BNB Learning Centre

Civic and Ethical Education for Grade 12

Unit Two
The Rule of Law
Lesson One: Constitution and Other Laws
Modern democratic governments are established and organized by a constitution. The constitution is the supreme law of a
country. It being a supreme law, the procedures for making it and amending it are quite different from those of ordinary
laws. For example, ordinary laws are usually made by parliaments. The responsibility of drawing up a constitution is not
normally given to parliament. It is given to a special body organized for this purpose, most often known as a “constituent
assembly”. Constitution writing is something that happens very seldom, therefore, the body to draft the constitution is not
required permanently.

The FDRE’s Constitution preparation was wide and all encompassing, and was based on the noble values of democracy,
the rule of law and respect for human rights. The salient constitutional issues were discussed throughout the land at the
Kebele level and decisions reached. These decisions were forwarded to the Constitution Drafting Commission appointed
by the Transitional Government.

A Constituent Assembly was then duly elected, whose only task was to go through the constitutional draft and finalize it.
This Constitution was approved by the 538 members of the Constituent Assembly on 8 Dec, 1994 - Hedar 29, 1987 EC.
The power to amend a constitution may be delegated to the organ empowered to make ordinary laws — the parliament.
The procedures for the amendment remain totally different from that relating to ordinary laws. Ordinary laws may be
passed by a simple majority but, the amendment of a constitution requires a more rigid procedure. For example, in
Ethiopia how the Constitution must be amended is provided in the FDRE Constitution, Article 105 sub-article 2:
Amendment of the Constitution:
All provisions of this Constitution other than those specified in sub-article 1 of this Article can be amended only in the
following manner:
A. When the House of Peoples’ Representatives and the House of the Federation, in a joint session, approve a proposed
amendment by a two-thirds majority vote; and
B. When two-thirds of the Councils of the member States of the Federation approve the proposed amendment by
majority votes. (For fuller clarification see the FDRE Constitution, Article 105)

The basic differences between the constitution and other laws

1. A constitution, as a direct reflection of the will of a nation, is a supreme law while an ordinary law is legislation from
the peoples’ representatives; this implies that all other laws should confirm to the constitution. Any irregularity leads
to their being null and void.
2. A constitution is the basis of the legal relations between a government and its citizens and therefore states only
general principles. The details are left for other laws.
3. A constitution is a means by which social, political and economic policies of a government are outlined and these
policies do not change so often. When the need arises, a constitution can be amended subject to procedures, as laid
down in the constitution itself.
4. A constitution specifies the rights, duties and obligations of citizens which do not have to be changed as often as
ordinary laws.
All these make it a necessity for a constitution to be formulated with much more care than ordinary laws so that it serves
not only the present conditions, but future conditions as well.

Hierarchy of laws
The hierarchy of laws is a chain of subordination of laws. At the top of the chain is the Constitution, below which are the
ordinary laws. Ordinary laws are enacted through proclamations, usually made by parliament. In Ethiopia, they are made
by the House of Peoples’ Representatives at the Federal level and the State Councils at the Regional level. Below are
administrative regulations in turn sub-divided into higher and lower depending on the hierarchy of the administrative
organ producing them?

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They are made by the executive/administrative branch of the government. At the Federal level, the higher executive
powers are given to the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers. At the Regional level the State Administration is the
highest organ of executive power. This shows that hierarchy of law represents the superiority of one law over the other.
All laws do not have equal authority. For example, the Constitution is the supreme law. No other law is equal to it. As
lower laws may under no circumstances contradict the constitution, no regulation may contradict an ordinary law. If it is
to contradict, it shall be held null and void.

Lesson Two: Rule of Law and Management of Conflict

The purpose of rule of law is to protect basic individual rights by requiring the government to act in accordance with pre-
announced, clear and general rules that are enforced by impartial courts in accordance with fair procedures. When this
fundamental principle of the Constitution is respected, conflicts will be managed or minimized easily and peace and
security maintained.

Conflict is caused when two or more parties perceive that their interests are incompatible, and want to achieve their aims
through actions that damage the interest of the other. These parties may be individuals, small or large groups or countries.
Conflicts should be handled peacefully through mechanisms that accommodate competing interests. Various instruments
regulate conflict: the national constitution and laws, family and clan structures,
and the court system. Relating to these, procedural justice and alternative means of conflict management will now be
discussed.

Procedural Justice: Refers to the right to equality in the processes that guarantee all persons equal procedural
opportunities within the law. The minimum procedural justice is that parties in conflict, whose rights are affected, have
the right to be heard without discrimination on grounds of race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion,
national or social origin, wealth, birth, status etc.
The FDRE Constitution Articles 19 and 20 provide the necessary safeguards of procedural justice regarding human rights
as follows:
Article 19(1): Persons arrested have the right to be informed promptly, in a language they understand, of the
reasons for their arrest and of any charge against them.
Article 20(2): Accused persons have the right to be informed with sufficient particulars of the charge brought
Against them and to be given the charge in writing.
Article 20(4): Accused persons have the right to full access to any evidence presented against them, to examine
Witnesses testifying against them, to adduce or to have evidence produced in their own defence, and to obtain the
attendance of an examination of witnesses on their behalf before the court.

Alternative means of Conflict management

Negotiation, mediation, arbitration and litigation are the alternative means of peacefully settling disputes. The first three
deal with the issues without recourse to law. They are considered to be cheaper and quicker than a formal law case.
They may also enable a matter to be settled with less anger and bitterness.
1. Negotiation: This is one of the most common peaceful ways of settling a dispute. It involves direct discussion
between or among the parties to the dispute with the objective of reaching an agreement. No outside party is involved
in the process. In international relations, the essence of negotiation is the practice of diplomacy.
2. Mediation: After negotiation, mediation is another mechanism to resolve a dispute fairly and peacefully. Mediation is
a method of non-binding dispute resolution involving a neutral third party who tries to help the disputing parties
reach a mutually agreeable solution. It is a procedure involving the suggestion of terms of settlement by a third party.
The mediator enters into negotiations between disputants seeking terms of compromise acceptable to both. An
effective mediator may not impose his/her will upon the parties; if he/she does, it could lead to loss of confidence.
3. Arbitration: This is a means of applying legal principles to a controversy within limits previously agreed upon by the
disputing parties. A panel of judges or arbitrators is created, either by special agreement of the parties, or by an
existing mutual treaty. The disputants also agree in advance to be bound by the decision. The agreement between the
parties specifies the method of selecting the panel of arbitrators, the time and place of the hearing, and any limitations
upon the facts to be considered, or principles of law or equity to be applied, in arriving at a decision.
4. Litigation: This is a process of carrying on a suit before the court. That means, it is a proceeding by a party or parties
against another in a court of law. This is different from the above peaceful mechanism of dispute settlement. It is
based on formal established procedural rules, customs or practices of conflict resolution mechanism.

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Causes of Conflicts
Some practical causes/reasons of conflict are as follows:
A. Resources – territory, water, energy sources, food (and how they should be distributed) and money;
B. Power – how control and participation in political decision-making are allocated
C. Identity – concerning the cultural, social and political communities to which people feel tied;
D. Status – whether people believe they are treated with respect and dignity and whether their traditions and social
positions are respected;
E. Values and beliefs – particularly those embodied in systems of government, religion, or ideology.
Criteria for Evaluating Rules and Laws
1. Fair: Rules and laws must be impartial, just and equitable. They must be free of bias or prejudice. Rules and laws
must apply impersonally; not to particular people or groups; nor must they be unequal or arbitrary in their application;
and they must not single out specific individuals or groups for favourable or harsh treatment.
2. Easy to understand: Rules and laws must be stated in a clear and understandable manner, with the absence of cross-
reference or jargon, which otherwise makes them difficult to understand. They must avoid having too much detail or
being too narrow. However, laws and rules have sometimes ambiguous and incomplete phrases that are subject to
interpretation by judges and law professionals.
3. Well designed: Rules and laws must be designed to achieve political, economic and social development and need to
fit with the changing circumstances. They must be based on human dignity, equality and freedom in a democratic
society. Rules and laws should not invade rights unless they need to achieve their basic purposes.
4. Clear: Rules and laws should be clear as to what is expected by the people so that they are able to conform their
conduct accordingly.
5. Not violating other values: Rules and laws should not discriminate between cultural groups or not interfere in the
promotion of cultural values. They should not affect rights to participate, enjoy and practice in cultural life.
6. Possible to follow: Rules and laws need to have the quality by which persons find them possible to live up to their
expectations. Rules and laws which are irrelevant, ambiguous, obstructing cultural developments are difficult to
respect; consequentially they could be source of disagreement and instability.

Protection of Individual Rights In democracy

In democratic constitutions individual rights are protected by constitutional laws. The judiciary has also an important role
in protecting the constitutionally guaranteed rights of individuals. The judiciary protects the individual rights mainly
through the principle of due process of law. Due process of law: This means, the conduct of legal proceedings according
to established rules and principles for the protection and enforcement of private rights, including notice and the right to a
fair hearing before a tribunal with the power to decide the case. The accused person must at all times be given a proper
opportunity to answer the charges against him or her. In addition, the defendant must be able to challenge evidence and
cross examine witnesses presented against him/her. The principle of due process of law has some basic elements.

The basic elements of due process of law are:-

1. Habeas corpus: This is a remedy that is available to a person who is arrested illegally and/or who is not brought
before a court of law within the legally prescribed period of time. Article 19(4) of the FDRE Constitution provides
that all persons have an inalienable right to petition the court to order their physical release where the arresting police
officer or the law enforcer fails to bring them before a court within the prescribed time (48 hours) and to provide
reasons for their arrest.
2. Presumption of innocence: An accused person has a right to be presumed innocent until a final decision of court is
given. Article 20(3) of the FDRE Constitution stipulates that everyone charged with a criminal offense has the right to
be presumed innocent until proven guilty according to the law. This prevents the public authorities from judging the
outcome of the trial before the court finds the defendant to be guilty or not guilty.
3. Impartial tribunal: This refers to the court being non-partisan in its dealings with a case. Article 37(1) of the FDRE
Constitution ensures accessibility of court and tribunals to all defendants equally without any distinction as to race,
religion, sex and property. At every stage of a trial, judges are obliged to treat parties equally when applying laws.
4. Fair notice: This deals with the summons which must be written in a language that the defendant can understand. It
should also contain the time and the place where the defendant must present him/herself.
5. Speedy and public trials: An accused person has the right to a quick public trial, unless the case is related to national
security, public safety (as determined by law) and to protect the privacy of the accused.

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6. Right to counsel: This is the right to be represented by legal counsel. This counsel can be provided by the defendant
or at state expense. The service of legal counsel is important as the defendant will be unlikely to have the legal
knowledge that works in his/her favour.
7. Right against self-incrimination: Under criminal law it is the prosecutor who has the burden of providing evidence
for the commission of a crime beyond reasonable doubt. Therefore, the defendant has no burden to prove his
innocence. Article 19(2) of the FDRE Constitution provides that the defendant has the right to remain silent. The court
must make it clear to the defendants, in advance, that anything they may say could be used asevidence against them.
Moreover, a person cannot be compelled to make a confession or admission, which could be used in evidence against
them.
8. Protection against double jeopardy: Article 21(3) of the FDRE Constitution states that, where an individual has
been previously tried and acquitted or convicted, that person cannot be charged and convicted again for the same
offence.
9. Right of appeal: The accused or the prosecutor, after a decision has been made by the court, is entitled to recourse,
by way of appeal or review, to a competent high court. The FDRE Constitution, Article 20(6) provides that All
persons have the right of appeal to the competent court against an order or a judgment of the court which first heard
the case.

Lesson Two: Rule of Law and Governments

The rule of law means that the exercise of powers shall be regulated by law and that any individual or group shall not be
exposed to the arbitrary will of another. Rule of law limits the authority of the government and its officials. They cannot
decide on any matter as they wish. They can decide only within the limits of the law. The rule of law states, “No man is
above the law.”

Federalism is one form of government where rule of law is believed to be respected. Based on a territorial and functional
division of powers, federalism is designed to harmonize unity with diversity. Federalism is thus a system of government
which embodies a division of power between central and regional authorities, each of which has its own independence and
works in harmony with the others. The emphasis here is the division of power between the central and state governments.
The purpose of the division of power is to limit the power of the federal government, while reserving all other powers for
the regional states which then continue unhampered as separate sovereignties.

This legal and important relationship of sharing of power between the central government and regional states is well
regulated by an instrument known as a federal constitution. In the Ethiopian context, the FDRE Constitution establishes a
dual polity, a two tier governmental system, with central government at one level and the regional ones at the other. The
FDRE Constitution clearly demarcates the spheres of action for each level of government by formulating an elaborate
scheme of distribution of legislative, executive, and judicial powers between the federal and the state governments.

FDRE Constitution Article 50: Structure of the Organs of State

1. The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia comprises the Federal Government and the State members.
2. The Federal Government and the States shall have legislative, executive and judicial powers.
3. The House of Peoples’ Representatives is the highest authority of the Federal Government. The House is responsible
to the People. The State Council is the highest organ of State authority. It is responsible to the People of the State.
4. State government shall be established at State and other administrative levels that they find necessary. Adequate
power shall be granted to the lowest units of government to enable the People to participate directly in the
administration of such units.
5. The State Council has the power of legislation on matters falling under State jurisdiction. Consistent with the
provisions of this Constitution, the Council has power to draft, adopt and amend the state constitution.
6. The State administration constitutes the highest organ of executive power.
7. State judicial power is vested in its courts.
8. Federal and State powers are defined by this Constitution. The States shall respect the powers of the Federal
Government. The Federal Government shall likewise respect the powers of the States.
9. The Federal Government may, when necessary, delegate to the States powers and functions granted to it by Article 51
of this Constitution.

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Lesson Four: Rule of Law and the Fight against Corruption

There are many causes for the prevalence of corruption in Africa and many parts of the world. Among these, absence of
rule of law and lack of exemplary ethical leadership are important causes of corruption. Indeed, absence of rule of law
automatically suggests that exemplary leadership would be difficult. This lack of exemplary ethical leadership in most
countries can be attributed to the fact that personal and private interests take precedence over national interests. This in
turn sets the patterns of behaviour in one’s dealings with others. It will also have a cascade effect, influencing others to
give precedence to their own interests at the expense of others.

Bearing this in mind, we will see ways of struggling against corruption, and the measures to be taken against corrupt
individuals. Controlling corruption in Ethiopia needs to be more closely linked with good governance and strong civil
societies. Good governance encompasses the dimensions of accountability, openness and transparency, and predictability
and the rule of law.
The following are some of the approaches to be employed in the fight against corruption in our country:
1. Preventive approach: This approach focuses on the preventive role that the constitution and other laws afford. For
instance, those laws and rules related to financial administration auditing systems have a direct role in preventing
corruption. Issues related to: ethical regulation, having committed citizens, disclosure, registration of property and
mass media all play indirect roles.
2. Curative approach: This includes receiving complaints, investigating corruption cases and bringing the corrupt
officials to justice. Corrupt behaviour should be punished as it is an evil act against the nation, citizens and
government, and is believed to be immoral. The corrective measure against corrupt behaviour should be immediate
and effective.

Individual citizens are victims of corruption. They are also the causes and perpetrators of corruption. Therefore, the
solution to avoid corruption lies with the citizens. Citizens have to respect the constitution, be honest and truthful in their
daily activities and be ready to combat corruption in every way possible. As corruption has a political, economic and
social damaging effect, it harms both Government and Non-government Organizations.

Therefore, institutions have their own role in enforcing the rule of law and different legal regulations to develop
transparency and accountability in the execution of their duties. Finally, the perpetrators of corruption must be
Severely punished, irrespective of their status and standing in society. It is not only punitive measures, including the
promulgation of appropriate laws and adequate capability for investigation and enforcement that are needed to combat
corruption; but also preventive measures that reduce the opportunities for corrupt practices. To achieve this goal,
individual citizens and institutions have a responsibility to contribute to the fight against this social evil.

Exercise from Unit Two

Part I Match the following terms under column A with their corresponding statement under column B
A B
______1. Due process of law A. A method of dispute resolution involving one or more neutral third parties who are
usually agreed to by the disputing parties and whose decision is binding.
______2. Habeas corpus B. A right of a defendant not to be charged and convicted twice with the same
offence
______3. Litigation C. Legal proceedings according to established rules and principles for the
protection and enforcement of private rights
______4. Arbitration D. A summon which must be written in a language that the defendant can understand
including the time and the place where the defendant must present him/herself.
______5. Mediation E. A remedy that is available to a person who is arrested and not brought before
a court of law within the prescribed time.
______6. Impartial tribunal F. A chain of subordinate laws with the constitution as the supreme law
______7. Negotiation G. A process of carrying on a suit
______8. Public trial H. A non-binding dispute resolution involving a neutral third party who tries to
help the disputing parties reach a mutually agreeable solution
______9. Hierarchy of laws I. Direct discussion between or among the parties to settle the dispute with the
objective of reaching an agreement.
______10. Fair notice J. An entitlement not to be considered guilty before the decision of a court is given.
______11. Double jeopardy K. A court which is non-partisan
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______12. Presumption of innocence L. Equality that guarantees all persons have equal procedural opportunities
______13. Procedural justice M. The right to be heard, after a decision has been made, by a superior court
______14. Right of appeal N. A court proceeding that is open to the public unless the case is related to
national security, public safety or privacy of the accused.
______15. Self-incrimination O. A confession or admission against oneself.
______16. Speedy trial P. A litigation pending before the court.
______17. Suit Q. A quick public trial.

Part II – Multiple choices : Choose the best answers from the given alternatives
_____1. If a law made is found to be in conflict with the Constitution, what should be done?
A. make the law null and void C. make the Constitution null and void
B. re-write the law in such a way that it does not contradict the Constitution D. A or B
______2. “No man is above the law” refers to:
A. popular sovereignty B. separation of power C. rule of law D. parliamentary supremacy
______3. A federal state may have:
A. only one constitution B. two constitutions C. two or more constitutions D. three constitutions
______4. Constitutions are normally written by a body known as:
A. the parliament B. constituent assembly C. the council of ministers D. a group of lawyers
______5. The conduct of legal proceedings according to established rules and principles for the protection of and
enforcement of private rights is known as:
A. procedural justice B. due process of law C. separation of power D. parliamentary supremacy

Part III – Write True if the statement is Correct and False if the statement is wrong
______1. It is right if his Excellency, the Minister for Justice, tells a judge that his decision concerning his son’s
case is wrong and that he should change the decision.
______2. Judges sometimes can change laws made by the parliament.
______3. The rule of law limits the authority of the government and its officials but, they can decide on any
matter as they wish.
______4. Laws are considered as primary legislation or proclamation enacted by the highest legislative organ of
the country called the Parliament.
______5. Lack of exemplary ethical leadership, in most cases, provides encouragement for corruption.

Part IV – Short answers

1. Identify some of the criteria for evaluating rules and laws.
2. List some of the basic elements of the principle of due process of law.
3. Describe the alternative means of conflict management.
4. Give at least two reasons why it is important to limit the power of government, both at the central and the regional
levels, in the federal republic states.

Unit Three
Equality

Lesson One: The History of the Ethiopian Peoples’ Struggle against Oppression
Inequality and oppression characterized the previous Ethiopian landscape. Though the highest proportion of the Ethiopian
population were peasants, they were severely exploited. They were forced to pay heavy taxes and their feudal lords, and
other government officials, took most of what they produced. Peasants in Ethiopia suffered from maladministration,
corruption and lack of social services. They did not remain indifferent to their hardships, but revolted against the injustice
done to them in different ways. The peasants’ rebellions in Gojam, Bale and Tigray are very good examples.

The Gojam Peasant Rebellion (1968)

The peasant rebellion of Gojam was one of the strong resistances against the feudal government. The centres of the
rebellion were Mota and Dega Damot provinces. The major causes of the rebellion were the government’s attempt to
increase the amount of taxes and forced contributions to erect a statue of the emperor. The other cause was
maladministration. The people reflected their opposition by rejecting tax assessors and sending a petition to the emperor.

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When the government failed to respond, the peasants rebelled. The government sent the army and police force and
suppressed the rebellion.

The First Woyane Movement

The first Woyane movement took place in Tigray immediately after the liberation of Ethiopia from the Italian occupation
(1941). The major causes were administrative inefficiency, corruption and greediness of the army stationed in Raya and
Azabo, as well as feudalistic conflicts of interest. The rebels achieved some victories at the beginning, such as at Addi
Abun in Temben in 1943. Then they controlled towns such as Enda Eyesus, Kwiah and Mekele. But eventually, the
government army and the British forces using aircraft crushed the revolt.

Though the Ethiopian students played the major role to bring about the end of the regime, it was the committee of military
officers called the Derg that controlled political power. The Derg declared, “Land to the Tiller” in 1975, but it did not
bring a democratic system to the country. Rather, it controlled and exercised unlimited power, suppressed oppositions and
established a single party system. Because of this, the peoples of Ethiopia started fighting against the Derg.

The outbreak of the Ethiopian Revolution

The Ethiopian Revolution of 1974 was a result of the combined effects of the various peasant uprisings and other
movements such as the Ethiopian students’ movement which strongly challenged the Haile Selassie government in the
1960’s and 1970’s. They were involved in demonstrations with slogans such as “Land to the Tiller!” The government
tried to suppress the students’ movement by arresting its leaders and banning demonstrations. However, the students
continued their struggle. Their movement eventually was supported by other sectors of the population such as the taxi
drivers. This led to the outbreak of the Ethiopian Revolution in 1974. Though the Ethiopian students played the major role
to bring about the end of the regime, it was the committee of military officers called the Derg that controlled political
power. The Derg declared, “Land to the Tiller” in 1975, but it did not bring a democratic system to the country. Rather, it
controlled and exercised unlimited power, suppressed oppositions and established a single party system. Because of this,
the peoples of Ethiopia started fighting against the Derg.

The Struggle to Overthrow the Derg (1975 – 1991)

The struggle to overthrow the Derg started soon after it assumed power. Several political organizations were formed
around 1975 among which the Ethiopian Peoples’ Revolutionary Party (EPRP), the Tigray Peoples’ Liberation Front
(TPLF) and the All Ethiopian Socialist Movement (AESM) were the prominent ones. However, it was only the TPLF
which managed to conduct a truly popular and successful armed struggle. This came to be known as the Second Woyane
Movement. Nevertheless, due to their commission of several mistakes, most of the above mentioned parties suffered from
internal crisis. Within the EPRP, this led to the rise of a democratic organization called the Ethiopian Peoples’ Democratic
Movement (EPDM). Within a short period of time, the EPDM was able to strengthen its power and translate itself into a
truly democratic movement and, in parallel with TPLF, strongly resisted the military forces of the Derg in different places
particularly in Wollo/ Amhara region.

In 1988, the TPLF managed to liberate much of Tigray. It was around this time that the TPLF and EPDM agreed to form
the Ethiopian Peoples’ Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). The EPRDF was joined by the newly formed liberation
movements, the Oromo Peoples’ Democratic Organization (OPDO) and the Ethiopian Democratic Officers’
Revolutionary Movement (EDORM). The EPRDF forces eventually defeated the Derg and removed the military
government from power in 1991. This led to the transition to democratic rule
in the country.

Lesson Two : Conflict of Interests

Group rights are rights held by individuals who are members of a particular group. It contrasts with rights held by a
person as an individual. An example of a commonly asserted group right is the right of a nation or a people to self-
determination. Group rights are also different from human rights because they are not universal to all human beings.
Human rights are universal since all human beings are entitled to human rights just by virtue of being human. Group
rights are considered as an instrument to facilitate the realization of equality. Some groups, such as women, the disabled,
ethnic minorities and children, need special protective rights if their members are to enjoy human rights on equal terms
with other groups of people. Group rights may aim at ensuring freedom from discrimination, or realizing equal
opportunity, or attempting to redress inequality.

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Many countries have provided group rights to support or protect disadvantaged groups. After the end of the Apartheid
system in South Africa, the South African government sought to redress the inequalities which prevailed during the
Apartheid period. It favoured the disadvantaged groups such as blacks, coloured people and Indians by providing
economic opportunities which were not previously available to them.

The Ethiopian context

The FDRE Constitution provides group rights. It provides for every Nation, Nationality and People in Ethiopia the right to
self-determination, including the right to secession. One aspect of self-determination is that every Nation, Nationality and
People has the right to speak, to write and to develop their language. This is aimed at reversing the linguistic and
nationality policy of the previous governments of Ethiopia, which discouraged the use and development of languages
other than the official language of the time.
The right to self-determination includes the
 Right of every Nation, Nationality and People
 To express, develop and promote its culture
 To preserve its history
 To the right to self-governance.

Lesson Three: Equality and the Notion (Idea) of Affirmative Action

Affirmative action refers to policies designed to remedy the effects of past discrimination against women, the disabled,
racial groups, religious and ethnic minorities, therefore, affirmative action is important to compensate for past injustice
and discrimination. Many countries have practiced affirmative action to redress past discrimination and injustice.
Affirmative action has been practiced in the United States where blacks, native Americans, women and other minority
groups suffered from discrimination.
Affirmative actions in the United States were aimed at:
 increasing employment opportunities for minorities;
 taking positive steps to insure that employees were not discriminated against because of race, colour, ethnic origin,
and creed;
 providing extra advantage and opportunities to enroll blacks, native Americans and women in colleges and
universities;
 Providing financial assistance to students from minority groups who could not afford to attend colleges.

These kinds of assistance helped members of the disadvantaged groups to achieve more in education and the world of
work. Many people agree that affirmative action is important to remedy past discrimination. However, there are people
who consider affirmative action unjust. There are people who argue that affirmative action’s goes against the principle of
equality. Some people consider affirmative action as reverse discrimination and, therefore, unjust. Women have
historically suffered from discrimination in many parts of the world. This was true, even in the United States where
women were not allowed to vote until the 1920 Constitutional Amendment. American women were also victims of
discrimination in relation to employment. For instance women in the United States were denied the right to serve as
judges.

Women have also suffered from discrimination and injustice in Ethiopia. Though women play a crucial role in the family
and at the community level, their contribution was undermined. They did not have the right to own land and other non-
movable assets. They did not have the right to inherit family assets such as land. The subordination of women was not
limited to the family level. Women were regarded as second class citizens at a national level too. Women were denied the
right to have equal opportunities in education. As a result, they were underrepresented in the world of work and the
politics of the country. We need to recognize the role of women and integrate their experiences and efforts into
development schemes.

The FDRE’s Constitution gives much attention to equality between women and men. It also recognizes that women
suffered from injustice and discrimination and entitles them to remedial and affirmative actions in order to compensate
past mistakes. The purpose of affirmative action is to enable women to have equal participation with men in the economic,
social and political life of the country.

FDRE’s Constitution, Article 35 (3):

The historical legacy of inequality and discrimination suffered by women in Ethiopia taken into account, women, in order
to remedy this legacy, are entitled to affirmative measures. The purpose of such measures shall be to provide special
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attention to women so as to enable them compete and participate on the basis of equality with men in political, social and
economic life as well as in public and private institutions. On the basis of the Constitution, the current government of
Ethiopia has given much attention to women in many ways. It has expanded the educational opportunities for women at
the primary, secondary and tertiary levels of education. The number of female students enrolled at different levels,
including at the college level, is continuing to increase.

Lesson Four: Unity in Diversity

Countries such as India, China, Nigeria and the United States of America have a wide range of diversities. For instance,
there are more than two hundred fifty ethnic groups in Nigeria. About 114 languages and 216 dialects are spoken in India.
Diversity does not stop these countries from achieving rapid economic development. For example, India is one of the
countries which has achieved rapid economic development despite having so many cultural groups. Likewise, the
American population is characterized by racial, ethnic, cultural and religious diversity. Different racial groups, such as the
white Americans, African Americans, Asian Americans and native Americans, live and work together in one political and
economic space. Despite their racial, ethnic, cultural and religious differences, the Americans have managed to build their
country as the major power in the world.

Ethiopia is also a country of religious, linguistic and other cultural diversities. Though we have many cultural groups, and
despite our diversity, we still need to create a common political and economic space and work together in the fight against
poverty and backwardness. Since unity is strength, this will help us promote our common interests in a better way,
maintaining equality and recognizing our diversities. We need to recognize the importance of maintaining equality of
languages, religions and other cultural traits. That means we have to avoid considering our language, religion or culture
superior to that of other people.

People have a tendency to consider their way of life to be good, right and even superior to that of others. This tendency of
considering the cultures of other people inferior is called ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism is the use of one’s culture for
judging the life styles of other individuals or societies that leads to a negative evaluation of their values, norms and
behaviour. As a result of ethnocentrism, many European travellers and writers regarded African societies as ignorant,
backward and primitive, though the reality is far from this.

What are the results ethnocentrisms?

An ethnocentric individual is someone who is unable or unwilling to look at other cultures in their own terms. As a
result, he or she fails to understand the true qualities of other cultures. Such a person, taking his religion as a point of
reference, may consider the religious practices of others as backward, primitive or even threatening. These kinds of
judgments may lead to serious conflicts and bloodshed. You have to avoid ridiculing others because of their language,
religion, cultural dances or dress. Rather try to understand the culture of others from their perspective. Anthropologists
call this approach of understanding cultures, cultural relativism.

Cultural relativism refers to understanding people’s ways of living from the framework of their culture. It is the way of
understanding culture in its own terms. Cultural relativism is a belief that any particular set of customs, values and norms
are relative to a particular culture and that they can only be understood and evaluated within that particular cultural
context. Anthropologists use this technique to compare cultures and understand why people in different cultures live
somewhat differently.

What are the advantages of cultural relativism?

Cultural relativism has the following major advantages:
 It helps us to be less arrogant and more open minded in relation to other societies and cultures.
 It helps us to understand and appreciate the culture of other peoples.
 It minimizes misunderstandings and conflicts related to cultural diversity

Exercise from Unit Three

Part I Match the following Terms under column A with their corresponding statement under column B
A B
______1. Ethnocentrism A. The principle that people should judge the behaviour of others using
the standards of their culture analyzed in its own terms

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______2. Petition B. A belief in, or assumption of, the superiority of the social or cultural
group that a person belongs to.
______3. Maladministration C. Rights held by individuals who are the members of a group.
______4. Cultural relativism D. Rights held by a person as an individual
______5. Group rights E. Incompetent or dishonest management or administration, especially in
public affairs
______6. Individual rights E. An appeal or formal request

Part II – Multiple choice : choose the Best Answers from the given alternatives
______1. Which of the peasant revolts was destroyed by the joint actions of the Ethiopian government and a
British force?
A. the Bale peasant rebellion C. the Gojjam peasant rebellion
B. the first Woyane movement D. the second Woyane movement E. none of the above
______2. Which of the following statements is true?
A. There are areas of conflict between group rights and individual rights.
B. There is no conflict between affirmative actions and the idea that all human beings have equal rights.
C. Group rights are aimed at facilitating the realization of equality among different groups of people.
D. The current Constitution of Ethiopia gives priority to individual rights.
______3. Which of the following is true about ethnocentrism?
A. Ethnocentrism is the tendency to evaluate cultures in their own terms.
B. Strong ethnocentrism may lead to conflicts between different cultural groups.
C. Ethnocentrism is a tendency to consider one’s culture or religion superior to that of others.
D. Ethnocentrism does not allow us to understand the true qualities of other cultures.
E. all of the above
______4. Which of the following does not go with group rights?
A. the right to self-determination C. the right to the child to learn in his/her mother tongue
B. the right to develop one’s culture D. the right to self-governance E. the right to vote

Part III – Short answers

1. What is the difference between the first and second Woyane Movements?
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of affirmative action?
3. What are the advantages of cultural relativism to maintain harmonious relationships in a multicultural state like
Ethiopia?
4. What are the common causes of uprising against Emperor Haile Selassie and the military government in Ethiopia?

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