sequence establishment

In this step, the correct activity sequence is established. For that, there are three questions
need to ask for each task of the list:
• Which tasks should take place before this task happens?
• Which tasks should be completed at the same time as this task?
• Which tasks should happen immediately after this task?
Step 3: Network diagram
Once the activity sequence is correctly identified, the network diagram can be drawn by using
arrows to connect activities based on their dependencies.
Step 4: Estimates for each activity
Estimating how much time will be spent for each action and determine the time needed to
complete the entire project (small projects can be assessed in a few days; more complex ones
require a long evaluation).
Step 5: Identification of the critical path
The activity network will help to create the longest sequence on the path or the critical path
using the following parameters:
• Early Start – the time when all previous tasks are completed.
• Early Finish – the nearest start time and the time required to complete the task.
• Late Finish – all activities are completed without postponing the deadlines.
• Late Start – the last end time minus the time it takes to complete the task.

The float time for an activity is the time between the earliest (ES) and the latest (LS) start time
or between the earliest (EF) and latest (LF) finish times. During the float time, an activity can
be delayed without delaying the project finish date.
The critical path is the longest path of the network diagram. The activities in the critical path
have an effect on the deadline of the project. If an activity of this path is delayed, the project
will be delayed.
In case if the project management needs to accelerate the project, the times for critical path
activities should be reduced.

Step 6: Critical path diagram to show project progresses

Critical path diagram is a live artefact. Therefore, this diagram should be updated with actual
values once the task is completed.
This gives more realistic figure for the deadline and the project management can know whether
they are on track regarding the deliverables.

Advantages of Critical Path Method:

• The method visualizes projects in a clear graphical form.
• It defines the most important tasks.
• Saves time and helps in the management of deadlines.
• Helps to compare the planned with the real status.
• Identifies all critical activities that need attention.
• Makes dependencies clear and transparent.

Difference between PERT and CPM:

BASIS FOR
PERT CPM
COMPARISON

Meaning PERT is a project management CPM is a statistical technique of

technique, used to manage project management that manages
uncertain activities of a project. well defined activities of a
project.

What is it? A technique of planning and A method to control cost and

control of time. time.

Orientation Event-oriented Activity-oriented

Evolution Evolved as Research & Evolved as Construction project

Development project
 BASIS FOR
PERT CPM
COMPARISON

Model Probabilistic Model Deterministic Model

Focuses on Time Time-cost trade-off

Estimates Three time estimates One time estimate

Appropriate for High precision time estimate Reasonable time estimate

Management of Unpredictable Activities Predictable activities

Nature of jobs Non-repetitive nature Repetitive nature

Critical and Non- No differentiation Differentiated

critical activities

Suitable for Research and Development Non-research projects like civil

Project construction, ship building etc.

Crashing concept Not Applicable Applicable

Terminology: Some terms used in discussion of networks

Activity: A specific task or set of tasks that are required by the project, use up resources, and
take time to complete.
Event: The result of completing one or more activities. An identifiable end state that occurs
at a particular time. Events use no resources.
Network: The arrangement of all activities (and, in some cases, events) in a project arrayed in
their logical sequence and represented by arcs and nodes. This arrangement (network) defines
the project and the activity precedence relationships. Networks are usually drawn starting on
the left and proceeding to the right.
Path: The series of connected activities (or intermediate events) between any two events in a
network.
Critical: Activities, events, or paths which, if delayed, will delay the completion of the
project. A project’s critical path is understood to mean that sequence of critical activities (and
critical events) that connects the project’s start event to its finish event and which cannot be
delayed without delaying the project.
To transform a project plan into a network, one must know what activities comprise the
project and, for each activity, what its predecessors (or successors) are. An activity can be in
any of these conditions:
(1) it may have a successor(s) but no predecessor(s)
(2) it may have a predecessor(s) but no successor(s); and
(3) it may have both predecessor(s) and successor(s).

Type 1 Type 3 Type 2 Figure: 1.1

“Start” “Continue “End”
”

The first of these is an activity that starts a network. The second ends a network. The third is
in the middle. Figure: 1.1 shows each of the three types of activities. Activities are represented
here by rectangles (one form of what in a network are called “nodes”) with arrows to show the
precedence relationships. When there are multiple activities with no predecessors, it is usual to
show them all emanating from a single node called “START.” When multiple activities have
no successors, it is usual to show them connected to a node called “END.”

Network Format: AOA (Activity-on-arrow):

It is a network diagramming technique in which activities are represented by arrows. The
start and end of each node or event is connected to an arrow. Between the two nodes lies an
arrow that represents the activity.
Figure: 1.2: Activity network, AOA format

Network Format: AON (Activity-on-node):

Activity-on-node is a precedence diagramming method which uses boxes to denote schedule
activities. These various boxes or “nodes” are connected from beginning to end with arrows to
depict a logical progression of the dependencies between the schedule activities. Each node is
coded with a letter or number that correlates to an activity on the project schedule.
Typically, an activity-on-node diagram will be designed to show which activities must be
completed in order for other activities to commence. This is referred to as “finish-to-start”
precedence – meaning one activity must be finished before the next one can start.
Figure: 1.3: Activity network, AON format
Constructing the network, AON version:

2
a a
Start 1
Start
b
b 3

(A) (B)
Figure:1.4: Sample of network construction

a c
Start
(A)
b d

c
2 4
a
Start 1 (B)
5
b d
3
e
6
 a c
Start f End
b d

(A) e

c
a 2 4 f End
Start 1 d 5
b 3 e
(B)

Figure:1.6: Sample of network construction

We begin with the node called “START.” Activities a and b have no predecessors, so we draw
arrows out of START to each of them (Figure: 1.4 A). As explained above, the arrowheads
show the direction of precedence. Activity c follows a, activity d follows b, and activity e also
follows b. Let’s add these to our network in Figure: 1.5 A. Now, activity f follows both c and
d. The action plan does not indicate any further activity is required to complete the task, so we
have reached the end of this particular plan. We thus draw arrows from activities e and f to the
node END, as shown in Figure: 1.6 A. Many of the project management software packages
will generate these networks on request.
Constructing the network, AOA version:
We begin with a node (event) called “START.” Activities a and b have no predecessors, so we
draw arrows labeled “a” and “b” from START and terminating in circle-shaped nodes
numbered “1” and “2” for easy identification (Figure: 1.4: B). Activity c follows a, activity d
follows b, and activity e also follows b. Let’s add these arrows to our AOA network, labeling
the arrows and nodes sequentially as we go (Figure: 1.5: B).
Note that activity f must follow both c and d, but any given activity must have its source in one
and only one node. Therefore, c and d must terminate at the same node. Erase activity d and
its node and redraw d to end at the same node that terminates c. We now add activity e
following b, and f following c and d. Because e and f have no successors, they will terminate
at the END node (Figure: 1.6 B).
The choice between AOA and AON representation is largely a matter of personal preference.
AON is typically used in the most popular PC-based commercially available computer
software, and AON networks are easier to draw. AOA networks are slightly harder to draw
because they sometimes require the use of dummy activities to aid in indicating a particular
precedence, via a dashed arc. A dummy activity has no duration and uses no resources. Its sole
purpose is to indicate a technological relationship.

Critical Path and Time

Consider again the project shown in Figure 8-15. Assume, for convenience, that the time units
involved are days, that the first figure is the expected time, and that the second figure is the
variance. How long will it take to complete the project? (For the moment we will treat the
expected times as if they were certain.) If we start the project on day 0, shown as ES (earliest
start) at the upper left of each node in Figure 8-16, we can begin simultaneously working on
activities a, b, and c, each of which has no predecessor activities. We will complete activity
a in 20 days, activity b in 20 days, and activity c in 10 days, shown as EF (earliest finish) at

Activity Expected time, TE Variance Standard Deviation

A 20 4 2

B 20 0 0

C 10 4 2

D 15 25 5

E 10 4 2

F 14 4 2

G 4 0 0

H 11 5.4 2.32
 I 18 28.4 5.33

J 8 4 2

the upper right of each of their respective nodes. These early finish times represent the earliest
times that the following activities can begin. Note that activity e not only requires the
completion of activity b, but also requires the completion of activity c, as shown by the two
incoming arrows. Activity cannot begin until all paths leading to it have been completed.
Therefore, the ES for activity e is equal to the EF of the latest activity leading to it, 20 for
activity b. Proceeding similarly, we see that activity j has two predecessor activities, d and e.
Activity d cannot start until day 20, (ES 20) and it requires 15 days to complete. Thus, it will
end (EF) a total of 35 days from the start of the project. Activity e may also start after 20 days
but it requires only 10 days, a total of 30 days from the project start. Because activity j requires
the completion of both activities d and e, its ES is 35 days, the longest of the paths to it. Activity
i has an ES of 24 days, the longest of the two paths leading to it, and END, the completion of
the network, has a time of 43 days. The remaining ESs and EFs are shown in Figure 8-16.

D 15,25

A 20,4

E 10,4 j 8,4

start b 20,0 f 14,4 End

c 10,4 g 4,0 I 18,28,4

h 11,5,4
As can be seen, the longest of the paths through the network is a-d-j using 43 days, which
means that 43 days is the shortest time in which the entire network can be completed. This is
called the critical time of the network, and a-d-j is the critical path, usually shown as a heavy
line as in Figure 8-16. In a simple network such as our example, it is easy to find and evaluate
every path between start and finish to find the longest path. However, many real networks are
considerably more complex, and finding all the paths can be taxing. Using the method
illustrated above, there is no need to worry about the problem. Every node is characterized by
the fact that one or more activities lead to it. Each of these activities has an expected duration
and originates in an earlier node. As we proceed to calculate the ES and EF of each node,
beginning at the start, we are actually finding the critical path and time to each of the nodes in
the network. Note that activity has an ES of 24 days, and its critical path is b-g rather than c-h
which requires 21 days, or c-g.
Although we will assume throughout this chapter that we always employ the “as-soon-
possible” approach to scheduling tasks (“early start”), there are situations where other
approaches are sometimes used. One example is the simultaneous start, where all resources are
launched at the beginning. Another is the simultaneous finish, where a facility can be moved
to its next location once all the tasks are finished. Of course, delay early on in a project runs
the risk of delaying the overall project if some other activities inadvertently become delayed.
One important reason for using an “as-late-as-possible” approach, described below, is that it
delays the use of resources as much as possible, thereby optimizing the cash flow of the project,
but again at some risk of delay.
Slack (aka, Float)

We will now focus on the latest possible starting times (LS) for the activities. As noted in the
previous section, the ES for an activity is equal to the largest EF for its preceding activities. An
important question for the PM is this: What is the latest time (LS) activity i could start without
Refer again to Figure 8-16. The project has a critical time of 43 days. Activity must therefore
be finished by day 43, indicated by LF (latest finish time), placed at the bottom
right of its node. Also, activity it requires 18 days to be accomplished. Therefore, it must be
started no later than day 25 (43 – 18 = 25) if the project is to be complete on day 43. The LS
for activity is thus 25, placed at the lower left corner of the node. Because it cannot begin until
activities g and h have finished, the latest time (LF) for each of these is also day
25. The difference between the LS and the ES for an activity is called its float or slack. In the
case of activity, it must be started no later than day 25, but could be started as early as day 24,
so it has one day of slack. It should be immediately obvious that all activities on the critical
path have zero slack.* Zero slack activities cannot be delayed without making the project late.
For another example, consider activity f. Its ES is day 20, which is equal to the EF of its
predecessor activity b. The LS for activity f is 43 = 14 29. If f is started later than day 29, it
will delay the entire project. Activity f has slack of LS – ES = 29 - 20 = 9 days.
To find the slack for any activity, we make a backward pass (right to left) through the network
just as we made a forward pass (left to right) to find the critical path and time and the ESs and
EFs for successor activities. There is one simple convention we must adopt: When there are
two or more noncritical activities on a path, it is conventional to calculate the slack for each
activity as if it were the only activity in the path. Thus, when finding the slack for activity. For
example, we assume that none of i’s predecessors are delayed. Of course, if some activity, x,
had six days of slack, and if an earlier activity was late, causing the event to be delayed say
two days,
then activity x would have only four days of slack, having lost two days to the earlier delay. It
is simple to calculate slack for activities that are immediate predecessors of the final node. As
we move to earlier activities, it is just a bit more complicated. Consider activity. Remembering
our assumption that the other activities in the same path use none of the available slack, we see
that activity i must follow g, and that g follows activities b and c.
Starting with activity i’s LS of 25, we subtract four days for g (25 - 4 = 21). Thus begin no later
than day 21 without delaying the network. The ES for g is day 20, so g has one day of slack.
As another example, consider activity e. Activity e must be completed by day 35, the LS of
activity j. The LS for e is thus 35 – 10 = 25. Its ES is day 20, so activity e has five days of
slack. Table 8-3 shows the LS, ES, and slack for all activities. On occasion, the PM may
negotiate an acceptable completion date for a project which allows for some slack in the entire
network. If, in our example, an acceptable date was 50
working days after the project start, then the network would have a total of 50 – 43= 7 days
of slack.
Some writers and MSP differentiate between “total” slack or float and “free” slack or
float. Total slack is LF - EF or LS - ES as described above. Free slack is defined as the time
an activity can be delayed without affecting the start time of any successor activity. Activity h
could be delayed three days without affecting the start time of activity . Activity h has three
days of free slack and four days of total slack.