Scientific Culture and the Construction of a World Leader in Science and

Technology
Chunfa Wang

First Published September 1, 2018 Research Article

https://doi.org/10.1177/209660831800100102

Article information

Abstract

Scientific culture provides a solid foundation and is an important indicator of a world

leader in science and technology. This article explores the meaning and structure of
scientific culture and expounds its role in the development of the economy and
society. It focuses on the importance of scientific culture in the construction of a world
leader in science and technology through a brief review of the process of the
development of global science powers. Based on that analysis, the author proposes
that in China's journey to become a world leader in science and technology, we
should take scientific culture as the foundation and the only way to develop our
scientific cause.

Keywords Culture, scientific culture, social function, world leader in science and technology

Without a world-class scientific culture, it is impossible for a country to become a

world leader in science and technology. This has been demonstrated by the rise of
modern science since the Renaissance and the development of science and
technology in the United Kingdom, Germany and the United States. But there are two
questions: How does scientific culture support the rise of a world-class technological
power? What are its internal mechanisms and determining factors?
 This paper discusses these two questions. The author welcomes ideas about the
issues raised.

1. Culture and scientific culture

Faced with the external world, humans generally direct the process of intellectual
creation in two directions. One is thoroughly exploring the inherent development laws
of things; and the other is abstracting data from the external forms of things. These
two points combine to form the whole meaning of humans' spiritual life. Among such
intellectual creation, scientific culture, as a crystallization of intellectual activities, is
playing an increasingly decisive role in the development of human society.

1.1 Culture as a way of life

Various academic schools hold different ideas about the precise meaning of culture,
and more than 340 definitions have been noted (Wang & Zhu, 2006). From the
perspective of empirical study, some scholars have argued that culture is a set of
customary beliefs and values that is handed down through the generations by ethnic
groups, religious groups and social organizations. From the perspective of theoretical
study, some have argued that culture means a kind of belief about the results
brought about by human behaviour, which may be modified by the next generation or
by experiment (Alesina & Giuliano, 2015).

The American scholar GM Robinson divides culture into cultural concepts (such as
beliefs, values and styles), cultural behaviour (for example, languages, gestures,
customs and foods) and cultural products (such as literature, folk tales, art, music
and handcrafts) (Robinson & Lu, 1995).

Of all the ideas about culture, I most admire those of Chinese scholars Qian Mu and
Liang Shuming. They think that culture is ‘a life’: a human life, and a collective and
public human life (Qian, 1969); culture includes all that we need to live, which means
that it is an extremely practical thing (Liang, 2011). In general, culture is a way of life.

1.2 The various levels and dimensions of culture

 As a way of life, culture mainly refers to the concepts, values, behaviours and
institutional patterns that are unique to and inherited by a society. It includes various
dimensions and levels, such as:

•
languages, traditions, values, attitudes, beliefs, behavioural norms and prevalent
opinions
•
social habits, and social systems and regimes that adapt to those habits
•
embodiments in physical tools and creations.

In real life, culture is intangible but affects the way we think and behave at all times.
We live in culture. It always influences and restricts us while we are at the same time
changing and developing it through our behaviours. Based on this fact, the Hangzhou
Declaration, Culture: Key to sustainable development, issued by UNESCO in May
2013, stressed that culture should be included in all development policies and plans
(Liu & Feng, 2013).

1.3 Culture in different times and of different groups

In real life, culture shows clear differences in features at different times and for
different groups. Such differences and features are evident in:

•
the pursuit of values, which includes our outlook on the world and life and directly
decides our sense of values
•
the mode of thinking, which includes our perspectives and ways in which we think,
analyse and act when facing a problem, and directly decides the range, depth and level
of our thought
•
patterns of behaviour, which include behavioural norms such as ways of solving
problems, communicating and behaving, and decide the environment and range of our
activities and the way we handle matters
•
language style, which includes the language system we use and the way we
communicate with others
•
an external form or a carrier, which displays the values and behavioural norms in the
culture, and so can be called ‘cultural infrastructure’
•
interests in life, which include appreciation of and preferences in art, music and so on.

A particular lifestyle is formed under particular socio-economic conditions. There are

some differences in lifestyles in different historic periods, social groups and social
classes, but lifestyles in different ages have some things in common, and the
lifestyles of different social groups and social classes also influence and relate to
each other.

1.4 Scientific culture as scientists' lifestyle

In the 16th and 17th centuries, natural philosophers and natural historians set about
establishing societies, combining rational exploration and empirical study to form a
new scientific method, and developing the ideals, beliefs and principles of the
scientific community. Consequently, scientific culture came onto the historical stage.

Scientific culture is formed with the emergence of science and technology and
develops in tandem. It is not science per se, but a unique perspective, system of
values and mode of thinking through which we understand and develop science. It is
obviously different from other types of culture, such as religion, literature, art and
morality (Xie, 2003).

The English scholar CP Snow proposed the concept of ‘scientific culture’ in 1959 and
believed that scientists belonging to the same scientific culture had common values
and standards of behaviour. For instance, one of the criteria for the correctness of a
new scientific theory or law is its reproducibility and verifiability; also, the value of a
paper lies in its originality, so plagiarism is not allowed. The spiritual connotations of
scientific culture include:

•
free exploration, bold criticism and innovation
•
seeking truth from facts, not following authorities blindly
•
opposing all falsification, striving for feasibility and adhering to rationality
•
valuing the principles of justice, popularization, innovation, normalization, tolerance
and cooperation (Peng & Peng, 2007).

From this perspective, we can see that scientific culture is a system of values, modes
of thinking and institutional, behavioural and social standards that develops in
scientific activities. It is the lifestyle of the scientific community. Scientists are the
leaders and practitioners of the forms and fashions of scientific culture, and their
scientific and technical activities lay a solid foundation for the development of
scientific culture.

1.5 The features of scientific culture

Scientific culture has the following distinct characteristics that are different from those
of other social cultures:

•
Practicality: Scientific culture is always connected with the development of science
and technology, as well as practical activities of the scientific community led by
scientists.
•
Precision and logic or rationality: Some scholars believe that, of the knowledge
systems of all human cultures, the scientific culture is undoubtedly the best in its
systematic nature and precision, as well as its quantity and quality (Li, 2017).
•
Independence or endogeneity: It stems from the scientific community and is driven
and affected by the development of science and technology, relatively independently
from the influence of other social factors.
•
Inheritance: It is passed from generation to generation through customs. For example,
in the development of a school, the principal values and modes of thinking are
inherited along with skills and methods. As time passes, a tradition is eventually
formed.
•
Penetration: Scientific culture is not confined to scientific organizations and the
scientific community. It also refers to the wide spread and application of scientific
knowledge, methods, values and ethical ideas in other social and cultural fields, which
may cause either cultural integration or cultural conflict.
1.6 The influence of scientific culture on the public

The public's understanding, acceptance and simulation of the scientific community's

lifestyle is also an important part of scientific culture. The advanced nature and
rationality of scientific culture enable it to be an influential model for people's
behaviour. Hence the public will, consciously or not, understand, appreciate, accept
and even simulate the way of living, working and thinking of the scientific community.
Thus, scientific culture includes not only scientists but also other people who
recognize the values and modes of thinking of that culture and follow them in their
behaviours.

The aim of developing scientific culture is to enable us to work and live following
scientific principles and methods, to create more knowledge of science and
technology, to enjoy the convenience it brings and to improve the quality of life.

2. The social function of scientific culture

Scientific culture came into being with the emergence of modern science and has
developed in tandem with it. In this process, it gradually became the core of modern
civilization and culture and now influences people unconsciously. Snow (1959)
believed that culture was something that made people act in the same way without
thinking, and this marked its significance. What, then, is the social function of
scientific culture?

2.1 Maintain people's pursuit of scientific truth

Scientists engaged in scientific research hold a common value: the continuous

pursuit of scientific truth. This is a scientist's belief. In research work, it is of great
importance for scientists to hold to scientific belief (AAAS, 2001). Scientists'
adherence to academic freedom, truth and integrity is crucial for the healthy
development of science and technology. They believe that the study and open
communication of scientific findings, hypotheses and ideas are at the core of
research activities and effectively ensure the accuracy and objectivity of research
output (UNESCO, 1974).
 Integrity is not unique to science, but it is the basis of scientific thinking and scientific
work (AAAS, 2001). Scientists' pursuit and exploration of scientific truth will not vary
with consanguinity, geography, nationality, religion or social status. These values
included in scientific culture guide outstanding people with high intelligence to discard
vulgar values such as social status, reputation, wealth, comfort and ease, and to
engage in laborious scientific undertakings. Thus, people with different
temperaments, predilections, interests and talents can trust each other, communicate
and cooperate with each other, appreciate, praise and help each other, forming a
community in which people have similar goals and working styles (Hu, 2014). A
genuine scientist believes that scientific truth has a supreme value and will seek truth
at all costs.

2.2 Guide people's thinking

In one sense, culture is a collective mode of thinking that distinguishes one group
from another. The most important function of scientific culture is to transform primitive
thinking into logical thinking, and then into scientific thinking (Xiao, 2007). The
developmental level of scientific culture has influence on the ways in which
researchers seek truth, as well as which subjects they choose and how they carry out
research.

Scientific thinking has the following characteristics:

•
Stress the importance of experiment and observation. To find the internal laws of
things, people should think reasonably and logically on the basis of reliable
experiments, observation and the achievements of predecessors and contemporaries
(Peng & Peng, 2007).
•
Seek reproducibility and verifiability. Only things that have been verified can be
regarded as scientific knowledge. Verifiability is a mark of science. It means that one
or more conclusions can be deduced from a statement plus a certain number of initial
conditions, and those conclusions can be compared with the results of observation and
experiment (Fei, 2004).
•
Be sceptical and critical. This is the soul of science. All existing theories should be
ready to be verified by experience, and anyone in the scientific community is entitled
to test them.
•
Use scientific methods. Scientific methods such as observation–induction,
experimental study and hypothetical–deductive methods ensure the continuous
development of science. The combination of rationality and experience is one of the
essential features that distinguishes scientific culture from other cultures.
•
Adhere to a unique mode of thinking or language system. A scientist should try to
describe facts with clear words, explain the world by systematic theory, be precise and
logical in structure, and be able to make predictions about the future.

2.3 Normalize people's research behaviour

The procedures and norms of scientific activities are parts of a culture. They ensure
the attributes of scientific knowledge and the differences between scientific culture
and others. Michael Mulkay believes that scientific culture is typically a set of social
norms and knowledge that are not subject to environmental constraints. Those norms
are typically a series of rules that explicitly define certain types of social behaviour
(as cited in Liu, 2012). Generally, the institutional norms of scientific culture include
both formal institutional regulations and informal rules of behaviour. The norms
consist of the following specific items:

•
Norms for project applications. These include discovering real problems, designing
feasible study plans, convincing sponsors through normative procedures, ensuring the
truthfulness and reliability of the submitted information, and being ready for peer
review.
•
Norms for conducting experiments. The primary objective of scientific practice is to
discover scientific facts by observation and experiment. Scientific facts must be based
on reliable observation, rigorous reasoning and the verification of results. These
requirements are further divided into specifications of experimental design and
experimental procedures, and an emphasis on repeated experiments. The time,
location, environment, process, means and results of observations and experiments
 should be clearly recorded for mutual verification and evaluation, and for repeated
observation and experiment (Fei, 2004).
•
Norms for cooperation and exchange. In theoretical studies, in-depth academic
interaction is needed to inspire scientific creation and exchanges of ideas among
scholars (Yuan, 2007). Communication in any other form is no substitute for face-to-
face academic exchange, which has its own specific procedures and norms.
Additionally, scientific research requires collective cooperation, but whether scientists
can treat themselves and others properly is the key to its success. In the age of big
science studies, the norms for scientists' cooperation, communication, assessment and
supervision are particularly important (Yan, 2002).
•
Norms for thesis publishing. Scientists publish their theses mainly to report their
research progress and record their research findings for the scientific community to
conduct repeated verification and accumulate knowledge and to confirm ownership of
a scientific discovery. Therefore, scientists are obliged to use authentic data and
scientific methods and make logical conclusions in their theses. Science and
technology journals are responsible for establishing editorial boards with highly
qualified specialists to review the papers submitted and make decisions on publishing
matters.
•
Norms for ethics. Robert K Merton believed that the objectivity of science was
supported by scientific methods, norms and systems, rather than ethics and integrity
(as cited in Li, 2008). However, scientific research is an activity with high levels of
uncertainty. It requires a wealth of funds and labour and must create pathways for
successors. Therefore, scientists should have a higher moral standard than the general
public. They are ‘neat freaks’. In particular, modern science comes into conflict with
some traditional ethics in such fields and procedures as transgenics, cloning, gene
editing, synthetic cells, artificial intelligence, contraception, human anatomy, organ
transplants, animal experimentation and in vitro fertilization. These have big impacts
on social morality and ethics, so it is especially necessary that scientists strictly follow
scientific norms and ethics.

2.4 Normalize science assessments

 Science assessment and its awards system decide why and how people carry out
scientific activities, so they are also at the core of scientific culture. They have the
following features:

•
An emphasis on the decisive role of the ownership of a new discovery. The scientific
community's pursuit of priority and its emphasis on it was first noted by Merton, but
the controversy about priority emerged in the time of Newton. Some scholars believe
that originality is an important mark of scientific culture, so scientists and the
scientific community value priority (Li, 2017). Confirmation of priority means that the
person who first publishes and discloses a new discovery will obtain the priority of
that discovery. The reward for priority may be professional promotion, an increase in
salary, a larger research budget, scientific awards, or the honour of having the
discovery named after the discoverer, but recognition and respect from peers are more
common and direct rewards. In such a reward system based on precedence, scientists
compete to be the first even more fiercely than do athletes (Wang, 2006).
•
An emphasis on the fundamental role of recognition from peers and peer review. Peer
review is a mechanism that results in recognition from peers, which is a ‘hard
currency’ in the scientific culture. In the strict peer review system, members of the
scientific community regard individual reputation as the most important thing and
seldom rely on officials and authorities (Li, 2017). In particular, scientific awards
based on recognition from peers are supreme honours for which scientists strive. Such
awards and recognition are parts of behavioural norms, for they tell people who is
excellent, which behaviours should be recognized, and what should be done and not
be done. If it is based on peer review and recognition from peers, recognition from the
society and the government can be more encouraging and influential.
•
Respect for intellectual property. Ownership of a scientific discovery is a special
property right that encourages the creation of public knowledge. It is the basic
property right of the scientific system. In comparison, patents for inventions and rights
to trade secrets are property rights that encourage the creation of private knowledge.
To compare a patent with a right to trade secrets: the former means disclosure of
knowledge, while the latter means maintaining confidentiality; the former is the basic
property right of the technological system, while the latter is a basic property right of
 the corporate system. The knowledge creation system of the whole society is a
combination of the above three systems (Wang, 2006). Scientists should protect their
own intellectual property and respect the intellectual property of others. In thesis
publishing, the rules of signature, quotation, citation and referencing, and the rank
order of patent certificates and science rewards, are all indicators of the protection of
intellectual property.

2.5 Normalize the application of scientific achievements

Scientific outputs include papers, patents and technical know-how. Papers are
published and available for reference, bringing social benefits, while patents and
technical know-how may bring great commercial benefits when they are used for
developing new products and techniques and program design.

This requires scientists to comply with a strict code of conduct when they use
scientific achievements:

•
Scientists should not be excessively driven by material gains. Of course, they can
make profits from their scientific research, but that should not be the only or even the
primary aim. Particularly in the case of theoretical study, when a paper is published, it
will become a part of public knowledge and the common wealth of society, so its
findings may be used repeatedly and freely by anyone and shared by society as a
whole. In this case, the confirmation of precedence will be the best reward for the
scientist. Therefore, Ernest Rutherford believed that wealth was given to industrialists
while fame was given to scientists (as cited in Yan, 2002). The excessive pursuit of
material gains will cause direct damage to all the elements of the scientific spirit, for
example, weakening people's pursuit of truth, damaging the complex process of
rational empirical study, yielding to ‘bigwigs’, reducing cooperation and hindering
creativity. An effective measure to reduce the excessive pursuit of material gains is to
guarantee relatively advantageous material conditions for scientific endeavour (Yang,
2011).
•
Scientific achievements should be used to promote human welfare. Demand is the
major impetus for the development of modern science and technology. Scientific
 discoveries, technological progress and scientific applications have created huge space
and limitless potential for the development and progress of society. The application of
scientific achievements should aim at expanding the range of human welfare while
maintaining the appropriate balance between social and individual benefit—neither
hindering and restraining the innovative passion and creative vitality of scientists, nor
damaging common interests and the fundamental interests of the public.
•
There should be reasonable limits on the application of scientific
achievements. Scientific progress is a double-edged sword. The inappropriate use or
the abuse of scientific achievements tends to bring about disastrous results, especially
when they are used in events that may lead to large-scale destructive wars, biological
or ecological disasters and complex ethical and legal problems. Thus, scientists should
have strong humanistic feelings; strictly abide by relevant policies, laws and
regulations; adhere to scientific ethics; and guarantee people's right to know so as to
prevent the inappropriate use or the abuse of scientific achievements.